NAME: EMENIKE-UKAH

MICHAEL CHIEDOZIE

MATRIC NUMBER: 150408510

DEPARTMENT: COMPUTER ENGINEERING
CEG 201 LAB REORT
GROUP: C
DATE SUBMITTED: 17/02/2016

EXPERIMENT 1.
TENSILE TESTS ON STEEL, BRASS, AND ALUMINIUM RODS.

DATE PERFORMED: 27th of January 2016.

OBJECTIVES:
i.) To determine the Youngs modulus of elasticity of steel, brass and aluminium bar
from tensile test.
ii.) Another main objective of this experiment is to measure the tensile properties of
three polymeric materials, steel, aluminium, and brass at a constant strain rate on the
tensile testing machine.
APPARATUS:
i.) The Universal Testing Machine.
ii.) Steel, aluminium, and brass rods.
iii.) Vernier calliper.
iv.) Steel ruler.
THEORY:
This experiment is based on the HOOKES LAW OF ELASTICITY which states that, within
the elastic limit of a solid material, the deformation(strain) produced by a force(stress)
of any kind is proportional to the force. If the elastic limit is not exceeded, the material
returns to its original shape and size after the force is removed, otherwise it remains
deformed or stretched. When forces are applied to materials, they deform in reaction
to those forces. The magnitude of the deformation for a constant force depends on the
geometry of the materials. Likewise, the magnitude of the force required to cause a
given deformation, depends on the geometry of the material. For these reasons,
engineers define stress and strain.
P
Stress (engineering definition) is given by: Stress = A
where

P = Load or force acting on the body, and

A = Cross-sectional area of the body.

The unit of stress is Pascal (Pa) which is equal to 1 N/m2 .

Defined in this manner, the stress can be thought of as a normalized force.
Strain (engineering definition) is given by:
Strain
where

e
L
e = extensionin length of the body, and
L = Original length of the body.

The strain can be thought of as a normalized deformation.

While the relationship between the force and deformation depends on the geometry of
the material, the

relationship between the stress and strain is geometry independent. The relationship
between stress and strain is given by a simplified form of Hooke's Law:
stress
=constant =E
Strain
where E is a constant of proportionality known as Young Modulus.
Young Modulus of elasticity E is the slope of the straight line portion of a stress
strain curve. It is also called stress-strain ratio. Depending on the type of loading
represented by the stress-strain curve, modulus of elasticity may be reported as:
compressive modulus of elasticity; flexural modulus of elasticity; shear modulus of
elasticity; tensile modulus of elasticity; torsional modulus of elasticity.

PROCEDURE:
The already prepared specimen ( a steel cylindrical rod) with a cross sectional
diameter of 12 mm and an original length of 400mm was fastened between the two
vertical jaws of the Universal Testing Machine, with its length of analysis set at a
gauge length of 200mm. A tensile load was applied to the specimen and the
elongation was measured on the extensometer. The load was increased and the
corresponding elongation was measured again. These measurements were repeated
as the load was progressively increased in steps of 10 kN.
It was noted that at just over 57kN the increase in length was no longer proportional
to the increase in load. At this point the test had exceeded the elastic limit of the
specimen. The extensometer was removed so it would not be damaged by the
specimen fracturing. Subsequent measurements were taken using the dividers and
steel rule.
The maximum load applied was 68 kN and at this point 'necking' was observed. Even
though the load was reduced, elongation continued until the specimen fractured at
load of 47 kN. The specimen was removed and its broken ends fitted together so the
gauge length could be measured at the moment of fracture.
RESULTS:

Yield point
Ultimate tensile stress
Failure load
Final length
Original Length
Extension
Initial Diameter
Final Diameter

