Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Section
No
Description
Figure or Table
Page
No.
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Environmental Conditions
5.3 Conductor Selection
5.3.1 General
5.3.2 Types of Conductor
Table 5.1 Characteristics of Different Conductor
Materials
Fig. 5.1 Conductor Arrangements for Different ACSR
Combinations
Table 5.2 Typical Properties of some ACSR Conductors
5.3.3 Aerial Bundled Conductor
Table 5.3 Comparison between Aerial Bundled Conductor
and Open-wire
5.3.4 Conductor Breaking Strengths
Table 5.4 Calculated Conductor Breaking Strengths
According to some Different Standards
5.3.5 Bi-metal Connectors
Fig.5.2 Bi-metal Connector
5.3.6 Corrosion
5.4 Calculated Electrical Ratings
5.4.1 Heat Balance Equation
5.4.2 Power Carrying Capacity
Fig. 5.3 (a) Approximate Conductor Sizes (ACSR) for Power
Transfer Capabilities
Fig. 5.3 (b) Economic Power Transfer Capacities
Fig. 5.4 Typical Conductor Configurations
Fig. 5.5 Power Transfer Curves
Table 5.5 Typical Load Carrying Capacity of Overhead
Distribution Lines
5.4.3 Corona Discharge
5.4.3.1 Worked Example for Corona Discharge
Fig. 5.6 Corona Discharge Calculation Example 132 kV
Zebra Conductor Spacing
5.4.3.2 Radio Frequency Interference
Table 4.6 Effect of Various Levels of Signal-to-noise Ratio
5.4.4 Worked Example for an Overhead Line Calculation
Fig. 5.7 Calculation Example 132 kV Lynx Conductor
Spacing
5.4.5 Available kVA km Neglecting Capacitance
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints - Contents
Page 1 of 3
1
1
2
2
3
4
5
6
6
8
9
9
10
10
10
12
12
13
14
15
16
17
17
18
19
19
20
20
21
22
22
Section
No
Description
Figure or Table
Page
No.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints - Contents
Page 2 of 3
23
24
24
24
26
26
27
27
28
29
29
30
30
31
31
31
31
32
33
34
35
35
35
36
37
38
38
39
Section
No
Description
Figure or Table
Page
No.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints - Contents
Page 3 of 3
40
42
43
43
44
44
45
46
47
47
49
49
50
50
52
5.1 Introduction
Overhead lines are, in essence air-insulated cables suspended from insulated supports
with a power transfer capacity approximately proportional to the square of the line
voltage.
As was stated in Module 1 overhead line are mire economic than underground cables and
their use is avoided as much as possible at the higher transmission voltages.
Here are some approximate cost comparisons which should be treated in more depth
since they do not take into account the additional costs of either solution imposed by
the wayleave/consent/clearance procedures, addressed in module 3, and which are an
unfortunate part of transmission/distribution development.
For the transmission of equivalent power
At 11 kV a cable feeder costs about 5 times that of a transmission line
At 132 kV a cable feeder costs about 8 times that of a transmission line
Condition
Comments
Temperature
Wind
Velocity
Solar
Radiation
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 1 of 52
Condition
Comments
Rainfall
Humidity
Altitude
Atmospheric
Pollution
Soil
Electrically affecting grounding requirements (soil resistivity)
Characteristics and structurally the foundation design (weights, cohesion and
angle of repose)
Lightning
Seismic Factor
General
Loadings
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 2 of 52
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 3 of 52
Property
Unit
Annealed
copper
Hard-drawn
copper
Cadmium
copper
Hard-drawn
aluminium
Aluminium
Alloy
(BS3242)
Galvanised
steel
Relative conductivity
Volumetric resisitivity@20OC
Mass resisitivity@20OC
Resistance@20OC
Density
Mass
Resistance temperature coefficient @20OC
Coefficient of linear expansion
Ultimate tensile strength(approx BS values)
Modulus of elasticity
(%)
( mm2/m)
( kg/m)
( mm2/km)
(kg/mm3)
(kg/mm2/km)
(per OC)
(per OC)
(MN/m2)
(MN/m2)
100
0.01724 (std)(a)
0.15328
17.241
8890
8.89
0.00393
17 x 10-6
255
100 x 103
97 (average)
0.01771 (avg) )(b)
0.15741
17.71
8890
8.89
0.00381
17 x 10-6
420
125 x 103
79.2 (min)
0.02177 (max)
0.19472
21.77
8945
8.945
0.00310
17 x 10-6
635
125 x 103
61 (min)
0.02826 (max)
0.07640
28.26
2703
2.703
0.00403
23 x 10-6
165
70 x 103
53.5
0.0322 (std)
0.08694
32.2
2703
2.703
0.0036
23 x 10-6
300
70 x 103
7780
7.78
11.5 x 10-6
1350
200 x 103
Note:
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 4 of 52
6 AL./1St
26 AL./19St
54 AL./19St
7 AL./1St
AL./1St
88AL./1St
6 AL./1St
18 AL./1St
42 AL./19St
18 AL./19St
4 AL./3St
30 AL./7St
76 AL./7St
12 AL./7St
30 AL./19St
24 AL./7St
26 AL./7St
54 AL./19St
42 Seg/30 AL./7St
Page 5 of 52
Code
name
Horse
Lynx
Zebra
Dove
12/7/2.79
30/7/2.79
54/7/3.18
26/3.72 +
7/2.89
Alu area
(mm2)
Steel
area
(mm2)
Diameter
(mm)
Mass
(kg/km)
Breaking
Load
(kN)
Resistance
(/km)
73.4
183.4
428.9
42.8
42.8
55.6
13.95
19.53
28.62
538
942
1621
61.2
79.8
131.9
0.3936
0.1441
0.0674
282
45.9
23.56
1137
99.88
0.1024
Delegates Notes
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 6 of 52
Delegates Notes
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 7 of 52
Property
Possible
support/fittings failure
prior to bundle failure
2. Current ratings
3. Voltage regulation
Lower AC reactance
(typically 25%)
Higher DC resistance
(typically +15%)
5. Short-circuit ratings
Same
-10%
Same
1.6 to 2 times
6.
Costs
(a) Fittings
(b) Conductor
(c) Poles and stays
(d) Labour
(e) Maintenance
refurbishment
new works
under eaves
refurbishment
new works
-36%
-25%
-17%
-22%
lower costs
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 8 of 52
strength
ACSE
380/50
BS 215, Pt 2, 1970
1714
12330
1779
12398
1724
12059
1669
11720
14700
12105
1742
12552
1716
12314
conductor
12306
1752
12579
1720
12305
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 9 of 52
Copper Pin
Aluminium
Ferrule
Page 10 of 52
Pure aluminium had the best corrosion resistance under the majority of
environmental conditions
Smooth body conductors were the most corrosion resistant, especially if the
inner layers were greased.
Small diameter wires were most susceptible to corrosion damage and to failure.
Thus for a given conductor area it is preferable to have a fewer larger diameter
strands
For very aggressive environments the following order of preference is suggested: Aluminium conductor fully greased
Aluminium conductor with alumoweld core fully greased
ACSR fully greased
Aluminium conductor with alumoweld un-greased
ACSR with greased core.
Delegates Notes
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 11 of 52
I 2 R 20 [1 = (t + ) + ) = 387(V x d )
0.448
+ x E c x s x d (t + + 273 ) - (t + 273 )
4
- S x S x d (watts/km) .(5.1)
where I = current rating, amps
t = ambient temperature in OC
conductor and varies between 0.6 for new bright and shiny conductor to 0.9 for
black conditions or old conductor. Average value of 0.8, say, may be taken for
initial design purposes.
