WATER SAVING AND AUTOMATIC WATER

FILLING AND PIPE

CHECKER SYSTEM
A
REPORT
SUBMITTED TOWARDS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE
AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

B.TECH
( Dept.of Electronics and Communication Engineering)
SUBMITTED BY

MUKESH KUMAR
University Roll NoUnder the supervision of

MR. SACHIN
(Department of ECE)

MERI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Sampla
(Affiliated to Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak)

June -2015

ABSTRACT
In this project we give a idea of automatic water filling
system. If we want to water on desired level then system
automatically sense this level and control the water on
desired level on the bases of sensing module. System
automatically check the water in sever pipe. water is
available in sever in pipe system operate the pump
automatically and fill the tank/field . but for water saving
and energy saving it sense the level of water in tank .in
case of tank is full system automatically weep the buzzer
and off the pump.
Future:
It check the leakage of water in pipe and provide the
water saving and indicate sign.

There are three m de of this project:

1. Control mode: in this mode we control
one sensor for put the water in sever for
particular checking.
And second sensor we use the fill the water on
the bases of desired level of water.

2. FEEDBACK MODE:
In this mode we check the water in tank. With the
help of water sensor we check the level and this
information give to microcontroller and this situation
control by microcontroller on the bases of pump
controlling in this project.
Operate the pump: if we want to operate the pump then it
operate and it control by switch and automatic also. If field
complete fill then system automatically sense it condition
and operate the pump in off mode.

Component:
1. Step down transformer.(190)
2. Regulator (7805).(35)
3. Diode (in-4007(2)
4. Led.(1)
5. Microcontroller (at89s52).(120)
6. Capacitor (1000uf, 27pf, 10uf).(5)
7. Resistor(1k,4700hm,10k,220k)(2)
8. Transistor (npn and pnp).(5)
9. Relay.(120)
10.
Motor(750).

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Crystal oscillator (11.0592mhz).(45)

Plate sensor.(29)
Spst switch.(2)
Lm-339 comparator.(65)
Pcb board(120).
Soldering kit(500).
Driver ckt (60).

NEED FOR SYSTEM:

Light automation is very basic need in any home/industry

and college. This system provide very efficient, automatic
and new energy saving and water saving concept.
Because we control the water pump on the bases of
requirement for sufficient time..

BRIEF DESCRIPTION: In this project we make a power

supply ,for power supply to take 220 voltage from ac
supply that give to step-down transformer that give 9v
and we use regulator(7805) ic that provide 5v.
For start the pump we press the switch and pump is start
and system automatically check the status of water in

tank with the help of water sensor and in case of full tank
system automatically stop the pump and alert the honor.
In any case water leakage In any place in pipe line
system automatically check this condition and it give the
signal to control room and operate the buzzer.

RESEARCH AREA
G.L Peterson ,the wireless control system.
U.S Department of energy, Energy saver
system,
S.kopparthi pratul K ajmera : Signal delivery for
remotely located micro-system.

 Discrete Semiconductors.2n222222.
TEXAS Instruments.max232,ht-12e and ht12.
Atmel corporation, microcontroller at89s52.
Digikey,BJT,TIP
Programming,8051 microcontroller Mazidi.,
programming ,Kenneth j.ayala western
Carolina university.
Harry keybett and earl boysen,basic
electronics.
Front line electronic, application of
electronics

Power
supply
Microco
ntroller
At89s52

Driver
ckt

Lm-339

relay
Water level
sensor
Wat
er
sen
sor

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

pum
p

U?

LCD1

7805

LM016L
GND

VO

C?

1nF

C?

R?

1nF

10k
VSS
VDD
VEE

RV2
D?
DIODE

D?

1
2
3

TRAN-2P2S

LED
1k

U?
D3

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

LED

LDR SENOR

R1

U1:A
8

10k

P1.7
P1.6
P1.5
P1.4
P1.3
P1.2
P1.1/T2EX
P1.0/T2

P3.7/RD
P3.6/WR
P3.5/T1
P3.4/T0
P3.3/INT1
P3.2/INT0
P3.1/TXD
P3.0/RXD
P2.7/A15
P2.6/A14
P2.5/A13
P2.4/A12
P2.3/A11
P2.2/A10
P2.1/A9
P2.0/A8

C?

1nF 31
30
29

EA
ALE
PSEN

LM358

R?
10k

RV1

RST

P0.7/AD7
P0.6/AD6
P0.5/AD5
P0.4/AD4
P0.3/AD3
P0.2/AD2
P0.1/AD1
P0.0/AD0

1k

X?

18

XTAL2

19
CRYSTAL

WATER SENSOR

XTAL1

17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21

D1
Q?
PNP

32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39

C?

C?

LED

1nF

1nF

U2:A

10k
8

4
3

LM358

D5

LED

D2

R2

DIODE

LED
D6

Q6
U1:B

NPN

AT89C52

D4

Q1

PLATE SENSOR

RV3

RV4

1k

1k

LM358

PNP

Q7
NPN

DIODE

D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7

VI

DIODE

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

RS
RW
E

D?

4
5
6

TR?

ADVANTAGE: and application do your self.

1. This system applicable in industry, home, college and
other place.
2. This concept applicable in ac fan and induction
motor.

GAINT CHART:

Start

Initialize the I/O Ports, LCD, Variables, Timers

and Interruption

Display Message on LCD

D
No
Is on the pump?

Yes
A

Is tank =full tank

tr

Yes
Is Key = m.v>set value key?

Yes Reset the System Parameters

Is Key = Reset key?

No

Enable the system

Start the wait timer

Is Wait Timer
Over?

No

Yes

Enable Receiver

Wait for the return Pulse

Display the Distance on LCD

Yes

Enable the driver ckt

Start the command

checking

Is
Over?

Yes

STOP THE PUMP

Wait for the return

Pulse/weep the buzzer

Again return in initial mode

No

PROBLEM CONTENT:

Components availability.
How to decide value of components.
Circuit designing.
How to give the effort of soldering properly.
Programming of sensor,
signal sending and.
lcd interfacing.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

circuit designing on proteus software.

Pcb layout on ARES software.
Programming language embedded c and assembly.
How to use keil software.
Generate the hel file.
How toburn the ic.
How to do the soldering.

TECHNICAL PROSPECTIVE IDEA:

Printed circuit board size:

Mdf board size 18x12.
Height 5cm.

9x5.

PROJECT PRAPOSAL METHODOLOGY:

We make a project in different mode:
1. Ist mode:
In this mode we design over all frame script such as
Idea of project,
Components list,
Circuit diagram.
nd
2. 2 mode:
In this mode we calculate the value of

 Components.
Decide the component rating.
Name of components that may be use in project.
Purchase the components.
rd
3. 3 Mode:
In this mode we design a circuit on pcb.
Assemble the components.
Test the soldering dry or not.
th
4. 4 mode:
in this mode we software for coding.
We use keil software.
We design a code in assembly or embedded c.
We create the hex file.

5. 5th mode:
in this mode we design a circuit diagram on proteus for
simulation
try to simulation on proteus.
6. 6th mode:
In this mode we use the top-win software.
We programmed the ic.
th
7. 7 mode :in this mode we test the features of project.

TESTING TOOL:

Multi-meter.
Switch.
Battery.
Cro.
Scope.
Led indication.

PERFORMANCE & EVOLUTION CRITERIA:

In this project we try to best effort of technical skill. My project is
prediction of new invention. That provide new creation and scope
in future.
This project demonstrate the proper working and provide
complete character.

HARDWARE/COMPONENTS DETAIL:

POWER SUPPLY
All digital circuits require regulated power supply. In this article we are going to learn how to get
a regulated positive supply from the mains supply.

Figure 1 shows the basic block diagram of a fixed regulated power supply. Let us go through
each block.
TRANSFORMER

A transformer consists of two coils also called as WINDINGS namely PRIMARY &
SECONDARY.
They are linked together through inductively coupled electrical conductors also called as CORE.
A changing current in the primary causes a change in the Magnetic Field in the core & this in
turn induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil. If load is applied to the secondary then
an alternating current will flow through the load. If we consider an ideal condition then all the
energy from the primary circuit will be transferred to the secondary circuit through the magnetic
field.

So

The secondary voltage of the transformer depends on the number of turns in the Primary as well as in the
secondary..

Rectifier

A rectifier is a device that converts an AC signal into DC signal. For rectification purpose we use
a diode, a diode is a device that allows current to pass only in one direction i.e. when the anode
of the diode is positive with respect to the cathode also called as forward biased condition &
blocks current in the reversed biased condition.

Rectifier can be classified as follows:

1) Half Wave rectifier.