(ton)
5.7
6.8
4.7
(mm)
226
200
26
12
8

(KN)
57
68
47

(mm2)
113.11
50.27

Original Area
Final Area

CALCULATIONS:
e xtension=final lengthoriginallengt h
226 mm200mm=26 m m

Original area =

Final area =

D2 3.142 122
=
=113.11m m 2
4
4

D2 3.142 8 2
=
=50.27 mm2
4
4

U ltimate tensile stress=

ultimate load
original area

72000 N
113.11 mm2

636.55 N /mm2
elongation length

final lengthoriginallength
100
original length

226200
100
200

26
100
200

13.0

reductionarea

originalareafinal area
100
original area

113.1150.27
100
113.11

62.84
100
113.11

55.56

Young modulus=

stress
strain

force
Stress originalarea
Stress
Stress

Strain

50000 N
113.11 mm2

442.05

Young modulus=

extension
originallength
38
200

Strain

Strain

0.19

442.05
0.19

2326.58 N /mm2
Failure load
Failure Stress Finalarea

Failure Stress

4700 N
2
50.27 m m

93.5 N / mm

DISCUSSION:
While many experimental tests exist to determine the mechanical properties of
solid state materials, the simplest is this tensile test.
If one pulls on a material until it breaks, one can find out lots of information about
the various strengths and mechanical behaviours of a material. This information
could then be used to deduce the proof load and the ultimate load capacity of such
material when used for a proposed new design: a good example being in the
construction of bridges, automobile, pressure vessels.
The accuracy of the dimensional measurement of the steel rod is

0.05 mm .

One indirect way of cross checking and improving the results is to send similar
specimens to at least two other testing laboratories.
Some precautions I took:
i.) The jaws were firmly clamped onto the ends of the specimens to prevent
slipping, which would otherwise result in experimental errors.
ii.) The error due to parallax when taking measurements from the metre rule was
considerably reduced by ensuring tha my line of vision was incidental to value in
question.

Tensile Test Nomenclature: A plot of the Engineering stress versus the Engineering
strain.

The material test curves have a region where the deformation caused by the stress is
elastic. At stresses greater than a certain value, a portion of the strain becomes
permanent or plastic. The stress required to cause a 0.2% plastic strain, or off-set, is
called the Yield Stress.
CONCLUSION:
Hooke's Law predicts a linear relationship between the strain and the stress and
describes the elastic
response of a material. In materials where Hook's Law describes the stressstrain relationship, the elastic response is the dominant deformation
mechanism. However, many materials exhibit nonlinear behavior at higher
levels of stress. This nonlinear behaviour occurs when plasticity becomes the
dominant deformation mechanism. Metals are known to exhibit both elasticity
and plasticity. The transition from elasticity to plasticity occurs at a
critical point known as the yield point. Since plasticity is characterized by
permanent deformation, the yield point is an important characteristic to know.
In practice, the yield point is the stress where the stress-strain behavior
transforms from a linear relationship to a non-linear relationship. The most
commonly used method to experimentally determine the yield point is the 0.2%
offset method. In this method, a line is drawn from
the point ( =0, =0.2%) parallel to the elastic slope region of the stress-strain
graph. The gradient of this line is equal to the elastic modulus. The yield point is
then determined as the intersection of this line with the experimental data.
In materials that exhibit a large plasticity, the deformation tends to localize.
Continued deformation occurs
only in this local region, and is known as necking. Necking begins at a critical

point known as the ultimate stress. Since failure occurs soon after necking
begins, the ultimate stress is an important characteristic to know.
The stress changes during this test for two reasons: the load increases, and the
cross-sectional area decreases. Therefore, the stress can be calculated by two
formulae which are distinguished as engineering stress and true stress.
Engineering stress uses the original cross-sectional area while true stress uses
the instantaneous cross- sectional area of the specimen.
PRECAUTIONS
When using the vernier callipers, error due to parallax was avoided
Error due to parallax was also avoided when loading the material in the testing
machine.
REFERENCES
1) Strength of Materials by R.S. Khurmi
2) Strength of Materials by G.H. Ryder
3) Strength of Materials by Rajput

EXPERIMENT 2.
REACTIONS OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM.