Typical values are 0.3 for new bright and 0.9 for black aluminium, ACSR or
AAAC conductor. Average value = 0.6
Page 12 of 52
x
x
x
x
x
200
300
400
500
600
mm2
mm2
mm2
mm2
mm2
230 kV
1052 A (419 MVA)
1296 A (516 MVA)
1558 A (620 MVA)
1742 A (694 MVA)
1890 A (753 MVA)
Delegates Notes
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 13 of 52
Voltage/ Power
11kV
33kV
100- DOG
25 - GOPHER
(b)
100 - GOAT
25 - GOPHER
(b)
300-GOAT
INADEQUATE
50 -RABBIT
50 -RABBIT
200 -PANTHER
200 -PANTHER
5MVA (a)
10MVA (a)
25MVA (a)
(b)
50 MVA
100 MVA
200 MVA
200 MVA
300 MVA
400 MVA
500 MVA
600 MVA
66kV
132kV
220kV
275kV
250-BEAR
2 x 175 LYNX
400 - ZEBRA
Notes
200 -PANTHER
1. Numbers refer to nominal aluminium area e.g. 100m2
2 x 150-WOLF
2. For voltages up to and including 66 kV, conductor size is governed
by thermal rating and/or voltage drop surface gradients are
normally acceptable
3. (a) is thermal rating b) is rating for 10% voltage drop - a power factor of 0.9
over a distance of 10 kM. Other
(ratings for other assumptions
2 x 250-BEAR
2 x 400 ZEBRA
800 MVA
1000 MVA
2000 MVA
2x 400 - ZEBRA
3x250-BEAR or
DOVE
400 kV 4 x 18 mm
3x 400 - ZEBRA
6. This Table is prepared for tropical conditions. For lower temperature conditions ratings would be 20-30% higher
7. This is really a very complex subject so readers should use this chart only as a guide
Fig. 5.3 (a) Approximate Conductor Sizes (ACSR) for Power Transfer Capabilities
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
2 x 350
ANTELOPE
or BISON
3 x 300 GOAT
500kV
2 x 175 LYNX
2 x 250-BEAR
(2 x BATANG)
2 x 350ANTELOPE
or BISON
4. For voltages 132kV and above conductor size is also governed by surface gradient and electrical stability of systems. Ratings of
lines are affected by equipment in substations
1800 MVA
400kV
25 - GOPHER
25 - GOPHER
75 - RACOON
75 - RACOON
200 -PANTHER
700 MVA
1200 MVA
330kV
Page 14 of 52
4x 400 ZEBRA
or 4xCROW
3x450-ELK
4x(282)
DOVE
4X300GOAT
Line Voltage kV
500
400
300
200
100
100,000
200,000
Power Transfers MW-Kilometers
70
300,000
60
Line Voltage kV
50
40
30
20
10
100
200
300
500
400
Power Transfers MW-Kilometers
600
Page 15 of 52
Single
Flat twin
or
Triple
or
Vertical twin
Quad
Multiple bundle
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 16 of 52
Thermal
Limit
Line
Voltage
(kV)
Conductor
Equivalent
Configuration
(mm)
11
1400
33
1500
66
3000
ACSR
Conductor
code
AAC
Conductor
code
Sparrow
Raven
Linnet
Iris
Poppy
Tulip
Quail
Penguin
Linnet
Hen
Aster
Oxlip
Tulip
Cosmos
Quail
Linnet
Hen
Aster
Tulip
Cosmos
MW
capacity
Based upon
5%
Regulation
0.95
1.4
3.00
16 (km)
5.00
6.70
8.35
11.50
32 (km)
12.50
16.00
18.40
0.49
0.7
1.5
32 (km)
2.50
3.35
4.18
5.75
64 (km)
6.25
8.00
9.18
0.33
0.47
1.00
48 (km)
1.70
2.20
2.80
3.80
96 (km)
4.18
5.32
6.12
0.25
0.35
0.75
64 (km)
1.25
1.70
2.10
2.90
128 (km)
3.14
3.99
4.59
Page 17 of 52
Vg =
Q
where Vg = voltage surface gradient (volts/cm)
2 x x 0 x r
Q = surface charge per unit length (coulomb/m)
r = equivalent radius of smooth conductor (cm)
1
= permittivity of free space =
F/m
36 x x 10 9
Vg =
Up
d
2D
loge
2
d
kV/cm (5.2)
where Vg = voltage surface gradient (kV/cm)
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 18 of 52
D ry = 2 6 2 + 1.8 2 = 6.26
D yb = 2 72 + 1.8 2 = 7.23
D br = 2 12 + 3.6 2 = 3.74
r
3m
y
3m
1.8 m
1.8 m
Vg =
Up
d
2D
loge
d
2
kV/cm =
132/ 3
76.2
= =
[(2.86/2 )loge (2 x 553/2.86 )]
1.43 x loge (386.71)
76.2
1.43 x 5.96
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 19 of 52
d
n
+ 10log10
d0
n0
1 + f0 n
D
+ 30log10 0 + 20log10
(1 + f 2 )
D
where RFI = calculated radio noise (dB > 1V/m)
32
27
22
16
Entirely satisfactory
Very good, background not intrusive
Fairly satisfactory, background evident
Background very evident, speech easily understood
Difficulty in understanding speech
Noise swamps speech
6
0
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 20 of 52
75OC
40OC (temperature rise = 35OC)
0.1441 /km
19.53 mm
0.6
0.8
1000 w/m2
1 mph = 0.447 m/s
40 x 10 6
= 175 MVA
3 x 132 x 10 3
The conductor thermal rating capability is first determined, ignoring any voltage drop
considerations, by comparing the 175 A load current requirement and the rating of the
conductor derived from the heat balance equation detailed in section 5.4.1 (Equation
No. 5.1)
I 2 R = 12.8(t 2 - t 1 ) x 10 -4 x (V x d )
S x S x d (watts/km)
0.448
+ x E c x s x d x T2 - T1
4
)-
0.448
) (
I2 =
0.297
0.1441 x 10 3
I = 206.107 x 10 3
The conductor type is therefore more than adequate on thermal considerations for the
load required.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 21 of 52
r2
r1
3.6 m
4.5 m
y1
y2
4.6 m
4.5 m
b2
b1
3.6 m
D ry = 2 4.5 2 + 12 = 4.61 m
D yb = 2 4.5 2 + 12 = 4.61 m
Dbr = 9m
D = 3 Dry x D yb x D br = D = 3 4.61 x 4.61 x 9 = 5.76 m
Vg =
Up
2D
d
log e
2
d
132/ 3
76.2
76.2
=
= =
[(1.9533/2 )loge (2 x 576/1.953 )] 0.977 x loge (589.86 )
0.977 x 6.38
= 12.22 kV/cm which is within the 18 kV/cm criteria and Lynx conductor is therefore
acceptable from both a corona and current carrying capacity aspect.
5.4.5 Available kVA km Neglecting Capacitance
If capacitive reactance is ignored the voltage drop, Vd, for a line length, l, is calculated
from the usual formula: -
Vd = I (R cos + X sin )
If the load at the receiving end is given in kVA, then for a three phase system the load
current I =
kVA
3 xU
The main practical problem is now to obtain accurate values for the line reactance.
Some typical reactance values are given in Table 5.7
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 22 of 52
Equivalent Al area
(mm2)
Stranding
25
6/1/2.36
30
6/1/3/35
75
6/1/4.1
100
125
150
175
6/2.72+7/1.57
30/7/2.36
30/7/2.59
30/7/2.79
200
30/7/3.0
250
300
30/7/3.35
30/7/3.71
Current (temperate) A
157
242
311
371
429
482
528
579
665
755
Current (tropical) A
130
198
253
299
343
384
419
457
521
587
R /km (20 C)
1.093
0.5426
0.3622
0.2733
0.2203
0.1826
0.1576
0.1362
0.1093
0.08911
R /km (75OC)
1.317
0.6539
0.4365
0.3294
0.2655
0.2203
0.1899
0.1641
0.1317
0.1074
0.298
0.276
0.263
0.253
0.239
0.233
0.229
0.224
0.217
0.211
0.395
0.373
0.360
0.350
0.336
0.330
0.326
0.321
0.314
0.308
0.399
0.377
0.364
0.355
0.340
0.335
0.330
0.325
0.318
0.312
0.442
0.420
0.408
0.398
0.384
0.378
0.373
0.369
0.362
0.356
0.454
0.432
0.419
0.410
0.395
0.390
0.385
0.380
0.473
0.451
0.439
0.429
0.415
0.409
0.402
0.400
0.373
0.393
0.367
0.396
Table 5.7 ACSR Conductors Inductive Reactance, /km (equivalent spacings given) (IEE Proceedings, Vol. 133, Pt.C, No.7, November 1986)
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 23 of 52
0.1 U =
3 x kVA
kVA x l =
100 x U 2
with the length, l in km.(5.3)
(R cos + sin )
3xU
x l x (R cos + X sin ) x 10
-3
Tables may thus be prepared based on this equation for different conductors at
different power factors giving the available kVA km for a given % voltage drop.