This is the simplest type of rectifier as you can see in the diagram a half wave rectifier consists
of only one diode. When an AC signal is applied to it during the positive half cycle the diode is
forward biased & current flows through it. But during the negative half cycle diode is reverse
biased & no current flows through it. Since only one half of the input reaches the output, it is
very inefficient to be used in power supplies.
2) Full wave rectifier.

Half wave rectifier is quite simple but it is very inefficient, for greater efficiency we would like
to use both the half cycles of the AC signal. This can be achieved by using a center tapped
transformer i.e. we would have to double the size of secondary winding & provide connection to
the center. So during the positive half cycle diode D1 conducts & D2 is in reverse biased
condition. During the negative half cycle diode D2 conducts & D1 is reverse biased. Thus we get
both the half cycles across the load.
One of the disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier design is the necessity of using a center tapped
transformer, thus increasing the size & cost of the circuit. This can be avoided by using the Full
Wave Bridge Rectifier.
3) Bridge Rectifier.

As the name suggests it converts the full wave i.e. both the positive & the negative half cycle
into DC thus it is much more efficient than Half Wave Rectifier & that too without using a center
tapped transformer thus much more cost effective than Full Wave Rectifier.
Full Bridge Wave Rectifier consists of four diodes namely D1, D2, D3 and D4. During the
positive half cycle diodes D1 & D4 conduct whereas in the negative half cycle diodes D2 & D3
conduct thus the diodes keep switching the transformer connections so we get positive half
cycles in the output.

If we use a center tapped transformer for a bridge rectifier we can get both positive & negative
half cycles which can thus be used for generating fixed positive & fixed negative voltages.
FILTER CAPACITOR
Even though half wave & full wave rectifier give DC output, none of them provides a constant
output voltage.For this we require to smoothen the waveform received from the rectifier. This
can be done by using a capacitor at the output of the rectifier this capacitor is also called as
FILTER CAPACITOR or SMOOTHING CAPACITOR or RESERVOIR CAPACITOR.
Even after using this capacitor a small amount of ripple will remain.
We place the Filter Capacitor at the output of the rectifier the capacitor will charge to the peak voltage during
each half cycle then will discharge its stored energy slowly through the load while the rectified voltage drops
to zero, thus trying to keep the voltage as constant as possible.

If we go on increasing the value of the filter capacitor then the Ripple will decrease. But then the costing will
increase. The value of the Filter capacitor depends on the current consumed by the circuit, the frequency of
the waveform & the accepted ripple.

Where,
Vr= accepted ripple voltage.( should not be more than 10% of the voltage)
I= current consumed by the circuit in Amperes.
F= frequency of the waveform. A half wave rectifier has only one peak in one cycle so F=25hz
whereas a full wave rectifier has Two peaks in one cycle so F=100hz.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
A Voltage regulator is a device which converts varying input voltage into a constant regulated
output voltage. voltage regulator can be of two types
1) Linear Voltage Regulator
Also called as Resistive Voltage regulator because they dissipate the excessive voltage
resistively as heat.
2) Switching Regulators.
They regulate the output voltage by switching the Current ON/OFF very rapidly. Since their
output is either ON or OFF it dissipates very low power thus achieving higher efficiency as
compared to linear voltage regulators. But they are more complex & generate high noise due to
their switching action. For low level of output power switching regulators tend to be costly but
for higher output wattage they are much cheaper than linear regulators.
The most commonly available Linear Positive Voltage Regulators are the 78XX series where the
XX indicates the output voltage. And 79XX series is for Negative Voltage Regulators.

After filtering the rectifier output the signal is given to a voltage regulator. The maximum input voltage that
can be applied at the input is 35V.Normally there is a 2-3 Volts drop across the regulator so the input voltage
should be at least 2-3 Volts higher than the output voltage. If the input voltage gets below the Vmin of the
regulator due to the ripple voltage or due to any other reason the voltage regulator will not be able to produce
the correct regulated voltage

POWER SUPPLY
in this project we use one 5 volt regulated power supply to convert the 220
volt ac in to 5 volt dc with the help of the 5 volt regulator circuit. First OF all
we step down the 220 volt ac into 6 volt ac with the help of step down
transformer. Step down transformer step down the voltage from 220 volt ac
to 9 volt ac. This ac is further converted into the dc voltage with the help of
the full wave rectifier circuit

Output of the diode is pulsating dc . so to convert the pulsating dc into

smooth dc we use electrolytic capacitor. Electrolytic capacitor convert the
pulsating dc into smooth dc. This Dc is further regulated by the ic 7805
regulator. IC 7805 regulator provide a regulated 5 volt dc to the
microcontroller circuit and lcd circuit.

Pin no 40 of the controller is connected to the positive supply. Pin no 20 is

connected to the ground. Pin no 9 is connected to external resistor
capacitor to provide a automatic reset option when power is on.

DIODE

The simplest semiconductor device is made up of a sandwich of P-type

semiconducting material, with contacts provided to connect the p-and n-type layers to an
external circuit. This is a junction Diode. If the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the p-type material (cathode) and the negative terminal to the N-type
material (Anode), a large current will flow. This is called forward current or forward
biased.

If the connections are reversed, a very little current will flow. This
is because under this condition, the p-type material will accept the
electrons from the negative terminal of the battery and the N-type
material will give up its free electrons to the battery, resulting in the
state of electrical equilibrium since the N-type material has no more
electrons. Thus there will be a small current to flow and the diode is
called Reverse biased.

Thus the Diode allows direct current to pass only in one direction
while blocking it in the other direction. Power diodes are used in
concerting AC into DC. In this, current will flow freely during the first
half cycle (forward biased) and practically not at all during the other
half cycle (reverse biased). This makes the diode an effective rectifier,
which convert ac into pulsating dc. Signal diodes are used in radio
circuits for detection. Zener diodes are used in the circuit to control the
voltage.

Some common diodes are:-

1. Zener diode.

2. Photo diode.

3. Light Emitting diode.

1.

ZENER DIODE:-

A zener diode is specially designed junction diode, which can

operate continuously without being damaged in the region of reverse
break down voltage. One of the most important applications of zener
diode is the design of constant voltage power supply. The zener diode
is joined in reverse bias to d.c. through a resistance R of suitable value.

2.

PHOTO DIODE:-

A photo diode is a junction diode made from photo- sensitive

semiconductor or material. In such a diode, there is a provision to allow
the light of suitable frequency to fall on the p-n junction. It is reverse
biased, but the voltage applied is less than the break down voltage. As
the intensity of incident light is increased, current goes on increasing
till it becomes maximum. The maximum current is called saturation
current.

3.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):-

When a junction diode is forward biased, energy is released at the

junction diode is forward biased, energy is released at the junction due
to recombination of electrons and holes. In case of silicon and
germanium diodes, the energy released is in infrared region. In the
junction diode made of gallium arsenate or indium phosphide, the
energy is released in visible region. Such a junction diode is called a
light emitting diode or LED.

HOW LIGHT EMITTING DIODES WORK

Light emitting diodes, commonly called LEDs do dozens of different jobs and are
found in all kinds of devices. Among other things, they form the numbers on digital
clocks, transmit information from remote controls, light up watches and tell you
when your appliances are turned on. Collected together, they can form images on a
jumbo television screen or illuminate a traffic light.

Basically, LEDs are just tiny light bulbs that fit easily into an electrical circuit. But
unlike ordinary incandescent bulbs, they don't have a filament that will burn out,
and they don't get especially hot. They are illuminated solely by the movement of
electrons in a semiconductor material, and they last just as long as a standard
transistor.

DIODE
A diode is the simplest sort of semiconductor device. A semiconductor is a material
with a varying ability to conduct electrical current. Most semiconductors are made
of a poor conductor that has had impurities (atoms of another material) added to it.
The process of adding impurities is called doping.

In the case of LEDs, the conductor material is typically aluminum-galliumarsenide (AlGaAs). In pure aluminum-gallium-arsenide, all of the atoms bond
perfectly to their neighbors, leaving no free electrons (negatively-charged particles)
to conduct electric current. In doped material, additional atoms change the balance,
either adding free electrons or creating holes where electrons can go. Either of
these additions makes the material more conductive.

At the junction, free electrons from the N-type material fill holes from
the P-type material. This creates an insulating layer in the middle of the
diode called the depletion zone.

semiconductor with extra electrons is called N-type material, since it has extra
negatively charged particles. In N-type material, free electrons move from a
negatively charged area to a positively charged area.

A semiconductor with extra holes is called P-type material, since it effectively has
extra positively charged particles. Electrons can jump from hole to hole, moving
from a negatively charged area to a positively charged area. As a result, the holes
themselves appear to move from a positively charged area to a negatively charged
area.

