Common Control Loop

1.Flow
Liquid flow processes are fast, typically 0.5 sec response or less. Gas flow is slightly
slower because of the compressibility of the gas. Control components - transmitter,
valve and transmission lines - are the main dynamic elements. The most common
measuring means is the orifice plate and differential pressure transmitter; flow is
proportional to the square root of differential pressure.
If a centrifugal pump is the flow energy source, the throttling valve can be placed in the
pump discharge line. If a positive displacement pump is used, then the valve must be in
a bypass line; alternately, pump speed or stroke can be controlled instead of bypass
flow.
A linear valve should be used in preference to a percentage valve, especially where the
pressure drop across the valve varies. This helps counteract the non-linearity of the
differential measurement. If the measurement is linear (magnetic flow-meter, turbine
meter etc.) an equal percentage valve is probably the better choice.
Flow processes are determined by noise caused by fluid turbulence and equipment
vibration. Controller gain is invariably low usually less than 1.0. Reset must be used to
overcome offset, derivative cannot be used.
VARIABLE
FLOW

PROCESS
CONTROL SYSTEM
Very fast.

Proportional plus reset controllers.

Most lags are in the control system.
Low gain, fast reset.
Non-linear (square) measurement

Derivative hurts.
common.

Linear valves for differential pressure

Noisy.
measurement.

Equal percentage valves for linear

measurement.

Valve is the major dynamic element.

2.Pressure
Liquid - Liquid pressure control is very similar to flow control. The system is non-linear :
pressure varies as flow squared. Noise is ordinarily present.
Gas - Gas pressure processes are single capacity systems and do not normally present
much of a control problem. Self-acting or simple pilot-operated controllers can often be
used with good results. (Line pressure is connected to the valve top either directly or
through a simple pilot valve.) Gains of these proportional-only controllers are typically
20 to 50 or higher. A pneumatic reducing valve is a simple example of a self-acting
pressure regulator.
The important secondary dynamic element is the valve - the process itself is usually a
large single capacity element and measurements are fast. Distance-velocity lag is not
present.
Proportional control is usually adequate ; reset can be added to completely remove
offset. High gains are generally achievable or moderate gains with fast reset if small
offsets are a problem.
Vapour - The most important vapour pressure applications involve heat transfer distillation columns, evaporators etc., where the control system is basically heat balance
control. Vapour pressure control loops act like temperature control loops.
VARIABLE

PRESSURE Liquid

PROCESS

PRESSURE Gas

PRESSURE Vapour

CONTROL SYSTEM

Fast

Proportional
plus
reset
Most lags are in the controllers.
control system.

Gain near 1,fast reset rate.

Non-linear (square).

Derivative of no value.
Noisy.

Linear valve.
Single capacity.
No dead time.
Linear, no noise.
Simple process.

Dynamics vary.

Dead time possible.

Slow compared to other

pressure processes.
Linear, no noise.

Self-acting or high gain

proportional controllers.
Reset seldom necessary.
Derivative unnecessary.
Valve characteristic relatively
unimportant.
Three-response controllers.
Settings vary.
Equal percentage valves.

3.Level
Level is a single capacity, integrating system. The tank, capacitance is directly
proportional to the vessel diameter. Large diameter tanks with low thruput present no
problem, small diameter, high thruput systems are more difficult to control but not as
common. The tank lag is volume thruput.
Level control systems fill into two distinctly different categories : precise control and
averaging control.
For precise control, proportional controllers will provide adequate regulation on large
capacity systems. As capacity decreases, controller gain must be decreased and reset
becomes necessary.
Averaging level systems sacrifice tight control in order to keep output flow rate constant.
Typical applications are where the vessels under control are surge capacities between
sections of a multi-stage process, their purpose being to absorb changes between
stages. Level is allowed to wander between wide limits, with corrective action applied
gradually so long as the level remains safely between the limits. Low gain, reset
controllers do the job. Special dual-gain or dual-reset controllers are sometimes used.
They have low gain or reset in the safe mid-level area, switch to higher gain or fast reset
if the level strays too fat.

VARIABLE

LEVEL

PROCESS

CONTROL SYSTEM

Single
Capacity

Precise control:
(integrating)
High gain or proportional plus reset
controllers.
No dead time.

Averaging control:
Linear.
Low gain proportional
plus reset
Infrequent noise.
or specialised controllers.

Valve characteristic unimportant.

4.Temperature
Temperature Control systems vary from simple to very difficult and there is no such
thing as a typical temperature application. Almost all temperature control problems
are heat transfer problems and are characterised by long time constants and slow
reaction rates. Distance-velocity lag is common . The measurement lag can pose a
serious problem, especially if the thermal system is protected with a well. The
measurement time constant depends on the mass and surface area of the bulb (or the
well), the fluid being measured and its velocity past the bulb. Special care should be
taken in locating the bulb to maximise heat transfer.

Temperature control problems are complicated by nonlinearities. Heat transfer

processes have parameters which vary with flow, so that time constants and distancevelocity lag vary with load or operating point.
Processes dominated by one large capacity - as large temperature baths or air heating
systems -can be controlled with on-off controllers. Some cycling results, but is in the
order of 1% of the span.
Proportional plus reset control is used in smaller capacity systems where load changes
are large and where distance-velocity or measurement lags are important. Most shell
and tube heat exchangers fall into this category.
Derivative is helpful, provided the distance-velocity lag is not the dominant secondary
dynamic element. Shell and tube heat exchangers or plate heaters have large effective
dead time so that derivative is of limited value. But other temperature systems such as
batch reactors are dominated by linear lags and derivative is very helpful.

VARIABLE

PROCESS

TEMPERATURE

CONTROL SYSTEM

Multiple capacity system.

Three-response controllers.
Dead
time
possible.

Settings vary but gain usually

(especially
heat above 1.
exchangers).

Derivative of limited value if

Non-linear.
dead time is large.
No noise.

Equal percentage valves.

Measurement dynamics are
important.

5.Composition
Composition Control can be simple mixing problem (blending of lubricating oils to a
desired viscosity), a separation problem (product quality control in a distillation column)
or a reaction problem (neutralization with pH control). Generalizing on typical dynamics
on-line control is difficult.
On-line analyzer promote simpler control. They are relatively fast and do not require
sampling systems. however, they are often noisy. Most analyzers are linear throughout
their operating range. pH is the notable exception. Sampling systems introduce
distance-velocity lag into the control loop and the longer the dead time the tougher the
control problem. Sampling systems also require careful design to insure that a sample
representative of the total process stream is analysed.

Analyzers are normally sensitive devices having narrow spans. The high gain element
in the loop forces the controller to have a low gain. Reset is an essential control mode.
Derivative is sometimes useful.

VARIABLE
COMPOSITION

PROCESS
CONTROL SYSTEM
Dynamics vary.

Proportional plus reset controllers.

Dead
time
usually

Low gain, variable reset rate.

present.

Derivative sometimes useful.

Usually linear.

On-line analysers fast, often noisy.

Sometimes noisy due to

Sampling
systems
complicate
both
poor mixing.
measurement and control, add dead time.

Linear valves.