CE2303

CE2303 RAILWAYS,AIRPORTS
AND HARBOUR
ENGINEERING
5th Semester
B.E. Civil Engineering
June 2014 Nov 2014
N.Chenthil Kumari, AP/CIVIL
SLAEC
12/2/2014
AND HARBOUR ENGINEERING
Railway Engineering
12/2/2014
Elements of Railway tracks

Elements of Railway tracks
The
track on a railway or railroad, also known as the

permanent way, is the structure consisting of the rails,
fasteners, sleepers and ballast (or slab track), plus the
underlying sub grade.
For clarity it is often referred to as railway track or
Ballast
railroad track.
sihaul:deIJ
Track Formation
The purpose of track is to transfer train loads to the formation.
Requirements for Choosing a Track System:
Trains running on Track do not cause excessive environmental pollution in
the form of noise and ground vibration.
1. Maintenance should be low and as inexpensive as possible
2. Costs of the total service life of the track must be as low as possible.
Fasrelliingi
.. ' /
Subgrade
....... Sfeeper
Subgrade
The load transfer works on the principle of stress reduction - layer by

layer.
Axle:
1.
2.
3.
The greatest stress occurs

between wheel and rail
and is in the order of 30
kN/cm2 (= 300 MPa).
Between rail and sleeper
the stress is two orders
smaller and diminishes
between sleeper and
ballast bed down to about
30 N/cm2.
Finally the stress on the
fo rm at ion i s o n ly
P = 200 kN
Wheel: Q
1:00 lk~
area
~~-~~
Ilevel
AH = 1 em' WheeVrail
~ = 200 em' RaiVraillpad
lbaseplate
,~
Mean stress
(under rail :50 %)
'Ott = '100000 IN/em'
,alii
= 25(i) INlem"
= 7 50 lsleeper
e m ' Baseplate
~::':::::::=~::: :S ; I ~ - - -
'Ot.. = 70
IiIlcm'
:Ag, = ~500 em'
----.J--.:::::--d=lt----
= 30 Nlcm'
Sleeper
lballastbed
'(Job
Ba'ilastbed
,a = '5 oN/em'
lsubstructure
Lo a d B e a r i nagbouFtu5 nction
of the Track
N/cm2.
12/2/2014
Type of Railway System

1.
Urban Railway Transit:
Urban rail transit is an all-encompassing term for various

types of local rail systems providing passenger service
within and around urban or older suburban areas.
Types :
a)
Tram : Trams are systems that run mainly or completely along streets, with low
capacity and frequent stops. Passengers usually board at street- or curb-level
b)
Light Rail : Light rail is a relatively new term, as an outgrowth of trams/streetcars.

Speeds are usually higher, and articulated vehicles may be used to increase
capacity.
c)
Rapid Transit: A rapid transit, underground, subway, tube, elevated, or

metro(politan) system is a railwayusually in an urban areawith a high capacity
and frequency of service, and grade separation from other traffic.
d)
Mono Rail: Monorail is a metro or railroad with a track consisting of a single rail
(actually a beam), as opposed to the traditional track with two parallel rails. Monorail
RAILWAYS,AIRPORTS
vehicles are wider than the beam they run on. 12/2/2014 CE2303
6
Type of Railway System

1. Suburban/Rural Railways:
Suburb mostly refers to a residential

area. They may be the residential areas of a city, or separate residential
communities within commuting distance of a city.
Types :
a)
Regional/Commuter Rail : Commuter rail, also called suburban rail, is a passenger

rail transport service between a city center, and outer suburbs and commuter towns
or other locations that draw large numbers of commuterspeople who travel on a
daily basis. Regional rail or commuter rail runs on trackage often shared with
intercity rail and freight trains
b)
Intercity Rail: Inter-city rail services are express passenger train services that cover
longer distances than commuter or regional trains.
c)
Freight Trains: A freight train or goods train is a group of freight cars (US) or
goods wagons (UIC) hauled by one or more locomotives on a railway,
ultimately
transporting cargo between two points as part of 1t2h/2e/20l1o4gisCtEic23s03cRhAaILiWnA.
YS,AIRPORTS
Rails
2. Concrete Sleepers
3. Fastenings
4. Switches & Crossings (Turnouts)
1.
Permanent Way Materials

12/2/2014
Running Surface!
Bull Headed
Rail
Field Corner
Region
Rail Crown
.Corner
b ~Gauge
...
_--'---_
Region
OIl!
Gauge
Corner
Head
Field Face
-...
HeadlWeb
Transition
Gauge Face
-.._:-.-I
I
Web
I
I
' - -
Neutral Axis
I
I
I
I
Top of Foot
Running Rails
~-----CFooti-
Bottom of Foot
12/2/2014
Toe
Centre Line
Fish Plate Joints