AIM:
i.) To determine the reactions of Ra and Rb for a simply supported beam.
ii.) To determine the values of Ra and Rb as a given load moves from one end of a
simply supported beam to the other.
iii.) To determine the numeric differences between the theoretical and experimentally
obtained values of Ra and Rb.
APPARATUS:
i.) Two spring balances.
ii.) A long steel beam.
iii.) Weights.
THEORY:
This experiment is based on the PRINCIPLES OF MOMENTS which states that if a
system of coplanar forces acting on a rigid body is keeping it in equilibrium condition,
the sum of all vertical forces is zero, the sum of all horizontal forces is also equal to
zero, and also, the algebraic sum of there moments is equal to zero.
Mathematically,
Taking moments about point A,

M A =0

RB ( L )W ( x )=0
RB L=Wx
R B=

Wx
L

Substituting for
W =R A +

in

(1) ,

Wx
L

R A =W
RA=

RB

Wx
L

WLWx
L

R A =W

(Lx)
()
L

PROCEDURE:
The steel beam is suspended almost perfectly horizontal on the hooks of two spring
balances which are positioned at equal length from the midpoint of the beam. It must
then be ensured that he reactions at both spring balances are in unison.

A load hanger is positioned at the centre of the beam, and the spring balances are
read, still ensuring that that they are both identical.
For the first experiment, the mass is increased in steps of 2kgf, but the position of the
load hanger is kept constant(at hte midpoint).
For the second experiment, the load hanger is displaced from under spring balance
A(0.00cm mark) to spring B(100cm mark) at a successive interval of 100cm.
Once the experiment is concluded, the loads are removed and the load hanger
detached.

RESULTS :
WEIGHT
(KG)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16

REACTION A
RA
(KG)
(N)
1
10
2
20
3
30
4
40
5
50
6
60
7
70
8
80
9
90

(N)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160

LOAD

REACTION B
RB
(KG)
(N)
1
10
2
20
3
30
4
40
5
50
6
60
7
70
8
80
9
90

(KG)

POSITION
OF LOAD
(CM)

REACTION A
RA
(KG)
(N)

REACTION B
RB
(KG)
(N)

80

10

70

10

20

70

10

30

60

20

40

50

30

50

40

40

60

30

50

70

30

50

80

20

60

90

10

70

100

80

For Part II, RA and RB were calculated thus:

R A =W

(Lx)
L

as was derived in equation () (in the theory)

and W =R A + R B
R B=W R A

where

W = the weight (load) applied = 8kg

L = the length of the beam = 100cm
x

= the position of the load (cm)

At position 0cm,
R A =W

(Lx)
L

(1000)
100

R A =8

100
100

R A =8 kg
RB =W R A
RB =88
R B=0 kg

In terms of weight, R A =80 N , R B=0 N

Similarly, at position 10cm,

R A =W

(Lx)
L

(10010)
100

R A =8

90
100

R A =8 0.9
R A =7.2 kg
RB =W R A
RB =87.2
R B=0.8 kg

In terms of weight, R A =72 N , RB =8 N

Using this same procedure, RA and RB were calculated for other positions
and the following values were obtained
for 20cm, R A =6.4 kg , R B=1.6 kg
for 30cm,

R A =5.6 kg , RB =2.4 kg

for 40cm, R A =4.8 kg , R B=3.2 kg

for 50cm, R A =4 kg , R B =4 kg
for 60cm, R A =3.2 kg , R B =4.8 kg
for 70cm,

R A =2.4 kg , R B=5.6 kg

for 80cm, R A =1.6 kg , RB =6.4 kg

for 90cm, R A =0.8 kg , RB =7.2 kg
for 100cm, R A =0 kg , RB =8 kg

DISCUSSION:
A beam is a structural member designed to support loads applied at various points
along the member. In most cases, the loads are perpendicular to the axis of the beam
and will cause only shear and bending in the beam. When the loads are not at a right
angle to the beam, they will also produce axial forces in the beam.