A diode comprises a section of N-type material bonded to a section of P-type

material, with electrodes on each end. This arrangement conducts electricity in only
one direction. When no voltage is applied to the diode, electrons from the N-type
material fill holes from the P-type material along the junction between the layers,
forming a depletion zone. In a depletion zone, the semiconductor material is
returned to its original insulating state - all of the holes are filled, so there are no
free electrons or empty spaces for electrons, and charge can't flow.

At the junction, free electrons from the N-type material fill holes from
the P-type material. This creates an insulating layer in the middle of the
diode called the depletion zone.

To get rid of the depletion zone, electrons should move from the N-type area to the
P-type area and holes should move in the reverse direction. This is done by
connecting the N-type side of the diode to the negative end of a circuit and the Ptype side to the positive end. The free electrons in the N-type material are repelled
by the negative electrode and drawn to the positive electrode. The holes in the Ptype material move the other way. When the voltage difference between the
electrodes is high enough, the electrons in the depletion zone are boosted out of
their holes and begin moving freely again. The depletion zone disappears, and
charge moves across the diode.

When the negative end of the circuit is hooked up to the N-type layer
and the positive end is hooked up to P-type layer, electrons and holes
start moving and the depletion zone disappears.
If current is run the other way, with the P-type side connected to the negative end
of the circuit and the N-type side connected to the positive end, current will not
flow. The negative electrons in the N-type material are attracted to the positive
electrode. The positive holes in the P-type material are attracted to the negative
electrode. No current flows across the junction because the holes and the electrons
are each moving in the wrong direction. The depletion zone increases.

When the positive end of the circuit is hooked up to

the N-type layer and the negative end is hooked up
to the P-type layer, free electrons collect on one end
of the diode and holes collect on the other. The
depletion zone gets bigger.

The interaction between electrons and holes in this setup has an interesting side
effect - it generates light.

HOW CAN A DIODE PRODUCE LIGHT?

Light is a form of energy that can be released by an atom. It is made up of many
small particle-like packets that have energy and momentum but no mass. These
particles, called photons, are the most basic units of light.

Photons are released as a result of moving electrons. In an atom, electrons move in

orbitals around the nucleus. Electrons in different orbitals have different amounts of
energy. Electrons with greater energy move in orbitals farther away from the
nucleus.

For an electron to jump from a lower orbital to a higher orbital, something has to
boost its energy level. Conversely, an electron releases energy when it drops from a
higher orbital to a lower one. This energy is released in the form of a photon. A
greater energy drop releases a higher-energy photon, which is characterized by a
higher frequency.

As free electrons moving across a diode can fall into empty holes from the P-type
layer. This involves a drop from the conduction band to a lower orbital, so the
electrons release energy in the form of photons. This happens in any diode, but the
photons are seen when the diode is composed of certain material. The atoms in a
standard silicon diode, for example, are arranged in such a way that the electron
drops a relatively short distance. As a result, the photon's frequency is so low that it
is invisible to the human eye - it is in the infrared portion of the light spectrum. This
isn't necessarily a bad thing, of course: Infrared LEDs are ideal for remote controls,
among other things.

Visible light-emitting diodes (VLEDs), such as the ones that light up numbers in a
digital clock, are made of materials characterized by a wider gap between the
conduction band and the lower orbitals. The size of the gap determines the
frequency of the photon -- in other words, it determines the color of the light.

While all diodes release light, most don't do it very effectively. In an ordinary diode,
the semiconductor material itself ends up absorbing a lot of the light energy.

LEDs are specially constructed to release a large number of photons outward.

Additionally, they are housed in a plastic bulb that concentrates the light in a
particular direction. Most of the light from the diode bounces off the sides of the
bulb, traveling on through the rounded end.

LEDs have several advantages over conventional incandescent lamps. For one
thing, they don't have a filament that will burn out, so they last much longer.
Additionally, their small plastic bulb makes them a lot more durable. They also fit
more easily into modern electronic circuits.

But the main advantage is efficiency. In conventional incandescent bulbs, the lightproduction process involves generating a lot of heat (the filament must be warmed).
is completely wasted energy, unless the lamp is used as a heater, because a huge
portion of the available electricity isn't going toward producing visible light. LEDs
generate very little heat, relatively. A much higher percentage of the electrical
power is going directly to generating light, which cuts down on the electricity
demands considerably.

Up until recently, LEDs were too expensive to use for most lighting applications
because they're built around advanced semiconductor material. The price of
semiconductor devices has plummeted over the past decade, however, making
LEDs a more cost-effective lighting option for a wide range of situations. While they
may be more expensive than incande front, their lower cost in the long run can
make them a better buy. In the future, they will play an even bigger role in the world
of technology.

MAKING PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (P.C.B.)

INTRODUCTION-Making a Printed Circuit Board is the first step towards

building electronic equipment by any electronic industry. A
number of methods are available for making P.C.B., the
simplest method is of drawing pattern on a copper clad board
with acid resistant (etchants) ink or paint or simple nail polish
on a copper clad board and do the etching process for
dissolving the rest of copper pattern in acid liquid.

MATERIAL REQUIRED

The apparatus needs for making a P.C.B. is :-

Copper Clad Sheet

Nail Polish or Paint

Ferric Chloride Powder. (Fecl)

Plastic Tray

Tap Water etc.

PROCEDURE

The first and foremost in the process is to clean all dirt from copper
sheet with say spirit or trichloro ethylene to remove traces grease or oil

etc. and then wash the board under running tap water. Dry the surface
with forced warm air or just leave the board to dry naturally for some
time.

Making of the P.C.B. drawing involves some preliminary consideration

such as thickness of lines/ holes according to the components. Now
draw the sketch of P.C.B. design (tracks, rows, square) as per circuit
diagram with the help of nail polish or enamel paint or any other acid
resistant liquid. Dry the point surface in open air, when it is completely
dried, the marked holes in P.C.B. may be drilled using 1Mm drill bits. In
case there is any shorting of lines due to spilling of paint, these may be
removed by scraping with a blade or a knife, after the paint has dried.

After drying, 22-30 grams of ferric chloride in 75 ml of water may be

heated to about 60 degree and poured over the P.C.B. , placed with its
copper side upwards in a plastic tray of about 15*20 cm. Stirring the
solution helps speedy etching. The dissolution of unwanted copper
would take about 45 minutes. If etching takes longer, the solution may
be heated again and the process repeated. The paint on the pattern
can be removed P.C.B. may then be washed and dried. Put a coat of
varnish to retain the shine. Your P.C.B. is ready.

REACTION

Fecl3 + Cu ----- CuCl3 + Fe

Fecl3 + 3H2O --------- Fe (OH)3 + 3HCL

PRECAUTION

1.

Add Ferric Chloride (Fecl3) carefully, without any splashing. Fecl3

is irritating to the skin and will stain the clothes.

2.

Place the board in solution with copper side up.

3.

Try not to breathe the vapours. Stir the solution by giving see-saw
motion to the dish and solution in it.

4.

Occasionally warm if the solution over a heater-not to boiling.

After some time the unshaded parts change their colour continue
to etch. Gradually the base material will become visible. Etch for
two minutes more to get a neat pattern.

5.

Don't throw away the remaining Fecl 3 solution. It can be used

again for next Printed Circuit Board P.C.B.

USES

Printed Circuit Board are used for housing components to make a

circuit

for

compactness,

simplicity

of

servicing

and

case

of

interconnection. Thus we can define the P.C.B. as : Prinked Circuit

Boards is actually a sheet of bakelite (an insulating material) on the
one side of which copper patterns are made with holes and from
another side, leads of electronic components are inserted in the proper
holes and soldered to the copper points on the back. Thus leads of
electronic components terminals are joined to make electronic circuit.

In the boards copper cladding is done by pasting thin copper foil on the
boards during curing. The copper on the board is about 2 mm thick and
weights an ounce per square foot.

The process of making a Printed Circuit for any application has the
following steps (opted professionally):

Preparing the layout of the track.

Transferring this layout photographically M the copper.

Removing the copper in places which are not needed, by the

process of etching (chemical process)

Drilling holes for components mounting.

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

Printed circuit boards are used for housing components to make a

circuit,

for

comactness,

simplicity

of

servicing

and

ease

of

interconnection. Single sided, double sided and double sided with

plated-through-hold (PYH) types of p.c boards are common today.

Boards are of two types of material (1) phenolic paper based

material (2) Glass epoxy material. Both materials are available as
laminate sheets with copper cladding.

Printed circuit boards have a copper cladding on one or both

sides. In both boards, pasting thin copper foil on the board during

curing does this. Boards are prepared in sizes of 1 to 5 metre wide and
upto 2 metres long. The thickness of the boards is 1.42 to 1.8mm. The
copper on the boards is about 0.2 thick and weighs and ounce per
square foot.

CAPACITORS

It is an electronic component whose function is to accumulate

charges and then release it.