Flash Butt Welding
A.
B.
C M.
hJoei it Welding
ecAhalunmicail nrtm
nRoaiTl
s
D. Insulated Rail Joints
Rail mechanical joints have been used in the railway industry to improve
the lateral and vertical alignment of the rails at their ends.
Rail Joints
12/2/2014
10
A. Fish Plate Joints

As illustrated in the Figure, the normal rail joints consist of fishplates that are
bolted at the rail ends through a number of bolt holes (either two or three
or more) that have been drilled near the neutral axis in the rail web.
Bolts
Rail Joints
Fishplates
12/2/2014
11
B. Insulated Rail Joints

1. Bonded insulated joints in rails separate
electric circuits in tracks and turnouts.
Insulation
2. To provide track segment isolation for the track

circuitry passed through the rail; this circuitry is
used to identify train locations and to control
signalling.
Bolts
Fishplates
Rail Joints
12/2/2014
12
C. Alumino Thermit Welding

1. In this process, the highly exothermic reaction
between aluminium and iron oxides results in
the production of molten steel which is poured
into a mould around the gap to be welded.
TH ERMI-re-Stohl
THERMIT--steel
THERMI'-'-Acier
EURO-Tiegel
Single-use Crusible
Creuset .Jetoble
Riegelformstuck
diverterplug form part
roftle
2.
Thermit is the trade name for one of the

granular mixtures of aluminium metal and
powdered ferric oxide. Ignition of the Thermit is
usually carried out by lighting a magnesium
ribbon or sparkler.
Rail Joints
12/2/2014
13
Rail Joints
D. Flash Butt Welding
Mobile
Flash Butt Welding Group is dedicated to

performing high quality welds and to meet all the client
needs.
Alstoms latest arrival mobile welder, the Schlatter
AMS100 series that has been equipped with the new stateof-the-art intelligent control and weld management system.
In-Track Welding Equipment provides versatility and
reliability in any rail welding project.
CE2303 RAILWAYS,AIRPORTS AND HARBOUR ENGINEERING
Rail Joints
In-Track Rail Welding (Tunnel) Circle Line Project, Singapore
Rails are welded together to reclaim 18m of rail into longer length strips.
This can assist the track welding production with greater productivity gains
CE2303 RAILWAYS,AIRPORTS AND HARBOUR ENGINEERING
A railway sleeper is a rectangular object used as a base for railroad tracks.

Ties are members generally laid transverse to the rails, on which the rails are
supported and fixed, to transfer the loads from rails to the ballast and
subgrade, and to hold the rails to the correct gauge.
Types of Sleepers:
Steel Sleepers
Concrete Sleepers
S lWeooedepn Seleerpesrs
12/2/2014
16
Pre-Stressed Concrete Sleepers

A concrete sleeper is a railroad tie
made out of steel reinforced
concrete.
Sleepers
12/2/2014
17
The fastening of rails is usually taken care of

by the fasteners imbedded into the concrete.
INSTALLED
POSITION
Toe InsulalOf
Clip
I
ShOulder
Fastenings
12/2/2014
18
Intersecton poi nl
Rellllr of
Ol~mping I(]heell)
Tlhrrough Ir.aiil
of turnout
flifiOililit
WiIJl
maul
Wil'll,gmil
Stock lrai'l
Crossing
Sw,itdh poi nt
Chedk:llrail
SwuLdh blade
I
_
~ OR _
.oR 0.-
_.
R ..
~.
.-
---&'5
_;; ..,':_
r'~"'"''''='''''''''''='''''''''''~'''''''''''~''''''''''~'''''''''''~'''''''''''~'''''"'''';;'''''''''''~''''''''''~'~.'~''''I
I
I" """""""""""""""""""""""'"' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '~' ' ' "
L IH
...
set:1. IJiI...4=.) , .,.~"':",111-.'d.

h
.. 'u II
~ = -:i;;,;;,;;;.~~~~
- '- ._
. - -. -'. _ """,.....
-~'''"'.''.'...... ,
C..Ul\!:erJ
11,<>,1"1'
"" II ..
-- ....
,_ ",:
.....
~P~arto~
.
. .~. rC10S'U!'le' rai;
i'
..
----:-..,; .....
=-~ .-.....- .,_