5.5 Design Spans, Clearances and Loadings
5.5.1 Design Spans
The general parabolic sag/tension equation is addressed in module 4, section 4.2.3. In
order to design suitable tower dimensions for an overhead line it is necessary to
calculate the sags and tensions. The maximum conductor tension (occurring at minimum
temperature) is evaluated in order to ensure a sufficient mechanical strength margin
for a particular conductor. The sag is calculated in order to fix the tower height. The
ruling condition for the conductor has to be determined based on either the maximum
working tension (MWT) or the everyday stress (EDS). The conductor has to be
designed such that the maximum anticipated loads do not exceed 50% of the breaking
load at 6OC (MWT condition) and about 20% about at an everyday temperature of 16OC
(EDS condition)
Delegates Notes
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 24 of 52
H = C + SO + 3 S A + SB + SC + SE
Where C = statutory clearance to ground
wire
100 x L
+ l - NO
l
M1
M1
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 25 of 52
SE
SA
SC
SA
SB
HO
SA
SO = sag
C = clearance
Foundations
H O = C + S O+ 3SA + SB +S C + SE
Tower Type
K1
K2
0.008
0.30
5. Foundations depends upon soil properties and a site visit is necessary to assess
the situation. However and assessment of uplift and compression loads may be made
since an approximate base width can be calculated.
With knowledge of suspension and tension tower weights, supply and installation costs
can be assessed.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 26 of 52
Description
Conductors
Earth wires
Insulators
Towers
Foundations
Up to 150 kV
31.6
4.1
8.8
36
19.5
150 300 kV
31.5
3.5
9.3
36.0
19.7
> 300 kV
34.1
3.9
6.9
36.4
18.7
Table 5.8. Relative Supply and Installation Costs for Overhead Lines
The breakdown given in Table 5.8 is only an approximation. It gives average values for
many lines and practices encountered by Balfour Beatty throughout the world and
caries according to line voltage, conductor configuration and the design of the
supporting structure. In addition, an allowance has to be made for the routing survey,
land clearance, erection and similar items. Basic spans might be approximately 365 m at
230 kV and 330 m at 132 kV. The minimum allowable ground clearance between phase
conductors and earth is derived from specified conductor clearances for the country
involved, in still air at maximum conductor temperature. Survey figures for the
proportion of tower costs compared to the overall line costs ranged from 8% to 53%
with ACSR, but from 25% to 45% with AAAC.
5.5.1.2 Wind Span
The wind span is half the sum of the adjacent span lengths as shown in figure 5.8b. At
230 kV this might be 400m under normal conditions and 300m under broken wire
conditions. Correspondingly, at 132kV typical values are 365m and 274m respectively
Delegates Notes
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 27 of 52
Cost
(a)
Cost v Span Plot
Span
Basic
span
(b)
Wind and Weight Span
Wind Span
= L1 + L2
L1
L2
L3
The wind span is half the sum of adjacent horizontal span lengths
supported on any one tower.
The weight span is the equivalent length of conductor supported
at any one tower at minimum temperature
Fig.5.8 (a) and (b) Cost v span, Wind and Weight Span
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 28 of 52
(c)
Tension
Tower
Equivalent Span
Suspension
Tower
Suspension
Tower
L2
L1
EQUIVALENT SPAN =
Tension
Tower
Suspension
Tower
L3
L4
The equivalent span is used for determination of sag in spans for which the tension in any
section length is that which would apply to a single span equal to the equivalent span.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 29 of 52
230 kV
Suspension towers
132 kV
Suspension towers
Tension Towers
750m Normal conditions
750m Broken wire conditions
Tension Towers
680m Normal conditions
680m Broken wire conditions
= K e t mm/km ...(5.4)
= K t mm/km .(5.5)
for AAC, AAAC and ACAR where
= permanent inelastic elongation (creep)
K = constant
= average stress in conductor
, , , = creep indices obtained by test
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 30 of 52
Al/steel
Area
ratio
54
7.71
Process
HR
1.1
0.0175
2.155
0.342
0.2127
EP
1.6
0.0171
1.418
0.377
0.1876
48
11.4
HR
3.0
0.01000
1.887
0.165
0.0116
30
4.28
EP
2.2
0.0107
1.375
0.183
0.0365
26
6.16
HR
1.9
0.0235
1.830
0.229
0.0365
24
7.74
HR
1.6
0.0235
1.882
0.186
0.00771
18
18.0
EP
1.2
0.0230
1.502
0.332
0.1331
12
1.71
HR
0.66
0.0115
1.884
0.273
0.1474
Process
Hot rolled
Extruded
0.15
Not available
1.4
Not available
1.3
Not available
0.16
Not available
Process
19
37
61
Hot Rolled
0.27
0.28
0.26
0.25
Extruded or
Properzi
0.18
0.18
0.16
0.15
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.3
0.16
0.16
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 31 of 52
Process
Extruded
Properzi
or
0.04 + (0.24m/m + 1)
1.4
1.3
0.16
Stress
Temperature
Time
1.
Running out
Average ambient
2.
Pretension
(If provided
Average ambient
As decided by
design office
3.
Stress at given
Temperature
Mean yearly
temperature + 5OC
tm
4.
Stress at given
Temperature
tIV
Maximum stress
tIV
Delegates Notes
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 32 of 52
Is there a
pretension period?
Yes
No
Change tension to stringing
tension and ignore creep
during this change
Answer
Page 33 of 52
Stage
Stress
Temperature
Time
1.
20% UTS
20OC
1 hour
2.
Nil
(no pretension)
Not applicable
(no pretension)
Not applicable
(no pretension)
3.
Calculate by program
25OC
257544 hours(a)
4.
Calculate by program
70OC
2628 hours(a)
Calculate by program
0OC
2628 hours(a)
Table 5.11 Note (a) is the period for which compensation is required
If we consider the general change-of-state sag/tension equation the influence of creep
strain and temperature are both linear (Refer to section 5.5.2.5)
W 2 x L2
1
=
-6
1
1 EA(T2 T1 ) + ( 2 - 1 ) + ( 2 - 1 ) x 10
24 2 - 2
T2 T1
It is possible, therefore to express creep strain, , by an equivalent temperature
change, i.e.
= e x 10 6 .(5.6)
where
This is a widely employed concept when creep compensation is carried out with the help
of sag and tension charts. For example with Zebra conductor it has been assessed that
creep strain at the end of 10 years (t = 87,600 hours) is
Temperature for evaluating sag time, t, and corresponding to the maximum design
temperature of the conductor when no pretension or over-tension regime are
O
applicable, + e = 82 C
This will clearly lead to a penalty in the height of all towers. An alternative would be to
reduce the sag at sagging time resulting in a temporary over-tension in the conductor.
However, this results in an over-design penalty on the angle towers. By applying several
combinations of temperature correction or pretension the designer is able to aim for
the least onerous solution.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 34 of 52
Delegates Notes
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 35 of 52
Phase -conductor
Cross -arm
30 O
EARTH WIRES
0O
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 36 of 52
OC, the strike is more likely to hit the earth wire than the phase conductors.
Cloud
O
A
C
Overhead
line
Ground
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 37 of 52
sin =
DB OA H h
=
=
EB OE
H
2 H h
= 0.5 and = 30 O . This angle of
2H
protection is often adopted on the basis that the cloud height is likely to be twice the
height of the earth wire (top of the tower). If, however , H = 1.5h then
sin =
1.5 H h
= 0.333 and 20 O
1.5 H
Cloud
E
2h
h
1.5h
Ground
Fig.5.11b Earth Wire Lightning Screen Protection (Horizontal Formation)
When considering conductors arranged in horizontal formation (e.g. low 400 kV towers
mid-cross-arm in DEWA) it is customary to assume a cloud level at 1.5h to 2h. Figure
5.11b shows a single-circuit line with all three phases on horizontal formation.
5.5.2.2 Earthing Counterpoise
A lightning strike on the earth wire will be dissipated into the ground after passing
through the transmission structure and foundations. Wave propagation along electrical
lines obeys classical wave propagation theory. Wave reflections will occur at points of
discontinuity such as points of changing impedance. Consider the arrangement in figure
5.12. The voltage and current along the line at any time, t, are the vector sums of the
forward and reflected waves.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 38 of 52
Electrical line
Reflected
wave
Forward
wave
Positive direction
for all voltage, v and
Current, i, vectors
vr
vf
ir
if
ZL = characteristic
impedance of the line
f = forward
r = reflected
v = v f + v r (5.7)
_
i = if + ir (5.8)
_
v f = Z L ir , v r = Z L ir ..(5.9)
therefore
_
Z L i = v f v r , Z L i + v = 2 v f ..(5.10)
For a line terminated on an impedance, ZT, the relationships between voltage v. and
_
Combining with the equations 5.7 through 5.10 allows resolution in terms of the incident
wave
_
v = 2 ZT x
vf
_
_
ZL + ZT
(5.11)
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 39 of 52
x vr
T
L
_
vf =
_
_
Z L + ZT
.(5.12)
_
v f = forward voltage
_
vr = reflected voltage
_
For a line with open circuit at the receiving end ( ZT = infinity) then v f = v r and
_
v Transmitte d =
2 ZC x v incident
_
ZOHL + ZC
v reflected
_
_
_
ZC - ZOHL x v reflected
=
_
ZOHL + ZC
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 40 of 52
The transmitted voltage v Transmitte d is fully reflected at the interface, B, between the
cable and the effectively open circuit transformer impedance. This process continues
between points A and B in the circuit with multiple reflections and wave distortion. The
Basic Insulation Level (BIL) of all the equipments (cables, terminations, transformer
bushings etc.,) has to be specified to match the maximum anticipated voltages. For the
above example, consider a 132 kV overhead line, cable and transformer with
_
v incident = 830 kV
ZC = 10
ZOHL = 220
The surge voltage entering the cable is given by substituting in equation 5.11
_
v Transmitte d = 2 ZC x
v incident
_
_
ZOHL + ZC
2 x 10 x 830
= 72 kV
220 + 10
If the equipment BIL is specified as 650 kV (A standard IEC value for 145 kV rated
equipment) then the maximum voltage magnification allowed is 650/72 = 9 times. This
value will assist in the determination of protection equipment (Refer to Module 6).