To understand the concept of capacitance, consider a pair of metal plates which all
are placed near to each other without touching. If a battery is connected to these plates
the positive pole to one and the negative pole to the other, electrons from the battery will
be attracted from the plate connected to the positive terminal of the battery. If the battery
is then disconnected, one plate will be left with an excess of electrons, the other with a
shortage, and a potential or voltage difference will exists between them. These plates will
be acting as capacitors. Capacitors are of two types: - (1) fixed type like ceramic,
polyester, electrolytic capacitors-these names refer to the

material they are made of aluminium foil. (2) Variable type like gang condenser in radio
or trimmer. In fixed type capacitors, it has two leads and its value is written over its body
and variable type has three leads. Unit of measurement of a capacitor is farad denoted by
the symbol F. It is a very big unit of capacitance. Small unit capacitor are pico-farad
denoted by pf (Ipf=1/1000,000,000,000 f) Above all, in case of electrolytic capacitors, it's
two terminal are marked as (-) and (+) so check it while using capacitors in the circuit in
right direction. Mistake can destroy the capacitor or entire circuit in operational.
RESISTANCE

Resistance is the opposition of a material to the current. It is

measured in Ohms (). All conductors represent a certain amount
of resistance, since no conductor is 100% efficient. To control the
electron flow (current) in a predictable manner, we use resistors.
Electronic circuits use calibrated lumped resistance to control the
flow of current. Broadly speaking, resistor can be divided into two
groups viz. fixed & adjustable (variable) resistors. In fixed
resistors, the value is fixed & cannot be varied. In variable
resistors, the resistance value can be varied by an adjuster knob.
It can be divided into (a) Carbon composition (b) Wire wound (c)
Special type. The most common type of resistors used in our
projects is carbon type. The resistance value is normally indicated
by colour bands. Each resistance has four colours, one of the band
on either side will be gold or silver, this is called fourth band and
indicates the tolerance, others three band will give the value of

resistance (see table). For example if a resistor has the following

marking on it say red, violet, gold. Comparing these coloured
rings with the colour code, its value is 27000 ohms or 27 kilo
ohms and its tolerance is 5%. Resistor comes in various sizes
(Power rating). The bigger, the size, the more power rating of 1/4
watts. The four colour rings on its body tells us the value of
resistor value as given below.
COLOURS

CODE

Black----------------------------------------0
Brown---------------------------------------1
Red------------------------------------------2
Orange-------------------------------------3
Yellow---------------------------------------4
Green---------------------------------------5
Blue-----------------------------------------6
Violet---------------------------------------7
Grey-----------------------------------------8
White---------------------------------------9

The first rings give the first digit. The second ring gives the
second digit. The third ring indicates the number of zeroes to be
placed after the digits. The fourth ring gives tolerance (gold 5%,
silver 10%, No colour 20%).

In variable resistors, we have the dial type of resistance

boxes. There is a knob with a metal pointer. This presses over
brass pieces placed along a circle with some space b/w each of
them.

Resistance coils of different values are connected b/w the

gaps. When the knob is rotated, the pointer also moves over the
brass pieces. If a gap is skipped over, its resistance is included in
the circuit. If two gaps are skipped over, the resistances of both
together are included in the circuit and so on.

A dial type of resistance box contains many dials depending

upon the range, which it has to cover. If a resistance box has to

read upto 10,000, it will have three dials each having ten gaps
i.e. ten resistance coils each of resistance 10. The third dial will
have ten resistances each of 100.

The dial type of resistance boxes is better because the

contact resistance in this case is small & constant.

THE ADAPTING 3-TERMINAL VOLTAGE

REGULATORS FOR CONSTANT HIGH VOLTAGE
POWER SUPPLIES
One can get a constant high-voltage power supply using
inexpensive 3-terminal voltage regulators through some simple
techniques described below. Depending upon the current requirement,
a reasonable load regulation can be achieved. Line regulation in all
cases is equal to that of the voltage regulator used.

Though high voltage can be obtained with suitable voltage boost

circuitry using ICs like LM 723, some advantages of the circuits
presented below are: simplicity, low cost, and practically reasonable
regulation characteristics. For currents of the order of 1A or less, only
one zener and some resistors and capacitors are needed. For higher
currents, one pass transistor such as ECP055 is needed.

Before developing the final circuits, let us first understand the 3-terminal type
constant voltage regulators. Let us see the schematic in Fig. where 78XX is a 3-terminal
voltage regulator.

Schematic
obtaining low-voltage regulated output using 3-terminal voltage regulators.

for

Rectified and filtered unregulated voltage is applied at V IN and a

constant voltage appears between pins 2 and 2 of the voltage
regulator. *The distribution of two currents in the circuit (IBIAS and
ILOAD) is as shown.

*
It is highly recommended to use the two capacitors as shown.
Electrically regulator will be at a distance from the rectifier supply.
Thus, a tantalum grade capacitor of 5mf and rated voltage is good.
Electrolytic capacitor is not suitable for it is poor in response to load
transients, which have high frequency components. At the output side
a 0.22mf disc ceramic capacitor is useful to eliminate spurious
oscillations, which the regulator might break into because of its
internal high gain circuitry.

These voltage regulators have a typical bias current of 5 mA,

which is reasonably constant. By inserting a small resistor R x between
pin 2 and ground, the output voltage in many cases. By this method
voltage increment of 5 to 10 per cent is practically feasible. However, if
a high-value resistance is used to obtain a higher output voltage, a
slight variation in bias current will result in wide variation of the output
voltage.

Now let us see that what can be done to get a higher but
constant output voltage. If to the circuit of Fig. resistor RY and zener V z
are added as shown in Fig., the output voltage is now given by

VOUT=VR+VZ + IBIAS RX

A constant current flows through R Y** because VOUT is constant,

and small variations in IBIAS do not change practically the operating
point of Vz. This situation is like constant current biasing of zener,
which results in a very accurate setting of the zener voltage.
**

As long a sVIN>VOUT+2 volts, VOZ is constant from the reasoning

of Fig, and thus current through RY is constant.

VOZ=VR + IBIAS Rx

Here the pin 2 of the regulator is raised above ground by

Vz + IBIAS Rx. Thus, any combination of zener with a proper selection of
RY can be used.

For example, Let VR=+15 V for 7815

IBIAS=5mA

VZ=39V (standard from ECIL)

For a standard 400mW zener of ECIL make, IZMAX=10 mA. Thus, if

we let pass 5mA through RY to make a 55-volt supply
55 - 39
RY = ---------------=3.2k3.3k
5 x 10-3

55 - 39 - 15

RX = ---------------------= ---------- = 200 ohm

IBIAS

5 x 10-3

Schematic for constant high-voltage power supplies

It should be noted here that the maximum input voltage allowed

for 78XX regulators is 35V between pins 1 and 2. We see that the
actual voltage betweens pin 1 and 2 of the regulator in this circuit is

VIN - VZ - IBIAS RX

It is therefore necessary that VIN be so chosen that voltage

between pins 1 and 2 of the IC does not exceed the maximum rating.
Also, a high input-output differential voltage V IN-VOUT means more
power dissipation in the series-pass element, the regulator. Thus, with

proper selection of the input transformer voltage and capacitor, this

should be minimized.

For example, if 7805 is used, VR equals + 5V and VZ is 40V, so

VOUT=45 volts. For 7805, the maximum input voltage is 35 V and the
minimum 7V.
Therefore,
VIN

MAX

= 45 + 35 - 5 = 75 VOLTS

VIN MIN = 45 + 7 - 5 = 47 VOLTS

Thus, from no-load to full-load condition, the unregulated input

voltage-including peak ripple-should be within these limits. This gives a
margin of 75-47, i.e. 28 volt. Hence, the designer can work out the
maximum transformer voltage from the no-load input voltage chosen
on the upper side.

The capacitor's value can be determined from the full load

unregulated voltage chosen. Roughly, per 100mA current, 100mf
capacitor gives 1-volt peak-to-peak ripple. Hence, capacitor's value can
be determined for the desired current.

This circuit will have an excellent load and line regulation. For
shot-circuit protection, it is recommended to use a fast-blow fuse of
suitable value. Although the regulator has inherent short-circuit
protection, the maximum current differs from device to device.
Adequate heat sink should be used with the regulator.

Schematic for constant high-voltage power supplies providing currents in excess of one ampere

Now if currents in excess of 1A are needed, the circuit shown in

fig. is useful. This circuit is similar to that in Fig. except that a pass
transistor ECP055 is added besides a 0.5-ohm or more resistor. This
transistor bypasses the excessive current. By selecting proper R z the
ratio of two currents passing through the regulator and transistor can
be altered.