....
L
,/\
R=
Switches & Crossings (Turnouts)
t :n
12/2/2014
19
Rail Gauge
Track gauge or rail gauge is the distance between the

inner sides of the heads of the two load bearing rails that
make up a single railway line.
Sixty percent of the world's railways use a standard
gauge of 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 in). Wider gauges are called
broad gauge; smaller gauges, narrow gauge.
Break-of-gauge refers to the meeting of different gauges.
Some stretches of track are dual gauge, with three or
four rails, allowing trains of different gauges to share
them.
An exception of a railway with no gauge is monorail
where there is only one supporting rail.
Gauge tolerances specify how much the actual gauge
may vary from the nominal gauge.
12/2/2014
20
Types of Gauges
The standard gauge (also named the Stephenson gauge after

George Stephenson, or normal gauge) is a widely-used track
gauge.
Approximately 60% of the world's existing railway lines are
built to this gauge.
Except for Russia and Finland, all high-speed lines have been
built to this gauge.
The distance between the inside edges of the rails of standard
gauge track is usually called 1,435 mm but in the United States
it is still called 4 ft 8 in.
Broad gauge refers to any gauge wider than standard gauge
or 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 12 in). Russian, Indian, Irish, and Iberian
gauges are all broad gauges. Broad gauge railways are also
common for cranes in docks for short distances. Broad gauge is
used to provide better stability or to prevent the easy transfer
of rolling stock from railroads of other
countries
for political or
12/2/2014
21
military reasons.
Different gauges, from left: 1435mm,

1000mm and 600mm, on display at Chinese
Railways Museum.
- The most widely used narrow gauges are

- 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) Cape gauge
- 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 38 in) meter gauge)
- 762 mm (2 ft 6 in)
When a railway line of one gauge meets a line of another

gauge there is a break of gauge. A break of gauge
adds cost and inconvenience to traffic that passes from
one system to another.
Dual gauge allows trains of different gauges to share the
same track
12/2/2014
22
Railway Sleepers
Depending upon the position in a railway track, sleepers may be

classified as:
These are the early form of sleepers which are not commonly
used nowadays
Longitudinal Sleepers: It consists of slabs of stones or pieces of
woods placed parallel to and underneath the rails. To maintain
correct gauge of the track, cross pieces are provided at regular
intervals.
At present this type of sleepers are discarded mainly because of the
following reasons.
Running of the train is not smooth when this type of sleepers is used.
Noise created by the track is considerable.
Cost is high.
Transverse Sleepers: Transverse sleepers introduced in 1835 and

since then they are universally used.
Timber/wooden sleepers
Steel sleepers
Cast Iron Sleepers
12/2/2014 CE2303 RAILWAYS,AIRPORTS
23
Concrete Sleepers
Timber Sleepers
The timber sleepers nearly fulfilled all the requirements of ideal sleepers
and hence they are universally used. The wood used may be like teak, sal
etc or it may be coniferous like pine.
The salient features of timber/wooden sleepers with advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of Timber Sleepers
They are much useful for heavy loads and high speeds
They have long life of 10-12 years depending upon the climate, condition, rain, intensity,
nature of traffic, quality of wood etc
Good insulators and hence good for track circuited railway tracks
They are able to accommodate any gauge
Suitable for salty regions and coastal areas
Can be used with any section of rail
Can be handled and placed easily
They are not badly damaged in case of derailment
They are not corroded
Cheaper than any other types of sleepers
Disadvantages of Timber Sleepers

Liable to be attacked by vermin so, they must be properly treated before
use
Liable to catch fire
They do not resist creep
They are affected by dry and wet rot
Become expensive day by day
Life is shorter compare to others
12/2/2014
24
Disadvantages of Timber Sleepers

Liable to be attacked by vermin so, they must be properly
treated before use
Liable to catch fire
They do not resist creep
They are affected by dry and wet rot
Become expensive day by day
Life is shorter compare to others
12/2/2014
25
Steel sleeperrs
They are in the form of steel trough inverted on which rails
are fixed directly by keys or nuts and bolts and used along
sufficient length of tracks.
Advantages of Steel Sleepers
Have a useful life of 20-25 years.
Free from decay and are not attacked by vermins
Connection between rail and sleeper is stronger
Connection between rail and sleeper is simple
More attention is not required after laying
Having better lateral rigidity
Good scrap value
Suitable for high speeds and load
Easy to handle
Good resistance against creep
12/2/2014
26
Disadvantages of Steel sleepers