Structures having a high impedance (or surge impedance) will cause the development of
extremely high potentials during the lightning strike conditions. This may in turn be
greater than the phase-to-neutral insulation of the line and cause a back flashover to
the phase conductor. In order to minimize this effect the tower footing impedance is
specified to a low value. Typically this is less than 10
This is achieved by connecting the tower footing to bare counterpoise conductors laid
in the ground. A test is required to measure the tower to ground impedance by driving
an additional test rod at an appropriate distance from the tower footing and measuring
the resistance across the tower to this electrode.
The counterpoise conductors may radially project from the base of the tower. If
necessary, however, a continuous counterpoise is directly buried and connected to each
tower along the line length. Earth rods may also be used at the tower base to try to
reduce the footing impedance. National and international regulations require touch
potentials to be kept within defined limits. Since all transmission lines have slight
leakage from phase conductors to earth it is essential to ensure proper tower earthing.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 41 of 52
Sectionaliser
Sending end circuit breaker
fitted with auto-reclose
11kV OR 13.8kV
Downstream
recloser
Primary Busbar
Delegates Notes
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 42 of 52
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 43 of 52
80 MW
80MW
(1)
A
20MW
120 MW
100 MW
120MW
20 MW
60MW
80 MW
(2)
20MW
40MW
120 MW
C
100 MW
120MW
20 MW
A
100 MW
52MW
80 MW
28MW
(3)
28MW
C
120 MW
120MW
Page 44 of 52
A
220 MW
100MW
80 MW
B
20MW
(1)
100MW
C
120 MW
20 MW
A
220 MW
80MW
80 MW
(2)
120MW
C
120 MW
20 MW
80MW
A
220 MW
(3)
200MW
C
120 MW
20 MW
200MW
B
120MW
(4)
220 MW
C
120 MW
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 45 of 52
A
140 MW
70MW
80 MW
B
10MW
50MW
(1)
80MW
C
120 MW
20 MW
A
140 MW
80MW
80 MW
(2)
40MW
80MW
C
120 MW
A
140 MW
80 MW
20 MW
80MW
120MW
(3)
80MW
C
120 MW
20 MW
120MW
80 MW
B
40MW
A
140 MW
(4)
80MW
120 MW
Delegates Notes
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 46 of 52
20 MW
A
220 MW
60MW
20MW
C
120 MW
20 MW
220 MW
(1)
80MW
60MW
80 MW
80 MW
80MW
(2)
115MW
C
85MW
120 MW
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 47 of 52
Actions
A three-phase balanced load flow study is carried out revealing the MW flows in the
neighbourhood of 8019 as in figure 5.19(b). Figure 2.19 (c) is a closer look at the
problem area showing the reactive power flows (MVAR) and the voltage level at
substation 8019.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 48 of 52
8012
G
100 MW
50
PP11
POB 400 MW
G
400 MW
PP15
8011
POB 400 MW
PP16
8017
G
300 350 MW
8013
50
150
8018
POB 150 MW
PP12
8016
G
150 100 MW
250
8010
100
8009
8008
50
100
POB 800 MW
8019
G
800 MW
140
PP17
8007
50
8014
8005
8003
8015
210
POB 200 MW
150 MW G PP14
8004
8006
10
40
100
POB 150 MW
PP13
G
140 100 MW
100
8001
60
POB 800 MW
G
PP17
80
80
150
8019
800 MW
140
100
99
150
100
148
50
79
78
40 79
78
8006
8007
87
50 87
148
99
50
14
14
14
14
8004
10
30
29
29
30
Fig.5.19(b) Real Power Flows in the neighbourhood of 8019 - Base Case Study
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 49 of 52
(20)80
80 (20)
(35)
150
8019
G
PP17
143kV
800
(160)
140
20
(35)
150
Key
100 (15)
(15) 100
622
MW
(MVAR)
AMP
(25)90
G
PP17
90 (25)
8019
143kV
800
(160)
140
20
(20)135
135 (20)
(80)
210
961
Key
MW
(MVAR)
AMP
Page 50 of 52
Criteria :The initial drop in generation required must reduce the post fault loading on
8019 to 8007 to about 70% of the continuous rating which is 0.7 x 200 MW i.e.
140 MW.
Flow on circuit to 8009 to 8007 = 210MW. See figure 5.19(d). The ratio of
this flow to the total export is thus 210/660 or 32%.
Approximate Calculation
Let x be required export in MW from 8009 that meets the criteria above i.e.
the flow on 8019 to 8007 is to be 140 MW
Then x = 140/0.32 = 440 MW
The approximate drop in generation required = 660 - 440 = 200MW
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 51 of 52
5.7 Summary
This module has addressed conductor selection for overhead line including the
environmental constraints. Types of aluminium based conductors and aerial bundled
conductors were described. The principles of conductor breaking strength calculations
were introduced and the relation to both conductor and structure design.
The heat balance equations and the effect of corona discharge were addressed in
detail. The design of spans for adequate clearance was introduced and the effect of
creep on sag design was addressed.
Screening of overhead lines for lightning protection was addressed together with the
calculation of angle of protection. The need for adequately low impedance from tower
to ground and the solution employing counterpoises was covered.
Finally, load-flow constraints on network design and operations were addressed
including the use of short-term overload ratings.
Delegates Notes
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 52 of 52
Section
No
Description
Figure or Table
Page
No.
1
1
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
9
9
10
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
17
Page 1 of 3
Section
No
Description
Figure or Table
Page
No
18
18
19
19
20
21
21
22
22
23
23
24
24
24
25
26
27
27
28
28
29
29
30
32
33
33
33
34
34
35
36
Page 2 of 3
Section
No
Description
Figure or Table
Page
No.
6.8.2.5 Testing
6.9 Overhead Line Maintenance
6.9.1 General Introduction to Utility Maintenance Methodology
6.9.2 Reactive Maintenance
Fig 6.17 The Cost of Maintenance
6.9.3 Maintenance Stocks (Spares)
6.9.4 Proactive Maintenance
Fig. 6.18 Failure Rate against Life of Equipment
6.9.5 In House versus Third Party
6.9.6 Predictive and Preventive Maintenance
6.9.6.1 Introduction
Table 6.7 Top causes of Electrical Distribution System
Failures
36
38
38
39
40
40
410
42
43
43
43
44
45
45
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 6 Clearances, Fittings, & Maintenance - Contents
45
47
36
48
50
52
53
53
Page 3 of 3
66 kV
132 kV
275 kV
400 kV
Minimum
Phase-to-phase
Conductor
clearance
(m)
0.63
1.1 to 1.4
2.4 to 3.2
3.5 to 4.1
Minimum phase
conductor-to-earth
Wire clearance (m)
-up to 10m sag
1.1 to 1.3
1.8
3.3
4.3
0.63
1.15 to 1.4
2.2
2.8 to 3.5
Minimum phase
conductor-to-earth
Wire clearance (m)
-up to 10m sag
0.27 to 0.32
Over Roadways
5.8m
4.0m
4.0m
Other situations
5.2m
1.0m
3.0m
0.5m
Page 1 of 53
0.76
0.76
1.1
0.9
0.85
1.0
1.6
1.6
2.1
E
1.0
1.8
1.8
2.3
2.3
1.8
1.9
1.9
0.9
1.8
1.8
3.1
4.6
1.8
4.9
8.3
E2
3.7
7.3
E1
3.72
7.3
9.9
E2
9.9
6.4
9.8
9.8
8.3
7.9
9.5
6.7
6.1
6.1
B
C
A
B
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
E1
7.9
E2
5.0
6.1
E1
6.4
2.5
9.5
B
12.2
E2
8.3
12.2
2.1
3.5
2.5
5.0
E1
E1
2.0
2.1
E1
6.7
8.3
8.3
6.4
8.3
2.6
4.6
3.72
4.9
3.72
4.1
3.4
3.72
3.1
E1
2.1
2.0
2.6
2.8
1.3
2.1
4.0
0.9
1.6
B
C
6.4
9.9
9.8
E1
6.4
10.4
9.9
8.5
8.3
8.3
B
C
Fig. 6,1 Typical Wood Pole and Steel Lattice Tower Conductor
Arrangements and Spacings
Overhead Power Lines - Proprietary Document
Module 6 Clearances, Fittings and Maintenance
Page 2 of 53
Delegates Notes
Page 3 of 53
Hard drawn
aluminium wire
Complete ACSR
or AAAC
Steel wires
Earth wires
(galvanized steel)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Page 4 of 53
Span length
Number of dampers
Up to 500 m
1 damper/span end
Over 500 m
2 dampers/span end
Clamp mouth
S1
S2
S1 = 0.282d
Applicable to conductor and earth wire tension and suspension positions. If armour rods are used at
suspension clamps then dampers must be placed 100 mm from the ends of the armour rods
Page 5 of 53
Page 6 of 53
Page 7 of 53
IEC Reference
No.