This circuit will show load and live regulation within 1% and will
function properly for VIN-VOUT as low as 4 volt. For short-circuit
protection, a fast blow fuse is recommended as this circuit does not
have inherent short-circuit protection. Adequate heat sink is to be used
for the pass transistors.
For negative voltages, use 79XX series
regulators and ECN055 as the pass transistor. Some advantages of the
circuits described above are: the lowest cost among comparable
performance circuits, ability to work at low input-output differential,
and flexibility in design for various applications.

So audio enthusiasts, if you are troubled by hum emanating from

your power amplifier, try this inexpensive alternative for power supply.

2.1.1 MICROCONTROLLER:

A microcontroller is a single chip that contains the processor (the CPU), non-volatile
memory for the program (ROM or flash), volatile memory for input and output
(RAM), a clock and an I/O control unit. Also called a "computer on a chip," billions of
microcontroller units (MCUs) are embedded each year in a myriad of products from
toys to appliances to automobiles. For example, a single vehicle can use 70 or more
microcontrollers.

MICROCONTROLLER vs. GENERAL PURPOSE

MICROPROCESSOR:

What is the difference between a microprocessor and microcontroller?

Microprocessor is the general purpose microprocessor such as Intels x86 family
(8086, 80386, 80486, and the Pentium) or Motorolas 680x0 family (68000, 68010,
68020, 68040, etc.). These microprocessors contain no RAM, no ROM, and no I/O
ports needed to fit the task at hand. This is not the case with microcontrollers .A
microcontroller has a CPU (a microprocessor )in addition to a fixed amount of
RAM ,ROM,I/O ports, and a timer, all on a single chip .In other words ,the processor,
RAM, ROM, I/O PORTS AND TIMER are all embedded together on one chip ;
therefore, the designer cannot add any external memory, I/O ,or timer to it. The
fixed amount of on-chip RAM, ROM, and number of I/O ports in microcontrollers
make them ideal for many applications.

INTEL MCS -51:

The Intel MCS-51 Harvard architecture single chip microcontroller (C) series was developed
by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. Intel's original versions were popular in the 1980s
and early 1990s, but has today largely been superseded by a vast range of faster and/or

functionally enhanced 8051-compatible devices manufactured by more than 20 independent

manufacturers including Atmel, Infineon Technologies(formerly Siemens AG),Maxim Integrated
Products (via its Dallas Semiconductor subsidiary), NXP (formerly Philips Semiconductor),
Nuvoton (formerly Win bond ), ST Microelectronics , Silicon Laboratories (formerly
Cygnal),Texas Instruments and Cypress Semiconductor.
Intel's original MCS-51 family was developed using NMOS technology, but later versions,
identified by a letter C in their name (e.g., 80C51) used CMOS technology and were less powerhungry than their NMOS predecessors. This made them more suitable for battery-powered
devices.

2.1.2
IMPORTANT
FEATURES
APPLICATIONS OF
80C51:
It provides many
single package

functions

(CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O, interrupt logic, timer,

AND

etc.)

in

8-bit ALU, Accumulator and 8-bit Registers; hence it is an 8 bit microcontroller

8-bit data bus It can access 8 bits of data in one operation

16-bit address bus It can access 216 memory locations 64 KB (65536

locations) each of RAM and ROM

On-chip RAM 128 bytes (data memory)

On-chip ROM 4 Kbyte (program memory)

Four byte bi-directional input/output port

UART (serial port)

Two 16-bit Counter/timers

Two-level interrupt priority

Power saving mode (on some derivatives)

A particularly useful feature of the 8051 core is the inclusion of a Boolean

processing engine which allows bit-level Boolean logic operations to be carried out
directly and efficiently on internal registers and RAM. This feature helped cement
the 8051's popularity in industrial control applications. Another valued feature is
that it has four separate register sets, which can be used to greatly reduce interrupt
latency compared to the more common method of storing interrupt context on a
stack.
The MCS-51 UARTs make it simple to use the chip as a serial communications
interface. External pins can be configured to connect to internal shift registers in a
variety of ways, and the internal timers can also be used, allowing serial
communications in a number of modes, both synchronous and asynchronous. Some
modes allow communications with no external components. A mode compatible
with an RS-485 multi-point communications environment is achievable, but the
8051's real strength is fitting in with existing ad-hoc protocols (e.g., when
controlling serial-controlled devices).
Once a UART, and a timer if necessary, have been configured, the programmer
needs only to write a simple interrupt routine to refill the send shift register
whenever the last bit is shifted out by the UART and/or empty the full receive shift
register (copy the data somewhere else). The main program then performs serial
reads and writes simply by reading and writing 8-bit data to stacks.
MCS-51 based microcontrollers typically include one or two UARTs, two or three
timers, 128 or 256 bytes of internal data RAM (16 bytes of which are bitaddressable), up to 128 bytes of I/O, 512 bytes to 64 Kb of internal program
memory, and sometimes a quantity of extended data RAM (ERAM) located in the
external data space. The original 8051 core ran at 12 clock cycles per machine
cycle, with most instructions executing in one or two machine cycles. With a
12 MHz clock frequency, the 8051 could thus execute 1 million one-cycle
instructions per second or 500,000 two-cycle instructions per second. Enhanced
8051 cores are now commonly used which run at six, four, two, or even one clock
per machine cycle, and have clock frequencies of up to 100 MHz, and are thus
capable of an even greater number of instructions per second. All SILabs, some
Dallas and a few Atmel devices have single cycle cores.
Common features included in modern 8051 based microcontrollers include built-in
reset timers with brown-out detection, on-chip oscillators, self-programmable Flash
ROM program memory, boot loader code in ROM, EEPROM non-volatile data
storage, IC, SPI, and USB host interfaces, CAN or LIN bus, PWM generators, analog

comparators, A/D and D/A converters, RTCs, extra counters and timers, in-circuit
debugging facilities, more interrupt sources, and extra power saving modes.

MEMORY ARCHITECTURE:

The MCS-51 has four distinct types of memory internal RAM, special function
registers, program memory, and external data memory.
Internal RAM (IRAM) is located from address 0 to address 0xFF. IRAM from 0x00 to
0x7F can be accessed directly, and the bytes from 0x20 to 0x2F are also bitaddressable. IRAM from 0x80 to 0xFF must be accessed indirectly, using the @R0 or
@R1 syntax, with the address to access loaded in R0 or R1.
Special function registers (SFR) are located from address 0x80 to 0xFF, and are
accessed directly using the same instructions as for the lower half of IRAM. Some of
the SFR's are also bit-addressable.
Program memory (PMEM, though less common in usage than IRAM and XRAM) is
located starting at address 0. It may be on- or off-chip, depending on the particular
model of chip being used. Program memory is read-only, though some variants of
the 8051 use on-chip flash memory and provide a method of re-programming the
memory in-system or in-application. Aside from storing code, program memory can
also store tables of constants that can be accessed by MOVC A, @DPTR, using the
16-bit special function register DPTR.
External data memory (XRAM) also starts at address 0. It can also be on- or off-chip;
what makes it "external" is that it must be accessed using the MOVX (Move
external) instruction. Many variants of the 8051 include the standard 256 bytes of
IRAM plus a few KB of XRAM on the chip. If more XRAM is required by an application,
the internal XRAM can be disabled, and all MOVX instructions will fetch from the
external bus.

INSTRUCTION SET:
The MCS-51 instruction set offers several addressing modes, including

direct register, using ACC (the accumulator) and R0-R7

direct memory, which access the internal RAM or the SFR's, depending on the
address

indirect memory, using R0, R1, or DPTR to hold the memory address. The
instruction used may vary to access internal RAM, external RAM, or program
memory.

individual bits of a range of IRAM and some of the SFR's

Many of the operations allow any addressing mode for the source or the destination,
for example, MOV 020h, 03fh will copy the value in memory location 0x3f in the
internal RAM to the memory location 0x20, also in internal RAM. Because the 8051
is an accumulator-based architecture, all arithmetic operations must use the
accumulator, e.g. ADD A, 020h will add the value in memory location 0x20 in the
internal RAM to the accumulator.
One does not need to master these instructions to program the 8051. With the
availability of good quality C compilers, including open source virtually all programs
can be written with high level language.

2.1.3 P89V51RD2
(8-bit 80C51 5 V low power 64 kB Flash microcontroller with 1 kB RAM)

GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
The P89V51RD2 is an 80C51 microcontroller with 64 kB Flash and 1024 bytes of
data RAM.
A key feature of the P89V51RD2 is its X2 mode option. The design engineer can
choose to run the application with the conventional 80C51 clock rate (12 clocks per
machine cycle) or select the X2 mode (6 clocks per machine cycle) to achieve twice
the throughput at the same clock frequency. Another way to benefit from this
feature is to keep the same performance by reducing the clock frequency by half,
thus dramatically reducing the EMI.
The Flash program memory supports both parallel programming and in serial
In-System Programming (ISP). Parallel programming mode offers gang-programming
at high speed, reducing programming costs and time to market. ISP allows a device
to be reprogrammed in the end product under software control. The capability to
field/update the application firmware makes a wide range of applications possible.
The P89V51RD2 is also In-Application Programmable (IAP), allowing the Flash
Program memory to be reconfigured even while the application is running.