Liable to corrosion by moisture and should not because in salty
regions
Good insulators and hence cannot be used in track circuited
regions
Cannot be used for all sections of rails and gauges
Should not be laid with any other types of ballast except store
Very costly
Can badly damaged under derailments
Way gauge is obtained ifthe keys are over driven
The rail seat is weaker
Having good shock absorber as there is not cushion between rail
foot and ballast
12/2/2014
27
Cast Iron Sleepers
They consist of two pots or plates with rib and connected by

wrought iron tie bar of section of about 2" " each pot or plate is
placed below each rail. The pot is oval in shape with larger
diameter 2'-0" and smaller diameter 1'-8" is preferred.
Plate sleepers consist of rectangular plates of size about 2' 10' x
1' 0".
The relative advantages and disadvantages are given below.
Advantages of Cast Iron Sleepers
Long life upto 50-60 years- High scrape value as they can be
remolded
Can be manufactured locally - Provided sufficient bearing area
Much stronger at the rail seat - Prevent and check creep of rail
They are not attacked by vermin
Disadvantages Cast Iron Sleepers
They are prone to corrosion and cannot be used in salty
formations and coastal areas - Not suitable for track circuited
portions of railways
Can badly damage under derailment
Difficult to maintain the gauge as the two pots are independent
Require a large number of fastening materials - Difficult to handle
and may be easily damaged - Lack of good shock absorber - They
are expensive
12/2/2014
28
C~oonnccrreettee
sslleeeeppeerrss
R.C.C and pre-stressed concrete sleepers are now replacing all

other types of sleepers except to some special circumstances such
as crossing bridges etc here timber sleepers are used.
They were first of all used in France round about in 1914 but are
common since 1950. They may be a twin block sleepers joined by
an angle iron. It may be a single block pre-stressed type.
Advantages Concrete Sleepers
Durable with life range from 40-50 years
They can be produced on large quantities locally by installing a
plant
Heavier than all other types thus giving better lateral stability to
the track
Good insulators and thus suitable for use in track circuited lines
Efficient in controlling creep - They are not attacked by corrosion
Free from attacks of vermin and decay, suitable for all types of
soils
Most suitable for welded tracks- Prevent buckling more efficiently
Initial cost is high but proves to be economical in long run
Effectively and strongly hold the track to gauge
Inflammable and fire resistant
12/2/2014
29
Disadvantages Concrete Sleepers
Difficult to be handled
Difficult to be manufactured in different sizes thus
cannot be used in bridges and crossing
Can be damaged easily while loading and unloading
12/2/2014
30
Ballast
Definition:
It is a layer of broken stones, gravel or any other
such gritty material laid and packed below and
around sleepers.
Functions of ballast:
To distribute the loads uniformly over the
subgrade.
To provide good drainage for the track structure.
To provide elasticity and resilience to track for
getting proper riding comfort.
To held the track structure to line and grade.
To reduce dust.
To prevent growth of brush and weeds.
12/2/2014
CE2303 RAILW AYS,AIRPORTS

31
A good ballast should be strong, hard-wearing, stable,

drainable, easy to clean, workable, resistant to
deformation, easily available, and reasonably cheap to
purchase.
Early railway engineers did not understand the
importance of quality track ballast; they would use cheap
and easily-available materials such as ashes, chalk, clay,
earth, and even cinders from locomotive fireboxes.
It was soon clear that good-quality ballast made of rock
was necessary if there was to be a good foundation and
adequate drainage.
Requirements of Good Ballast:
1.It should be tough and should not crumble under heavy
loads.
2.It should not make the track dusty or muddy.
3.It should offer resistance to abrasion and weathering.
4.It should not produce any chemical reaction with rails
and sleepers.
5.The materials should be easily workable.
6.It should retain its position and should not be
distributed.
12/2/2014
32
Railroad switch
A
railroad switch, turnout or [set of] points is a mechanical

installation enabling railway trains to be guided from one
track to another, such as at a railway junction or where a
spur or siding branches off.
A switch generally has a straight "through" track (such as
the main-line) and a diverging route. The handedness of
the installation is described by the side that the diverging
track leaves. Right-hand switches have a diverging path to
the right of the straight track, when coming from the
narrow end and a left-handed switch has the diverging
track leaving to the opposite side.
A straight track is not always present; for example, both
tracks may curve, one to the left and one to the right (such
as for a wye switch) or both tracks may curve, with
differing radii, in the same direction.
12/2/2014
CE2303 RAILW AYS,AIRPORTS

33
Single Track and Double Track

A
double-track railway usually involves running

one track in each direction, compared to a singletrack railway where trains in both directions
share the same track.
12/2/2014
34
Airport Markings & Signs
Introducing Surface Movement