71-1 Part 1
71-2 Part 2
Application guide
Provides guidance on the selection of the electric strength of plant, of surge
arresters or protective spark gaps, and on the extent for which it will be useful
to control switching over-voltages. Indicates the lines to be followed to obtain
rational and economic solutions
71-3 Part 3
Page 8 of 53
Page 9 of 53
Page 10 of 53
Page 11 of 53
> 200 kA
10% > 80 kA
50% > 28 kA
90% >
8 kA
99% >
3 kA
Impulse rise times are of the order of 10 microseconds for the more common negative
flow from cloud to ground (and considerably longer for strikes from a positive part of
the cloud) together with a relatively slow decay time of approximately 100
microseconds or less. For design purposes the most severe peak lightning current and
rate of rise of 200 kA and 200 kA/microsecond may be considered.
The cloud potential is of the order of 100 MV and therefore high enough to ensure
that the potential of the object struck is controlled by the current flow and impedance
to ground. When a lightning strike takes place on an overhead line support structure
the potentials along the current path will rise to very high values due even the smallest
inductive and resistive impedance to true earth. If the effective impedance to true
earth is high enough to break down the insulation then a flashover will take place either
from the earth wire or tower to the phase conductor(s) usually across the insulator
strings. This type of lightning fault is known as back flashover. A reduction is
lightning outage requires adequate overhead line shielding angles and low tower footing
resistances of less than 10 to 20 ohms. An unearthed wood-pole structure offers
superior lightning performance and hence higher reliability through the risk of back
flashover because of the inherent insulating properties of wood.
Thunderstorm days per year
5
10
20
30
40
50
60
80
100
0.2
0.5
1.1
1.9
2.8
3.7
4.7
6.9
9.2
0.1 to 0.5
0.15 to 1
0.3 to 3
0.6 to 5
0.8 to 8
1.2 to 10
1.8 to 12
3 to 17
4 to 20
Table 6.4 Relationship between Thunderstorm Days per Year and Lightning Flashes
per km2 per year
(Lightning parameters for engineering application, Electra, 1980,69. 65-102)
Page 12 of 53
P = AC x Ng x 10-6
to which weighting factors based on experience are applied to cover different types of
structure, construction, contents, degree of local isolation and profile of the
surrounding country. For building risks less than 10-5 do not generally require lightning
protection.
6.5.5.1 Substation Lightning Shield Protection
Outdoor substations may be shielded by overhead earthwire strung across the
substation site or by the use of shielding towers. The zone of protection provided by an
earthed structure is the volume within which it gives protection against a direct and/or
attracted strike. Standards between countries differ as to the extent covered, (refer
to figures 6.3). The function of the overhead earthwire shield or shielding towers is to
divert to itself a lightning discharge which might otherwise strike the phase
conductors or substation plant. The use of shielding towers alone tends to require high
structures in order to give adequate coverage. The shielding wire system allows lower
height structures for a given coverage and the lightning current will be attenuated by
increasing the number of paths to earth and thereby reducing the risk of back
flashover. Often substation overhead line termination towers act as suitable support
points for the shielding wire earth screen. Some utilities operating in areas with low
lightning activity believe that the risk of an overhead earth screen falling on to the
substation and causing a major outage is greater than an outage due to a lightning
strike.
Page 13 of 53
rSC
= 8.51IC2/3
where IC is the critical stroke current which is the peak value of impulse current which
will cause failure of the insulation. Then: -
IC = Vi/0.5Z
where Vi = impulse voltage withstand for the insulation.
GL
VC
VC
VC
45O 45O
45O 60O
60O 45O
ZP
ZP
GL
ZP
Plan view
of zone of
protection
at ground
level
VC
VC
VC
VC
Plan view
of zone of
protection
at ground
level
VC
ZP
ZP
ZP
One vertical conductor
M
Four vertical conductors showing protective
angles and associated zones of protection
B
3H
H
ZP
3H
42O
5 H
M
R
B
H
3H
3H
42O
42O
C/2
C/2
Top Zones of protection from vertical conductor (VC) shielding towers according to British Standards.
Bottom German research association for high voltage and current technology (FGH) equivalent
Overhead Power Lines - Proprietary Document
Module 6 Clearances, Fittings and Maintenance
Page 14 of 53
ZP at mast
ZP at conductor
maximum sag
30O
GL
B
H
2H
2H
30O
3 H
M2
M1
M
R
2H
2H
H
2H
30O
30O
3H
Top Zone of protection (ZP) from aerial earth wire according to British Standards.
Bottom German (FGH) equivalent
By knowing Vi and Z then IC may be determined and hence the strike distance, rSC
A series of arcs is drawn around the substation phase conductors with radius rSC and
around the earth wire screen with radius rSe. Similarly a line is drawn at a height rSg
parallel to the ground with:-
Page 15 of 53
rse
rse
Internal shield
angle = 45O
rSC
External shield
angle = 0O
rSC
rsg
h
Ground
Page 16 of 53
U=
U p sinh
CO
x
C
C
sinh O D
C
C
U p sinh O x
C
U=
(2) for an open circuited winding
CO
sinh
D
C
where CO = capacitance to earth
C = interturn capacitance
up
Interturn Capacitance
C0
Capacitance to earth
Page 17 of 53
CO
C
concentration of voltage at the line end of the winding and the larger the inter-turn
insulation stress on the first few turns of the transformer winding.
Such a phenomenon has been responsible for many unprotected distribution
transformer failures
120
Voltage to earth
(% of applied voltage)
100
=0
80
60
=5
40
= 10
20
20
40
60
80
100
to earth and Ct is the lumped inter-turn capacitance so that the transferred wave, US
is given by: -
US = U p x
Ct
C t + Cs
Page 18 of 53
Up
Us
t
Ct
Cp
Cs
U S = spU p
where s can range from 0 to 0.4 and is typically about 0.2 and p for a star/delta or
delta/star is about 1.15 and for a star/star or delta/delta is 1.05
6.5.7.1 Worked Example
Consider an 800 kV steep fronted lightning surge impinging on the high voltage winding
of a 295/11 kV star/delta transformer. The transferred surge is: -
Cp = 0.0029 F
Cs = 0.0029 F
Ct = 0.0029 F
Transferred surge US = 800 x 0.0032/(0.0032 + 0.0102) = 191 kV
Page 19 of 53
US = p x q x r x Up/N
Where again p depends upon the winding configuration and is 1.15 for a star/delta
transformer, q is a response factor for the lower voltage circuit with a value between
0.9 and 1,3, r is a correction factor and N is the transformer phase-to-phase voltage
ratio.
Consider a star/delta 295/11 kV transformer with an 800 kV incident wave on the HV
side:
6.6 Clearances
6.6.1 Air
IEC 71-3 proffers recommendations for phase-to-phase insulation clearances. For
system voltage up to 245 kV it implies the use of the same levels as phase-to-earth
cases although it warns against use of the lowest levels without great caution and very
careful study. Historically utilities developed their own individual policies in this regard.
In the UK, for example, it was assumed that the phase-to-phase insulation should be
able to withstand a full lightning impulse on one phase simultaneously with a peak power
frequency voltage of opposite polarity on the adjacent phase. This gave a reliable but
possibly somewhat conservative design with phase-to-phase insulation levels some 15
20% higher than the phase-to-earth level.