FEATURES:

80C51 Central Processing Unit

5 V Operating voltage from 0 to 40 MHz
64 Kb of on-chip Flash program memory with ISP (In-System Programming)
and IAP (In-Application Programming)
Supports 12-clock (default) or 6-clock mode selection via software or ISP
SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) and enhanced UART
PCA (Programmable Counter Array) with PWM and Capture/Compare functions
Four 8-bit I/O ports with three high-current Port 1 pins (16 mA each)
Three 16-bit timers/counters

 Programmable Watchdog timer (WDT)

Eight interrupt sources with four priority levels
Second DPTR register
Low EMI mode (ALE inhibit)
TTL- and CMOS-compatible logic levels
Brown-out detection
Low power modes
Power-down mode with external interrupt wake-up
Idle mode
PDIP40, PLCC44 and TQFP44 packages

2.1.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

2.1.5 PIN DESCRIPTION:

SYMBOL

PIN

TYPE

DESCRIPTION

P0.0 to P0.7

39 to 32

I/O

Port 0: Port 0 is an 8bit open drain bidirectional I/O Port.

Port 0 pins that have
1s written to them
float, and in this state
can be used as highimpedance inputs.
Port 0 is also the
multiplexed low-order
address and
data
bus
during
accesses to external
code
and
data
memory.
In
this
application, it uses
strong internal pullups
when
transitioning to 1s.
Port 0 also receives
the
code
bytes
during the external
host mode
programming,
and
outputs the code
bytes during the
external host mode
verification. External
pull-ups are
required
during
program verification
or as a general
purpose I/O port.

PI.0 to P1.7

1 to 8

I/O with
internal pull-up

Port 1: Port 1 is an 8bit bi-directional I/O

port with
internal pull-ups. The
Port 1 pins are pulled

high by the
internal
pull-ups
when 1s are written
to them and can
be used as inputs in
this state. As inputs,
Port 1 pins that
are externally pulled
LOW will source
current (IIL)
because
of
the
internal
pull-ups.
P1.5, P1.6, P1.7
have
high current drive of
16 mA. Port 1 also
receives the
low-order
address
bytes during the
external host mode
programming
and
verification

P1.0

I/O

T2: External count

input
to
Timer/Counter 2 or
Clock-out
from Timer/Counter 2

P1.1

T2EX: Timer/Counter
2
capture/reload
trigger and
direction control

P1.2

ECI: External clock

input. This signal is
the external
clock input for the
PCA.

P1.3

I/O

CEX0:
Capture/compare
external I/O for PCA
Module 0.
Each

capture/compare
module connects to a
Port 1 pin
for external I/O.
When not used by
the PCA, this pin can
handle standard I/O.

P1.4

I/O

SS: Slave port select

input for SPI
CEX1:
Capture/compare
external I/O for PCA
Module 1

P1.5

I/O

MOSI: Master Output

Slave Input for SPI
CEX2:
Capture/compare
external I/O for PCA
Module 2

P1.6

I/O

MISO: Master Input

Slave Output for SPI
CEX3:
Capture/compare
external I/O for PCA
Module 3

P1.7

I/0

SCK: Master Output

Slave Input for SPI
CEX4:
Capture/compare
external I/O for PCA
Module 4

P2.0 to P2.7

21 to 28

I/O
with internal
pull-up

Port 2: Port 2 is an 8bit bi-directional I/O

port with
internal pull-ups. Port
2 pins are pulled
HIGH by the
internal
pull-ups
when 1s are written

to them and can

be used as inputs in
this state. As inputs,
Port 2 pins that
are externally pulled
LOW will source
current (IIL)
because
of
the
internal pull-ups. Port
2 sends the
high-order address
byte during fetches
from external
program
memory
and during accesses
to external Data
Memory that use 16bit
address
(MOVX@DPTR). In
this
application, it uses
strong internal pullups when
transitioning to 1s.
Port 2 also receives
some control
signals and a partial
of high-order address
bits during

P3.0 to P3.7

10 to 17

I/O
with internal pullup

Port 3: Port 3 is an 8bit bidirectional I/O

port with
internal pull-ups. Port
3 pins are pulled
HIGH by the
internal
pull-ups
when 1s are written
to them and can
be used as inputs in
this state. As inputs,
Port 3 pins that
are externally pulled
LOW will source

current (IIL)
because
of
the
internal pull-ups. Port
3 also receives
some control signals
and a partial of highorder address
bits
during
the
external host mode
programming and
verification.

10

RXD: serial input port

11

P3.2

12

P3.3

13

TXD: serial output

port
-----INT0:
external
interrupt 0 input
-----INT1:
external
interrupt 1 input

P3.4

14

T0: external count

input
to
Timer/Counter 0

P3.5

15

P3.6

16

P3.7

17

T1: external count

input
to
Timer/Counter 1
----WR: external data
memory write strobe
----RD: external data
memory read strobe

----PSEN

29

I/O

P3.0
P3.1

--------Program
Store
Enable: PSEN is the
read strobe for
external
program
memory. When the

device is executing
from
internal
program
memory,
PSEN is inactive
(HIGH). When the
device is executing
code from
external
program
memory, PSEN is
activated twice each
machine
cycle,
except
that
two
PSEN activations are
skipped during each
access to external
data memory. A
forced HIGH-to-LOW
input transition on
the PSEN pin
while the RST input
is continually held
HIGH for more
than 10 machine
cycles will cause the
device to enter
external host mode
programming.

RST

Reset: While the

oscillator is running,
a HIGH logic state
on this pin for two
machine cycles will
reset the device. If
the PSEN pin is
driven by a HIGH-toLOW input
transition while the
RST input pin is held
HIGH, the
device will enter the
external host mode,
otherwise the
device will enter the

normal
mode.

----

operation

EA

31

External
Access
Enable: EA must be
connected to VSS
in order to enable the
device to fetch code
from the
external
program
memory. EA must be
strapped to VDD
for internal program
execution. However,
Security lock
level 4 will disable
EA, and program
execution is only
possible from internal
program
memory.
The EA pin can
tolerate
a
high
voltage of 12 V.

------PROG/ALE

30

I/O

Address
Latch
Enable: ALE is the
output signal for
latching the low byte
of the address during
an access to
external
memory.
This pin is also the
programming
pulse input (PROG)
for
flash
programming.
Normally the
ALE is emitted at a
constant rate of 16
the crystal
frequencyand can be
used for external
timing and

clocking. One ALE

pulse is skipped
during each access
to
external
data
memory. However, if
AO is set to 1,
ALE is disabled.

NC

I/O

No Connect

XTAL1

19

Crystal 1: Input to the

inverting
oscillator
amplifier and
input to the internal
clock
generator
circuits.

XTAL2

18

Crystal 2: Output
from the inverting
oscillator amplifier.

VDD

40

POWER SUPPLY

VSS

20

GROUND

DRIVING LCD

INTRODUCTION:

The LCD is a dot matrix liquid crystal display that displays alphanumeric,
Kana (Japanese) character and symbols. The built - in controller & driver
LSIs provide convenient connectively between a dot matrix LCD and most 4
or 8 bit microprocessors or microcontrollers. All the functions required for
dot matrix liquid crystal display drive are internally provided. Internal refresh
is provided by the LCD. The CMOS technology makes the device ideal for

application in hand held, portable and other battery powered instruments

with low power consumption.

FEATURES:

Easy interface with a 4-bit or 8-bit MPU.

Built-in dot matrix LCD controller with font 5 X 7 or 5 X 10 dots.

Display data RAM for 80 characters (80 X 8bits).

Character generator ROM, which provides 160 characters with font

5 X 7 dots and 32 characters with font 5 X 10 dots.

Both display data and character generator RAMs can be read from the
MPU.

Internal automatic reset circuit at power ON.

Built-in oscillator circuit (No extra clock required).

Wide range of instruction functions: Clear display, cursor home,

Display ON/OFF, Cursor Shift, Display Shift.

OPERATIONAL OVERVIEW:

1. BUSY FLAG (BF):

When the busy flag is HIGH level, it indicates that the controller is in the
internal operation mode and the next instruction will not be accepted. When

R/W is 1 and Rs is 0, the busy flag is output from DB 7. The next instruction
must be written after the busy flag goes low.

2. ADDRESS COUNTER (AC):

The address counter (AC) generates the address for the DD RAM, the CG
RAM and for the cursor display. When an instruction code for DD or CG RAM
address is written to the controller, after deciding whether it is DD RAM or
CG RAM, the address information is transferred to AC. After writing into DD
or CG RAM display data, AC is automatically incremented (or decremented).
The data of AC is output DB0~DB0 when RS is0 and R/W is1.