Beams are usually long, straight prismatic bars. Horizontal applications of beams are
typically found in bridge and building construction. The primary deformation of a
beam is in bending. Some beams are loaded, such that only bending occurs. However,
beams can be subjected to bending and any combination of axial, shear, and torsional
loads.
The distance between the supports is called the span.
A beam normally supports a slab while the beam is usually supported by the column.
A beam can be made of concrete or of steel. Every beam has supports. If it has two
supports, then it is simply supported, but if it has more than two supports, then it is
continuous.
Types of Beam Supports
Pin support
This type of support has two reactions i.e. vertical reaction (Ry ) and horizontal
reaction (Ry ) as shown in Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Roller Support
This type of
i.e. vertical
2

support has only one reaction

reaction (Ry ) as shown in Fig.

Fig. 2

Rigid
This

Support
type of support has three
reactions i.e. vertical reaction
(Ry ), horizontal reaction (Ry ) and moment reaction M as shown in Fig.3

CONCLUSION:
A beam is a structural member or an element of a machine that is designed primarily
to support
forces acting perpendicular to the axis of
the
member. Generally, the length (L) of a
beam is
much larger than the other two crosssectional
dimensions, height, and width. Beams can
be straight
or curved. A beam with a constant height
and width
is said to be prismatic. When a beams
width or
height (more common) varies, the member
is said to be non-prismatic.
Horizontal applications of beams are typically found in bridge and building
construction.
Vertical beams are also found in various applications. The primary deformation of a
beam is in bending. Some beams are loaded, such that only bending occurs. However,
beams can be subjected to bending and any combination of axial, shear, and torsion
loads. When a slender member is introduced primarily to axial loads, it is considered
to be a column. A vertical member found in building construction that is loaded with
axial compression and simultaneously subjected to a horizontal wind or seismic load is
commonly referred to as a beam column. In this project, only straight, prismatic
beams are considered.

PRECAUTIONS:
I avoided the error due to parallax when taking the readings.
I ensured that the beam was perfectly horizontal
REFERENCES:
Wikipedia
Strenght of materials by ryder.

EXPERIMENT 3.
DEFLECTION OF SUPPORTED BEAMS
AIM:
To determine the deflection of simply supported beams and cantilevers.
THEORY:
The deflection of beam elements is usually calculated on the basis of the EulerBernoulli beam equation which is also known as engineers beam theory or classical
beam theory. This theory is a simplification of the linear theory of elasticity which
provides a means of calculating the load carrying and deflection characteristics of
beams. It covers the case for small deflections of abeam that is subjected to lateral
loads only.

Another method is the Double integration method.

This is suitable for a single load
Since we made use of a single load, the double integration method will be suitable for
determining the deflection
M =El

El

d2 y
2
dx

dy
= M
dx

El . y= M
3

After performing the necessary operations, we observe that

Where

yc=

Wl
48 EI

yc = deflection
W = weights applied
l = length between the two support
E = Young Modulus of the beam
I = Moment of Inertia

Hence, we arrived at
Deflection =

W L3
48 EI

PROCEDURE:
The 1.2m beam was supported at both ends on two firm columns. A load hanger was
positioned at the centre of the beam. By means of the load hanger and the weights,
the beam was loaded in steps of 2Kgf up to the maximum load of 16kgf at the centre
of the beam. For each load increment, the deflection was read using the dial gauge at
the centre of the beam.

This same procedure was done for the 25mm

6mm flat bar but this time, the

beam was loaded in steps of 2kgf up to the maximum load of 24kgf at the centre of
the beam
The span of the 12mm square bar was then changed to 1.00metre and the same
experiment was repeated.
RESULTS:
Reading for the

25 6 1200 mm steel

LOAD
(KG)

(N)

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240

Readings for the

DEFLECTION
Dial Gauge
Reading
0
46
93
140
185
236
283
328
376
422
469
513
555

(mm)
0.00
0.46
0.93
1.40
1.85
2.36
2.83
3.28
3.76
4.22
4.69
5.13
5.55

12 12 1000 mm steel

LOAD
(KG)

(N)