Delegates Notes
Page 20 of 53
6.6 Clearances
6.6.1 Air
IEC 71-3 proffers recommendations for phase-to-phase insulation clearances. For
system voltage up to 245 kV it implies the use of the same levels as phase-to-earth
cases although it warns against use of the lowest levels without great caution and very
careful study. Historically utilities developed their own individual policies in this regard.
In the UK, for example, it was assumed that the phase-to-phase insulation should be
able to withstand a full lightning impulse on one phase simultaneously with a peak power
frequency voltage of opposite polarity on the adjacent phase. This gave a reliable but
possibly somewhat conservative design with phase-to-phase insulation levels some 15
20% higher than the phase-to-earth level.
For the higher voltages, including 500 kV, when air clearances are determined by the
level of switching surges, IEC 71-3 recommends withstand voltages between 1.5 and 1.8
per unit greater than the phase-to-earth level. The recommendations in the standard
give a choice of two clearances depending on the conductor-to-conductor symmetrical
or unsymmetrical configuration. Therefore, for a 525 kV system with a rated switching
withstand level of 1172 kV, the IEC document recommends the adoption of a phase-tophase switching withstand of 1800 kV, and clearances of either 4.3 metres or 5.2
metres depending on the gap configuration. It should be possible to avoid the use of
unsymmetrical gaps between phases and therefore permit the use of reduced
clearances. In the UK, for example, where the main transmission nominal voltage level is
400 kV, the reduced phase clearance of 3.56 metres has been used without any
significant reliability problems. The IEC document recommends for such a system
clearances of either 3.5 or 4.1 metres. Figure 6.8 shows the choice of impulse insulation
strengths for systems operating at some typical voltages in accordance with the
recommendations of IEC-71
Page 21 of 53
8.0
Switching impulses
7.0
Power frequency
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
12
24 36
300
420
525
Page 22 of 53
R = fO(U) x PT(U). dU
where fO(U) = the overvoltage probability density
T = t + n
IEC 71-2 suggests that t may be assumed as 0.06 for switching surges and 0.03 for
lightning impulses. The 50% breakdown voltage UT50 is related to the withstand
k x U RW
1 - 1.3 T
In accordance with IEC 71-1 k is dependent upon weather and may be made equal to 1
and n is associated with pollution levels and may be made equal to 0.6.
Page 23 of 53
Page 24 of 53
LOOPED
ARCING HORNS
STOCKSBRIDGE DAMPERS
Fig.6.9 400 kV Lydd-Bolney (UK) Overhead Line Quad Conductor Glass Insulators
Showing Arcing Horns and Stocksbridge Dampers
Air gaps are used across insulators on overhead lines up to several kilometres from
substations in order to protect the substation plant from surges emanating from the
overhead lines. The gap settings (refer to figure 6.9) are reduces as the overhead line
approaches the substation. Gaps may also be used as back-up protection to surge
arrestors at cable sealing ends and transformer bushings. The gaps are so arranged so
that the distance can be easily adjusted. The rods are angles such that the power arc
is directed away from the associated insulator sheds in order to avoid as much as
possible damage during flashover.
Typical back-up transformer gap settings are given in Table 6.5. Normally the rod gap
characteristic should lie just above the surge arrester characteristic by about 20% so
that the rod gap will protect the transformer or other plant against all but the
steepest surges (rise times less than 1 or 2 micro-seconds), if for any reason the surge
arrester fails. This philosophy also applies in the absence of surge arresters when the
minimum gap setting for flashover should be at least 20% above the highest possible
power frequency system voltage. For example, on a 132kV system with a highest phaseto-earth voltage under transient fault conditions of 132 x 110% = 145 kV, the rod gap
setting should be set to operate at 145 x 120% = 174 kV
Page 25 of 53
Spark gap
setting
(mm)
75
170-200
325
550
650
850
1050
1300
1425
1550
2 x 32
2 x 95
400
650
775
1000
1200
1200 1410
1500
1575
Page 26 of 53
1600
1400
50% Negative
1/50 impulse
1200
50% Positive
1/50 impulse
1000
800
600
50 Cycle/sec.
effective
400
200
50
100
150
200
Gap spacing in cm
250
Page 27 of 53
To line
Line
Arrester
Spark Gap
Carbide Block
Porcelain
housing
To Substation
Ground
To
Equipment
Page 28 of 53
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
This curve refers to
tests carried out with
the pro-rated sample at
a temperature of 60OC
0.9
0.8
0.7
10-1
0.5 1
5 101
50 102
5000 103
Time in seconds
MB Series: Voltage ratings from 3 kV to 150 kV
IEC Arrester classification: 37 (co) 38
10,000 amp line discharge class 1 and 2
ANSI Arrester classification
10,000 amp station class
MC Series: Voltage ratings from 3 kV to 288 kV
IEC Arrester classification: 37 (co) 38
10,000 amp and 20,000 amp line discharge class 3
ANSI Arrester classification
10,000 amp station class
Page 29 of 53
4.0
1.2/50 s
^
U
Voltage (p.u.)
3.0
C1
250/2500 s
Cs
^
U
2.0
^
U
1.4
Ce
1.0
^
U
le
Network
Parameters
Surge arrester
characteristics
Time
^
Ua = rated voltage of surge arrester
^
U = protection level of surge arrester
p
^
U
conductor-earth =
Ce = earthing factor
^
U
^U 2 =^ 1 p.u.
m
3
^U = C ^Ule
a
withstand voltages
Page 30 of 53
Delegates Notes
Page 31 of 53
14
Withstand voltage
p.u. 12
A Type 1
10
8
A Type 2
^
U
4
2
3.6
7.2
12
17.5
24
35 52
kV
Operating voltage
Category A 1-52 kV
p.u.
12
p.u.
5
10
8
6
^
U
2
1
300
52
72.5 100
123 170
145
Category B 52-300 kV
245
kV
362
420
525
Category C 300 kV
765
kV
Um = voltage
^
U = withstand voltage
Page 32 of 53
12
36
138
240
428
46
145
400
645
1135
40
125
350
550
970
Page 33 of 53
Page 34 of 53
1600
1400
Voltage kV
1200
800
600
400
200
Note:
10
Time in s
12
14
16
Transformers
Cables
Switchgear
Overhead Line
Lightning impulse
withstand (kV peak)
550
640
650
650
Power frequency
withstand (kV)
275
275
275
660
1120
Cables (mm)
990
Page 35 of 53
Page 36 of 53
Delegates Notes
Page 37 of 53
All the above consequences carry cost penalties that can in most cases be determined
fairly accurately. The level of the cost penalties will vary with the situation from small
to very high in some cases.
All organisations have a maintenance policy of some kind, since breakdowns of
equipment will always occur and are of course dealt with.
For electrical power transmission and distribution utilities, this de-facto policy of
waiting for something to break down is not considered satisfactory for most
components and systems. On the contrary it is necessary for utilities to address the
risks and costs arising from equipment failures and set up a formal maintenance policy.
This policy is based on preventing or reducing significantly the levels of equipment
failure.
However, Electrical Preventive Maintenance (EPM) in itself costs the utility money. The
aim is to more than off-set this cost by the reduction in the costs of equipment failure
The goal of a Maintenance Policy should be : COST OF FAILURE + COST OF MAINTENANCE = MINIMUM ($)
The two quite distinct approaches can be summarised as:
Reactive Maintenance
Pro-active Maintenance
Page 38 of 53
Offset against such costs, the removal of lines from service for maintenance also
carries costs that may include:
Assuming that the more frequent the maintenance, the less likely in-service failure is a
graph similar to figure 6.17 can be drawn.
In some cases it may well be more economic to maintain overhead lines very
infrequently, if at all, in which case the reactive approach of responding only to failures
only can be the most cost effective
On a small scale, little planning may be required. If for example an office PC breaks
down, say its hard-disk, the simplest approach is to telephone the nearest dealers and
have a replacement disk delivered. In the long-term this may well be the most
satisfactory arrangement rather than trying to arrange maintenance contracts for
such small items of low-price electrical equipment. On the other hand large and more
complex electrical equipment such as generators, circuit breakers, power transformers,
overhead lines, cables etc will most certainly be managed by a maintenance department
within the utility. For such items, the breakdown costs, itemised above, are relatively
high and will probably require an assured supply of spares for the sub-components
Page 39 of 53
Cost
Total
Maintenance
Repair
Frequency of Maintenance
Page 40 of 53
Total
Maintenance
Repair
Frequency of Maintenance
Regular Overhauls
Diagnostic Monitoring
Page 41 of 53
Unfamiliarity by Operators
High Inititial
Failure Rate
Defective Manufacture
Inadequate or poor installation
Poor Commissioning Procedures
Unfamiliarity by Operators
Failure
Rate
Failure Rate
Rising
(Ageing)
Low
Failure Rate
Life
Page 42 of 53
The frequency of maintenance should be greater in the early stages than in the
late stages of the life expectancy of the equipment.