3. CHARACTER GENERATOR ROM (CG ROM):

The character generator ROM generates 5 X 7 dot or 5 X10 dot character

pattern from 8-bit character codes. It can generate 160 types of 5 X7 dot
character pattern and 32 types of 5 X 10 dot character patterns. When the
8-bit character code of a CG ROM is written to the DD RAM, the character
00 01 02 03 04 -- -- -- 4D 4E 4F
pattern of the CG ROM corresponding to the code is displayed on the LCD
display position corresponding to the DD RAM.

4. CHARACTER GENERATOR RAM (CG RAM):

00

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

The character generator RAM (CG RAM) is the RAM with which the user can
generate character patterns by program. The CG RAM has the capacity to
store 8 kinds of 5 X 7 dots or 4 kinds of 5 X 10 dots. Programming of this
character patterns is explained in CG RAM programming.

5. DISPLAY DATA RAM (DD RAM):

00

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
The display data RAM (DD RAM) stores display data represented in 8-bit
(hexadecimal) character codes. Its capacity is 80 X 8 bits, or 80 characters.
The display data RAM (DD RAM) that is not used for display can be used as
general data RAM. Depending on the 8-bit character code that is written into
the DD RAM. LCD will select the character pattern either from Character
Generator RAM (CG RAM) or from Character Generator ROM (CG ROM).
00 01 02 03 04 05 -- -- 26 27
1-line Display (N=O)
40 41 42 43 44 45 -- -- 66 67
1

78 79 80

Display position

00 01 02 03 04 -- -- -- 4D 4E 4F
Line-1

DD RAM address

When the display characters are less than 80, the display begins at the
home position. For example, 8 characters X 1 line will be like:
1

00

01

02

03

04

6
05

7
06

8
07

Display position

DD RAM address

When the display shift operation is performed, the DD RAM address moves
as:

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F

00

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

00

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

(Left shift display)

(Right shift

display)

2-line Display (N=1)

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10
1

-- -- 39 40

Display position

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F 50
00 01 02 03 04 05 -- -- 26 27
Line-1
DD RAM address
40 41 42 43 44 45 -- -- 66 67
27 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E
Note that the first line end address and the second line start address are not
consecutive. When the capacity is less than 40 X 2, the 2 lines are displayed
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E
from the home67
position.

For example 16 characters X 2 lines will be like:

5 6

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Display

00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F

positio

Line-1

DDRAM

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F

Line-2
address

When display shift is performed, the DD RAM address move as:

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F 50
shift

Left

27 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E

67 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E
Right shift
display

INSTRUCTION CODE:

The instruction code is a command set through which the LCD is controlled
by the MPU. Prior to internal execution of the instruction code, control
information is temporally stored in the internal resisters of the LCD, to allow

interface from LCDs internal operation to various types of MPUs, which

operate at different speeds or allow to interface to peripheral control ICs.
The LCD begins operation upon receipt of the instruction code input from the
MPU. There are four types of instruction, those that:
1.

Designate LCD functions such as display format, data length, etc.

2.

Define internal RAM address.

3.

Perform data transfer with internal RAM.

4.

Others.

Normally the, 3rd category of instruction are used frequently, Automatic

incrementing (or decrementing) of LCD internal RAM address after each data
write lessens the MPU program load. The display shift is performed
concurrently with display data write, enabling the user to develop system in
minimum time with maximum programming efficiency. When an instruction
is executing during internal operation, no instruction other than busy
flag/address read instruction will be executed.

The busy flag is set to1 while the LCD is internally processing an
instruction. LCD signals that it is ready to accept the instruction by resetting
the Busy flag. It is therefore to be ensured that the instructions are written
to the LCD only while the busy flag is 0. There are two ways of doing this:

1. Read the Busy flag and ensure it is 0 before writing any instruction to
the LCD.

2. Provide a sufficiently large delay between instructions to the LCD.

INSTRUCTION TABLE:

Instru

Code

Description

-ction

Execut
e time
(max)

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1

DB0

Clear

display

Cursor

at

home

1.64mS

position (address 0).

Clears all display and returns cursor to home

Returns the cursor to the home position

(address 0). Also returns the display being
shifted to original position. DDRAM contents
remain unchanged.

1.64mS

Entry

mode

I/D

ON/OFF

40S

shift of display. These operations are

performed during data write and read.

set

Display

Sets the cursors move direction and specifies

Sets ON/OFF of all display (D) cursor

character (B).

control

Cursor/

display

40S

ON/OFF (C), and blink of cursor position

S/C R/L

Moves the cursor and shifts the display

40S

without changing DDRAM contents.

shift

Functio

n set

CGRAM

DL

Sets interface data length (DL) number of

display lines (L) and character font (F).

40S

ACG

Sets the CGRAM address. CGRAM data is

40S

sent and received after this setting.

address
set

DDRAM

ADD

Sets the DDRAM address.

address

DDRAM data is sent and

set

received after this setting.

40S

Busy

BF

AC

Reads busy flag (BF) indicating

flag/ad

internal operations are being

d-ress

performed and reads address

read

CGRAM

40S

counter contents.

Write data

Writes data into DDRAM or

/DDRA

40S

CGRAM.

M
write

CGRAM

Read data

Reads data from DDRAM or

/DDRA

CGRAM.

M read

DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUCTION CODE:

1. CLEAR DISPLAY:
RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0
0

I/D

When this instruction is executed, the LCD display cleared and returned to
its original status if it is shifted. The cursor goes to left edge of the display
(the left end of the first line if 2-line mode). Space code 20 (hexadecimal)

40S

(character pattern for character code 20 is blank pattern) is written into all
DD RAM addresses. Sets DD RAM address 0 in address counter (AC). Sets
I/D = 1 (Increment Mode) of Entry Mode. S of Entry Mode Doesnt change.

2. RETURN HOME:

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0

Code
Higher order bits

Lower order bits

* NO effect
The cursor or blink goes to the left edge of the display (to the left end of the
first line in the 2 line display mode). The display returns to its original status
if it was shifted. DD RAM contents do not change. Sets the DD RAM address
0 in address counter.
0

3. ENTRY MODE SET:

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0

0

I/D

Code
Higher order bits

Lower order bits

I/D: when the I/D is set, the 8-bit character code is written or read to and
from the DD RAM, the cursor shifts to the right by 1 character position (I/D
= 1; increment) or to the left by 1 character position (I/D =0; decrement).
The address is incremented (I/D = 1) or decremented (I/D =0) by 1 at
this time. Even after the character pattern code is written or read to end
from the CG RAM, the address counter (A/C) is incremented (I/D = 1) or
decremented (I/D = 0) by 1.

S: Shift the entire to the right or to the left when s is 1; to the left when I/D
=1 and to the right when I/D = 0. Thus it looks as if the cursor stands still
the display moves. The display does not shift when reading from the DD
RAM when or when writing in to or reading out from the CG RAM when S=0.

4. DISPLAY ON/OFF CONTROL:

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0
0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

1
0

S/C
1

R/L
D

*
C

*
B

Code
Higher order bits

Lower order bits

D: The display is ON when D = 1 and OFF when D = 0. When off due to D

= 0, display data remains in the DD RAM. It can be displayed immediately
by setting d = 1.

C: The cursor is displayed when C = 1 and goes off when C = 0. Even if

the cursor disappears, the function of I/D, etc. does not change during
display data write. The cursor is displayed using 5 dots in the 8 th line when
the 5x7 dot character font is selected and 5 dots in the 11 th line when the
5x10 dot character font is selected.

B: The character indicated by the cursor blinks when B = 1. The blink is

displayed by switching all black dots and display characters at 409.6 ms
interval when fCP or fOSC = 250 kHz. The cursor and the blink can be set to
display simultaneously. (The blink interval changes according to the
reciprocal of fCP or fOSC. 409.6 X 250/270 = 379.2 ms when fCP + 270kHz).

5. CURSOR OR DISPLAY SHIFT:

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0

0

S/C

R/L

Code

Higher order bits

Lower order bits

* No effect

Shifts cursor position or display to the right or left without writing or

reading display data. This function is used to correct or search for the
display. In a 2-line display, the cursor moves to the second line when it is

passes the 40th digit of the 1st list. Notice that the 1st and 2nd line displays
will shift at the same time. When the displayed data is shifted repeatedly
each line only moves horizontally. The 2 nd line display does not shift into
the 1st line position.

S/C

R/L

Shifts the cursor position to the left.

(AC is decremented by one).

Shifts the cursor position to the right

(AC is incremented by one).

Shifts the entire display to the left.

The cursor follows the display shift.