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160

DEFLECTION
Dial Gauge
Reading
0
89
190
288
389
487
588
685
780

(mm)
0.00
0.89
1.90
2.88
3.89
4.87
5.88
6.85
7.80

Table obtained for the

12 12 1200 mm steel

LOAD
(KG)

(N)

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160

DEFLECTION
Dial Gauge
Reading
0
155
326
499
619
835
1000
1160
1326

(mm)
0.00
1.55
3.26
4.99
6.19
8.35
10.00
11.60
13.26

From these results obtained, the Young Modulus can be determined thus

Recall that
Deflection =

W L3
48 EI

48 EI W
=

L3
W 48 EI
= 3

L
But slope=
slope=

48 EI
3
L

slope L3
=E
48 I
Young modulus E=

For the

slope L
48 I

12 12 1200 mm steel

slope=11.79 N /mm
3

L=1200 mm , L =1.728 10 mm

I =1728 mm

Young modulus E=

slope L3
48 I

11.79 1.728 109

E=
48 1728
Young modulus E=2. 46 10 5 N /m m2

For the

25 6 1200 mm steel

slope=43.17 N /mm

L=1200, L3=1.728 10 9 mm 3
I =7812 mm4
Young modulus E=

slope L3
48 I
9

43.17 1.728 10
E=
48 7812

Young modulus E=2 10 N /m m

For the

12 12 1000 mm steel

slope=20 N /mm

L=1000, L3=1 10 9 mm3

I =1728 mm

Young modulus E=

E=

slope L
48 I

20.2 1 109
48 1728

Young modulus E=2. 4 1 05 N /mm2

Source of Errors:
1- When we get the reading there must be accuracy in getting it and on the other side
we must take careful by make the dial gage zero.
2- The temperature has an effect on the equipments.
3- The distance (x) wasnt measured accurately.
4- We know theoretically that there is no deflection at the supports but in the real
beams there is deflection.
5- We saw that the beam which we used in the experiments wasn't rigid like a
new one (rigid enough) because it must have been used many times before which
have most likely made it lose some of its rigidity
PRECAUTIONS
I ensured that the dial gauge was set to zero before starting the experiment
I ensured that the tip of the dial gauge was in contact with the beam at its centre.
I ensured that the instrumental parts were not touched so as to avoid false deflections
I avoided error due to parallax when measuring the deflection from the dial gauge.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:

A beam is a structural member designed to support loads applied at various points
along the member.
In most cases, when external forces (loads) are applied to a beam, the loads are
perpendicular to the axis of the beam and will cause only shear (Fig. 1) and bending
(Fig. 2) in the beam.

Fig. 1: External

Fig. 2:
bend

force causing shear in a beam

External force making a beam to

Looking at the second diagram, we can observe that the external force applied to the
beam has caused a bending moment in the beam, thereby causing a deflection. The
value of this deflection can be calculated using the following formula
Deflection=

W L3
48 EI

Various beams have different deflected shapes due to the kind of support they have.
Various types of beams and their deflected shapes are outlined below.
a.

Simply supported beam

b.

c.

Overhanging beam

Cantilever beam
d.

e.

Continuous beam

Beam fixed at one end and simply supported

at the other end

f.

Fixed beam

As was shown in the first case above (case a), let us

consider the beam below simply supported at both ends, having an external force F
acting between the two supports.

After deformation, it will bend due to deformation it has undergone and will then have
the shape shown below

The amount by which a beam deflects, depends upon its cross-section and the
bending moment.
In modern design offices, there are two design criteria for the deflection of a
cantilever or beam
Strength
Stiffness
As per the strength criterion of the beam design, it should be strong enough to resist
bending moment and shear force. Or in other words, the beam should be strong
enough to resist the bending stresses and shear stresses. And as per the stiffness
criterion of the beam design, which is equally important, it should be stiff enough to

resist the deflection of the beam. Or in other words, the beam should be stiff enough
not to deflect more than the permissible limit.

REFERENCES:
Wikipedia
Strength of Materials by R.S. Khurmi
Strength of Materials by R. K. Rajput