Page 43 of 53
Cause of failure
Ratio
Loose connections/parts
30.3%
Moisture
17.4%
Line
disturbance
lightning
excluding
10.4%
Defective/inadequate insulation
9.9%
Lightning
8.1%
Foreign objects/short-circuits
7.3%
Collision
3.9%
Overloading/inadequate capacity
2.4%
2.2%
8.1%
Qualified Personnel
Regularly Scheduled Inspection, Testing and Servicing of Equipment
Sound Judgement in Evaluating Results
Perform the necessary work
Concise and Complete Record Keeping
Page 44 of 53
All substation components should be subject to the programme at least every three
years. Many network or production critical components should be inspected, tested and
appropriately serviced much more frequently.
6.9.6.4 Prior to Outage
A visual inspection of the complete line route end to end should be made. This is
carried out by land patrol. Observe any of the following: Excessive noise from line (Corona Discharger
Page 45 of 53
Page 46 of 53
Recommended Action
1o 10o C
Intermediate
10o 30o C
Serious
30o 70o C
Critical
Above 70o C
Minor
Correction
Factor
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
1.00
1.30
1.60
1.68
1.96
2.10
2.25
2.42
2.60
Page 47 of 53
Page 48 of 53
Page 49 of 53
Page 50 of 53
Page 51 of 53
Page 52 of 53
6.10 Summary
This module addressed transmission and distribution level clearances. On the subject
of line fittings, aerodynamic vibration phenomena were explained and the various
solutions described. Other types of line fittings sag adjusters, suspension clamps were
also introduced.
The module continues on the subject of insulation coordination and the IEC standards
that pertain. Materials used for insulators were addressed. Overvoltage protection
solutions, rod gaps, arcing horns and surge arrestors were described together with a
worked example.
Finally some general issues surrounding maintenance of overhead lines was covered and
the important use of IR and UV technology in the field.
Delegates Notes
Page 53 of 53
Introduction
About five people are killed every year
in accidents involving overhead power
lines (OHPLs) during agricultural work.
Machinery (like combines, tipping
trailers, boom sprayers, loaders);
equipment (such as irrigation pipes and
ladders); and activities (eg stacking) are
often involved. Contact with the lines
does not need to be made. Electricity
can flash over when machinery or
equipment gets close to overhead lines.
Most incidents involve high-voltage lines
supported on wooden poles, but the
dangers of other power lines such as
those supported on steel towers or
steel poles and concrete structures
cannot be ignored. This information
sheet outlines the steps you can take to
reduce the risks when working near
overhead power lines. Remember the
Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
apply to work activities carried out near
power lines.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 1
Planning precautions
Consult your local electricity company
and /or the National Grid Company
for lines on steel towers operating at
275 and 400 kV.
(The operating voltage will be displayed
on a sign attached to the tower.) They
will provide free information and advice
about precautions and safe working
procedures which can be followed near
power lines.
Find out the maximum height and
maximum vertical reach of your
machines and those used by contractors.
Find out the routes of all overhead
lines on your land or near your
boundaries. Mark them on the farm map.
The electricity company will give you
this information.
Make sure you have information about
all the lines on your land - if not,
contact the owners of those lines.
Page1 of 2
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 1
Use of machinery
Accidents can be prevented if the
following operations are not carried out
within a horizontal distance of at least
9 m from power lines on wooden poles or
at least 15 m from lines on metal
towers. These distances should be
measured from the line of the nearest
conductor to the work, projected
vertically downwards onto the floor, and
perpendicular to the route of the line.
The operations are:
Page2 of 2
Page 1 of 2
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 1
Page 2 of 2
There will be wind noise from the conductors and the tower.
There will be a crackling noise created by ionisation of the air around the conductors.
The use of computers using standard monitors will be impaired by the screen image
flickering or wobbling. Laptop computers will be unaffected.
There will be more research claiming harmful effects that attracts wide media coverage and
other research that finds no cause for concern that gets very little coverage.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 3 Health Effects of Electromagnetic Fields
(Associated with High Voltage Lines)
Page 1 of 6
The high voltage overhead lines create Ions, charged particles. These particles become
attached to pollutants in the air, which in turn, become more attracted to people. The pollutant
will then stick to the skin or be breathed in. The theory goes, once in the lung, the pollutants
will cause lung cancer.
The high voltage overhead line is not itself harmful, but its presence will attract and
concentrate the pollutants from car exhausts etc, and these will accumulate downwind of the
overhead line. It is claimed this effect has been missed in all previous work as all the research
associated with overhead lines has looking for magnetic field effects, not electric field effects.
Wrong, the study of possible magnetic field effects resulted from work that first looked for
electric field effects. The whole subject of electric and magnetic fields (EMF) originated from
reports that Russian workers in high voltage substations were suffering various maladies.
Electrical utilities around the world carried out checks to see if any such effects were present,
they were not. Swedish research on EMF first started with a study looking for electric field
effects associated with high voltage overhead lines and they found no such effects. Having had
no success with electric field studies, the scientific community moved its attention to magnetic
fields.
There are many other points on which Professor Henshaw's theory can be challenged. The
overwhelming consensus of the scientific community is that he is mistaken in his beliefs. There
has been some very strong and damming views expressed of both the research and the role of
the BBC in creating unnecessary public alarm.
One example is the Press Release issued by the Institute of Electrical Engineers (IEE)
responding to the BBC programme:
The Bristol scientists are unwilling or unable to disclose their research methods.
It is highly irresponsible to make sensational claims about alleged health effects, which
appear to contradict work carried out elsewhere, without publication of peer reviewed
papers.
The peer review process is our quality control check and should not be missed out. We deserve
to have all the checks carried out, especially where public health is concerned. The full Press
Release is reproduced in this appenbdix.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 3 Health Effects of Electromagnetic Fields
(Associated with High Voltage Lines)
Page 2 of 6
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 3 Health Effects of Electromagnetic Fields
(Associated with High Voltage Lines)
Page 3 of 6
Vertical profile
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 3 Health Effects of Electromagnetic Fields
(Associated with High Voltage Lines)
Page 4 of 6
Vertical profile
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 3 Health Effects of Electromagnetic Fields
(Associated with High Voltage Lines)
Page 5 of 6
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 3 Health Effects of Electromagnetic Fields
(Associated with High Voltage Lines)
Page 6 of 6
APPENDIX 4
IMPEDANCES & FAULT LEVEL CALCULATIONS
CONTENTS
Section
No
Description
Figure or Table
Page
No.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Impedances and Fault Level Calculations - Contents
Page 1 of 2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
6
6
7
8
8
9
9
APPENDIX 4
IMPEDANCES & FAULT LEVEL CALCULATIONS
CONTENTS
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Impedances and Fault Level Calculations - Contents
Page 2 of 2
d
2r
Fig. App. 4.1 Simple Go and Return Two Wire Single Phase
For a simple go and return to wire single phase a.c, system (figure App.4.1) the
inductance L is given by the expression: -
The expression may be reduces to a single term by taking a hypothetical value for the
conductor radius which still gives the same value for the inductance. Thus: -
ACSR
Number of strands
GMR
Number of
aluminium strands
GMR
7
19
37
61
91
127
169
Solid
0.726r
0.758r
0.768r
0.772r
0.774r
0.776r
0.779r
0.779r
6
12
26
30
54
0.768r
0.859r
0.809r
0.826r
0.810r
Table App. 4.1 Geometric Mean Value Radius (GMR) values as a Function of
Conductor Radius r
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 4 Impedances and Fault Level Calculations
Page 1 of 10
For solid conductors the GMR 0.78r and for stranded conductors it varies according
to the number and size of the strands. Table App 4.1 gives values of GMR for ACSR and
all copper or all aluminium stranded conductors of conductor radius, r
App.4.1.2 Three Phase Formula
Refer to figure App. 4.2
For a three phase system the mutual effects of one conductor on another modify the
formula and the expression under symmetrical operating conditions becomes: -
GMD
L = 0.2 loge
+ K m H/km
GMR
r
dry
dbr
b
dyb
= 3 (d ry x d yb x d br )
App. 4.1.3 Positive and Negative Sequence Reactance
The positive and negative phase sequence inductive reactances (X1, X2) of a three phase
overhead line are equal and for a frequency, f Hz, become: -
GMD
X1 = 2 x x f x 10 -3 0.2 loge
+ K ohms/km line to neutral inductive
GMR
reactance
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 4 Impedances and Fault Level Calculations
Page 2 of 10
Overhead Line
X0/X1
Single circuit
3.5
Double circuit
5.5
Galvanised steel
Single circuit
3.5
Galvanised steel
Double circuit
5.0
Non-magnetic
Single circuit
2.0
Non-magnetic
Double circuit
3.0
Table App. 4.2 Typical Overhead Line Zero/Positive Sequence Reactance Ratios
App. 4.1.5 Capacitive Reactance
In hand calculations for short overhead lines at higher voltages the capacitive
reactance is usually ignored if data is not immediately available. In computer modeling,
however, involving short overhead line sections (if the value is known) it is normally
entered. It is important to remember that a long, lightly loaded overhead line may have
a receiving end voltage higher than the sending end voltage due to capacitance effects.