Shifts the entire display to the right.

The cursor follows the display shift.

Address counter (AC) contents do not change if the only action performed is
shift display.

6. FUNCTION SET:

0 R/W
0
0
1
A5 DB4
A4 DB3
A3 DB2
A2 DB1
A1 DB0
A0
RS
DB7
DB6
DB5

DL

Code
Higher order bits

Lower order bits

* No effect

DL: Sets interface data length

When DL =1, the data input/output to and from the MPU is carried out by
means of 8 bits DB7 to DB0. When DL =`0, the data input/output to and
from the MPU is carried out in two steps through the 4 bits DB7 to DB4.

0
0
1
B6
N: Sets number of display lines

B5

B4

B3

B2

B1

B0

The 2-line display mode of the LCD is selected when N =1, while the 1-Line
display mode is selected when N = 0

F: Sets character font

The 5x7 dots character font is selected when F =0, while the 5x10 dots
character font is selected when F = 11 and N =0.

7. SET CG RAM ADDRESS:

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0

0

A5

A4

A3

A2

A1

A0

BF

C6

C5

C4

C3

C2

C1

C0

Code

Higher order bits

Lower order bits

Sets CG RAM address in to the Address Counter in binary A5 to A0. In the 5

X 10 font mode A5 & A4 define the CG RAM block number while A3-Ao define
the row with in the block. In the 5 X 7 font mode the CG RAM block is
defined by A5-A3 while A2- A0 define the row.

8. SET DD RAM ADDRESS:

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0
0

B6

B5

B4

B3

B2

B1

B0

Code

Higher order bits

Lower order bits

Sets the DD RAM address into the address counter in binary B6 to B0. Data
1
0
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
then written or read from the LCD pertains to the DD RAM. However, when
N= 0 (1-line display), B6 to B0 is 00~ 4F (hexa). When N = 1 (2-line
display), B6 to B0 is 00 ~ 27 (hexa) for the first line, and 40~67 (hexa)
for the second line.

9. READ BUSY FLAG AND ADDRESS:

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0

0

BF

C6

C5

C4

C3

C2

C1

C0

Code
Higher order bits

Lower order bits

Reads the busy flag (BF) that indicates the system is now internally
1
1
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
executing a previously received instruction. BF = 1 indicates that internal
operation is in progress. The next instruction will not be accepted until BF
goes 0. Check the BF status before the next write operation.

At the same time, the value of the address counter expressed in binary C6
toC0 is read. The address counter is used by both CG and DD RAM
addresses, and its value is determined by the previous instruction.

10. WRITE DATA TO CG TO DD RAM:

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0

1

Code
Higher order bits

Lower order bits

Writes binary 8 data DDDDDDDD to the CG or the DD RAM. Whether the CG

or DD RAM is to be written in to is determined by previous specification of
CG RAM or DD RAM address setting. After write, the address is automatically
incremented or decremented by 1 according to entry mode. The entry mode
also determines display shift.

11. READ DATA FROM CG OR DD RAM:

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0

1

Code
Higher order bits

Lower order bits

Reads binary 8 bit data DDDDDDDD from the CG or DD RAM. The previous
designation determines whether the CG or DD RAM is to be read. Before
entering the read instruction, you must execute either the CG RAM or DD
RAM address set instruction. If you do not, the first read data would be
invalid.
COMPARATOR:

In this project we use lm 339 as a comparator for room

light from window. Lm 339 is compartor ic and there is
four comparator is inside the lm 339
The LM139 series consists of four independent precision voltage
comparators with an offset voltage specification as
low as 2 mV max for all four comparators. These were designed specifically
to operate from a single power supply

over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also
possible and the low power supply current
drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage. These
comparators also have a unique characteristic
in that the input common-mode voltage range includes ground, even
though operated from a single power supply
voltage. Application areas include limit comparators, simple analog to
digital converters; pulse, squarewave and time delay generators;wide range
VCO; MOS clock timers; multivibrators and high voltage digital logic gates.
The LM139 series was
designed to directly interface with TTL and CMOS. When operated from
both plus and minus power supplies, they will
directly interface with MOS logic where the low power drain of the LM339
is a distinct advantage over standard
comparators.

Features

Comparator Operation
The following drawing show the two simplest configurations for voltage comparators. The
diagrams below the circuits give the output results in a graphical form.
For these circuits the REFERENCE voltage is fixed at one-half of the supply voltage while the
INPUT voltage is variable from zero to the supply voltage.

In theory the REFERENCE and INPUT voltages can be anywhere between zero and the supply
voltage but there are practical limitations on the actual range depending on the particular device
used.

Basic Comparator Operation

Input Vs. Output Results

1.

Current WILL flow through the open collector when the voltage at the
PLUS input is lower than the voltage at the MINUS input.

2.

Current WILL NOT flow through the open collector when the voltage at
the PLUS input is higher than the voltage at the MINUS input.

Input Vs. Output Results

Input Offset Voltage

Voltage comparators are not perfect devices and their performance may suffer from the effects
of a parameter known as the Input Offset Voltage. The Input Offset Voltage for many
comparators is only a few millivolts and in most circuits can be ignored.
Problems related to the Input voltage normally occur when the Input voltage changes very
slowly.
The net result of the Input Offset Voltage is that the output transistor does not fully turn on or
off when the input voltage is close to the reference voltage.
The following diagram attempts to illustrate the effect of the input offset voltage with a slowly
changing input voltage. This effect increases as the output transistor current increases so keeping
the value of RL high will help reduce the problem.

Effect Of Input Offset Voltage

The effects of the input offset voltage can be countered by adding hysteresis to the circuit. This
causes the reference voltage to change when the comparators output goes high or low.

Input Offset Voltage And Hysteresis

For most comparator circuits Hysteresis is the difference between the input signal voltages at
which a comparator's output is either fully ON or fully OFF. Hysteresis in comparators is
generally undesirable but it can also be added to a circuit to reduce the sensitivity to noise or a
slowly moving input signal.
Typical hysteresis causes the output of the comparator to go from OFF to ON and vice-versa
relatively slowly.
The effect of added hysteresis is that as the input voltage slowly changes, the reference voltage
will quickly change in the opposite direction. This gives the comparator's output a "snap" action.

A mechanical analog of added hysteresis can be found in many toggle switches: As the handle
moves past its center point, a spring in the switch forces the contacts of the switch to open or
close, ensuring that the switch's contacts snap to the ON or OFF position.

The width of the loop outlined by an off-on-off cycle is the input hysteresis voltage.
The hysteresis voltage for most comparators is only a few millivolts and usually only affects
circuits where the input voltage rises or falls very slowly or has voltage spikes known as "noise".

Adding Hysteresis To A Comparator Circuit

A comparator's Hysteresis range can be increased by adding a resistor between the comparator's
output and the PLUS input terminal. This creates a feedback loop so that when the output makes
a transition the feedback changes the voltage at the positive which increases the voltage
difference between the PLUS and MINUS inputs.
The feedback can only be made to the PLUS input terminal.

Increasing The Input hysteresis Range

If the comparator's output is initially 'OFF', the MINUS input voltage has to become above the
PLUS input voltage by the hysteresis voltage range before the comparator output turns 'ON'.

If the comparator is 'ON', the MINUS input voltage needs to drop slightly below the PLUS
input voltage by the hysteresis voltage range before it turns 'OFF'.
The hysteresis voltage range can also be made quite large in order to force the comparator's
output to change as quickly as possible. The FLIP-FLOP circuits shown later on this page make
use of an exaggerated hysteresis to create the memory effect with large input voltage changes
needed to trigger a change in the output.

Window Comparator

Comparator Oscillator Circuit

Comparators can also be used as oscillators but are not well suited for this type of application.

Oscillator Made From A Comparator

Basic Comparator Circuits

The following diagrams are of some basic comparator circuits. Most have a Cadmium Sulfide
photocell input but could just as easily use a phototransistor or a voltage signal from another

circuit as an input. The resistance values are not critical but should be used as a guide. In most
comparator circuits the ratio of the resistances is more important than their actual values.

Photocell Circuits

Photocell Circuits Schematic

If higher current loads are to be driven a PNP transistor can be added to the comparators output
this will allow loads of up to 300Ma. to be controlled.

Relay Driver Output Schematic

SOFTWARE:

.1 Appendix 1:
How to compile the demo program?

1. Start the software Keil uVision4.

2. In the menu, select Project -> New Project.

4. Select Device for Target. Click Philips -> P89V51RD2,

click OK.

6. Project -> Options for Target. Select tab Output.

Click check box
Create HEX File. Click OK.

7. You can press F7 or select Project -> Build Target to

compile the C
program and link the object file to HEX file.

8. If everything is OK, a Hex file should be created and a

message
creating new file from main will prompt out.