The expression for line-to=neutral capacitance C is in the form: -
C=
1
GMD
18 loge
However, the earth plane modifies this expression and still more complex formulae are
applicable to bundled conductor configurations.
App. 4.1.6 Resistance
Resistance values for different conductor materials at 20OC were given in Module 5
Table 5.1. The segment of this table for resistance is repeated for clarity as Table
App. 4.3. The effective resistance of high voltage overhead lines is usually negligible
and is therefore usually neglected in simple hand calculations for load flow or fault
current analysis (Refer to section App. 4.2). Only at medium and low voltage does the
resistance become significant for short circuit calculations
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 4 Impedances and Fault Level Calculations
Page 3 of 10
Property
Unit
Annealed
Copper
Harddrawn
Cadmium
Copper
copper
Resistance
at
20OC
mm2/km
17.241
17.71
Harddrawn
Aluminium
alloy
aluminium
21.77
28.26
32.2
1,000 kVA
1,000 kVA
B
11,000 Volts
Parameter
Primary Rating
11,000
Secondary Rating
3,300
High Voltage
System (A)
Low Voltage
System (B)
M
3,300 Volts
Ratio
Base Volts
11000
3300
3.33
Base kVA
1000
1000
1.00
Base Amps
52.49
174.96
0.30
Base Ohms
121.00
10.89
11.11
Page 4 of 10
Base Amps =
Base VA
3 Base Volts
Base Ohms =
Base Volts
3 Base Amps
Where Ohms are the phase to neutral values as described in the foregoing sections on
inductive reactance, VA is the 3-phase value and as stated above the base voltage is
the line-to-line voltage.
Once the system values are expressed as per-unit values, we may treat the two
interconnected systems as a single system and carry out any necessary calculations.
Only in reconverting the per-unit values of the results to actual voltage and current
values, do we need to remember that two, or more, voltages actually existed on the
network
After the network is reduced to a single equivalent impedance (ZF) in p,u value from
source bus to the prescribed point of short-circuit the fault level is given by
Fault Level (VA) =
Base VA
ZF
Fault Level ( VA )
3 x Line Volts (VL )
If the utility chosen values are % on a VA base (i.e. final ZF is in %) then the formula
for Fault Level in VA (refer to worked example in section 4.2.1) becomes:Fault Level (VA) =
Base VA
ZF
x 100 ..(1)
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 4 Impedances and Fault Level Calculations
Page 5 of 10
XT
= 15%
X = 4%
X = 4%
X = 4%
Xd = 25%
I
B
10
Faultgiven by
100 x 100
Xequivalent
12.67
790 MVA
Fig. App 4.4 Three Node System
Figure App 4.5 shows the effect of adding 3 similar generators at node 'C'. The
calculated 3-phase fault levels at nodes 'A', 'B' and 'C' are 1626, 1295 and 1540
respectively.
Figure App.4.6 shows the effect of adding an additional circuit between 'A' and 'C'
(reactance is 5%) The calculated 3-phase levels at nodes 'A', 'B' and 'C' are 1663,
1336 and 1602 respectively.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 4 Impedances and Fault Level Calculations
Page 6 of 10
Power Station
at C running
XT
= 15%
X = 4%
X = 4%
X = 4%
Xd = 25%
I
13.33
10
C
A
4
6.15
1626 MVA
I
10
13.33
A
C
4
8.33
I
B
4
4
=
1540 MVA
10
Faultgiven by
100 x 100
Xequivalent
6.495
Faultgiven by
100 x 100
Xequivalent
B
10
8.33
1.33
1.33
1.33
7.72
C
1295 MVA
Fig. App.4.5 Generation added at node C
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 4 Impedances and Fault Level Calculations
Page 7 of 10
Additional Circuit
is
added
XT
= 15%
X = 4%
X = 5%
X = 4%
X = 4%
Xd = 25%
10
13.3
5
4
C
Faultgiven
100 x
Xequivalent
6.01
1663 MVA
Further Interconnection
added
XT
= 15%
X = 4%
X = 5%
X = 4%
X = 5%
X = 5%
X = 4%
Xd = 25%
I
A
10
12.3
2.22
A
5.97
4.44
Faultgiven
100 x
Xequivalent
=
`1675 MVA
Page 8 of 10
Page 9 of 10
Fig. App 4.8 Connection of Sequence Impedances for Various Unbalanced Faults
Delegates Notes
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 4 Impedances and Fault Level Calculations
Page 10 of 10
= 330m
Wind pressure
= 680 N/m2
= 79.8 kN
Lynx mass
Lynx overall diameter
= 0.842 kg/m
= 19.53 mm
79.8/5 = 15.96 kN
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 5 Worked Example Sag & Tension
Page 1 of 5
The effective weight of the conductor, W1, under maximum loading conditions is
derived from the resultant of wind load and the weight of the conductor itself
wind load
EA x x (t 2 - t 1 ) + W1 x g2 x L2 x EA/ 24 T1
2
) - T = (W
= 84 x 103 MN/m2
= 226.2 mm2
t2 t1 = temperature differential
x g 2 x L2 x EA /24 T2 - T2
= 20OC
(use negative sign for
temperature fall)
g = gravitational constant
L = basic span length
= 8.26 N/m
= 9.81 m/s2
= 330 m (on practice a bit on
the long side for this
conductor)
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 5 Worked Example Sag & Tension
Page 2 of 5
Further iterations give T2 = 19440N = 19.44 kN. Since this value is greater than
the permissible value at 20OC of 15.96 kN, the latter value must be used as the
sagging basis. Therefore the limiting condition becomes 15.96 kN.
Under such circumstances a check is advisable as to the MWT resulting from
this sagging basis since MWT will affect the design of the tension structures.
We use the same general change of state equation as before but put
W1 = 8.26 N/m
t2 = 0OC
t1 = 20OC
T1 = 15960 N
W2 = 15.64 N/m
Thus
84 x 103 x 106 x 226.2 x 10 x 20 + {8.262 x 3302 x 84 x 103 x 226.2 x 10-6/24 x
159602)} - 15960
= 15.642 x 3302 x 84 x 103 x 106 x 226.2 x 10-6/(24 x T22) T2
= 201.18 =
(2.1089 x 1013/T22) T2
Taking an initial approximation for T2 as T2 = 3 2.11 x 1013 = 27630N
Further iterations give T2 at 0OC = 27695N. Hence a value of 27.70 kN may be
used as a value for checking the strength of towers.
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 5 Worked Example Sag & Tension
Page 3 of 5
EA x x (t 2 - t 1 ) + W1 x g2 x L2 x EA/ 24 T1
2
) - T = (W
1
x g 2 x L2 x EA /24 T2 - T2
84 x 103 x 106 x 226.2 x 10-6 x 19.3 x 10-6 x (75-20) + {8.262 x 3302 x 84 x 103 x
106 x 226.2 x 10-6/(24 x 159602)} 15960 = 8.262 x 3302 x 84 x 103 x 106 x
226.2 x 10-6/(24 x T22) T2
-27302.48 = (5.8823 x 1012/ T22) T2
T2 12202N 12.2 kN
The sag is determined by the equation
W=
W x g x L2
8T
Page 4 of 5
When estimating the level above ground of the attachment point of the
insulator, no allowance has been made for creep. In such a case, the erection sag
would have to be smaller than calculated so as to allow for a margin of sag
increase due to creep. Designs made on this basis should be conscious of the
fact that should the worst loading conditions occur soon after erection, the
maximum calculated tension would be exceeded certainly for at least the first
meteorological cycle.
Delegates Notes
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 5 Worked Example Sag & Tension
Page 5 of 5
Up
d
D
104 feet
(31.7 meters)
8 cm
12
1150
2D/2 291.25 cm
191.67
d/2
Vg
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Appendix 6 Corona Calculation
230.95
cm
log2D/2
22 square feet
(6.7 sq meters)
230.95 kV
1165
4 cm
spacer size
2.464266
2.282547
23.43kV per cm
16.86
Page 1 of 1