Guidance &
Con t
12/2
/2
r o
01
35
AAIIRRPPOORR AANNDD MMAARRKKIINNGG

TT SSIIGGNNSS PPRROOVVIIDDEE
IINNFFOORRM TTHHAA UUSSEE TTOO
MAATTIIOONN TT IISS FFUULL GGRROOUUNNDD
VVEEHHIICCLLEE
WWHHEENN
TTHHE
OOPPEERRAATTOORR OOPPEERRAATTIINNG E
G OONN
SS
AAIIRRPP AAN TTOO
TTAAKKEEOOFFF
F,,
OORRTT NDD PPIILLOOTTSS
DDUURRIINNGG
LLAANDDIINGG,, OORR TTAAXXIIIINGG..
TYPES FOUND ON AIRPORTS INCLUDE:

MANDATORY SIGNS
LOCATION SIGNS
DIRECTION SIGNS
DESTINATION SIGNS
SPECIAL INFORMATION SIGNS
12/2/2014
36
WHITE INSCRIPTIONS ON A RED BACKGROUND

REQUIRES CLEARANCE BEFORE ENTERING (DUE
CAUTION AT UNCONTROLLED AIRPORTS)
MANDATORY SIGNS
12/2/2014
37
LLOOCCA OO TTAAXXIIWWAAYYSS AATT

ATEEDD NN
IINNTTEERRSSEECC
TTIIOON' WWIITTH
RRUUNWAAYYAANN
DDATAT
RRUUNWWAAYY//RR
UUNWAAYY
IINTE SSEECCTTIIOON
ER-
~
NNO CCRROOSSSS UUNNLLEESSSS
DDOO OTT CCLLEEAARRAANNCCEE HHAASS
CCL
BBEEEENN RREECCEEIIVVEEDD
LEE
((TTOOWWEERREEDD AAIIRRPPOORRTT))
A AR
OORR
R ((UUNNTTOOWWEERREEDD
AAIIRRPPOORRTT))
UUNN
TTIILL
~ AA T T
RRUUNNWWAAYY
,
RRUUNNWWAA IINNTTEERRSSEECCTTIOI HHOOLL
ONNSS,
YY //
DD
SSHHOORRTT IIFF LLAANNDD AANNDD
HHOOLLDD--SSHHOORRTT
CCLLEEAARRAANNCCEE
HHA BBEEEENN AACCCCEEPPTTEEDD
A SS
12/2/2014
38
LLOOCCAATT TT'HEE HHOOLLDD

EEIDD AATT
PPOOSSIITTIIO TTAAXXI
ONN OIONN AA WWAAYY
LLOOCCAAT RRUUNN
TEEDD IINI WWAAYY
AAPPPPRROOAACCHH OORR
DDEEPPAARRTTUURREE
AARREEAA HHOOLLDD
.
4 A.p
..
'
'I
H'.
Ie,
.
II
i
c.
.
CONTROLLED AIRPORT -- HOLD WHEN

INSTRUCTED
NONCONTROLLED AIRPORT -- PROCEED WHEN
NO TRAFFIC CONFLICT EXISTS
12/2/2014
39
ININDDIICC AANN ILILSS

AATTEESS
CCIRR
AARREEAA
ITTIICCAA
LL
HOLD WHEN INSTRUCTED BY ATC WHEN

APPROACHES ARE BEING MADE WITH
VISIBILITY LESS THAN 2 MILES OR CEILING
LESS THAN 800 FEET
12/2/2014
40
IINNDDII'CC AARRE WWHHEERREE

AATTEESS EAASS
AAIIRRCCRRAAFFTT AAIRREE FFOORRBBIIDD'DDEEN
TO EEINTTEERR
DO NOT ENTER
IDENTIFIES PAVED AREAS WHERE AIRCRAFT
ENTRY IS PROHIBITED
12/2/2014
41
I,'
i
INDDICCA HHS
ATEESS
S--1
II
I"
HiS'-,'.',"",1!
I
..
,
'1
"
i
I
,,'
LAND AND HOLD SHORT POINT FOR OTHER

THAN INTERSECTING RUNWAYS
AS INSTRUCTED BY ATC
12/2/2014
42
YELLOW INSCRIPTIONS ON A BLACK

BACKGROUND -- IDENTIFIES RUNWAYS
AND TAXIWAYS
BLACK INSCRIPTION ON A YELLOW
BACKGROUND -- IDENTIFIES RUNWAY OR
CRITICAL AREA BOUNDARIES OF:
RUNWAY SAFETY AREA (RSA)
OBSTACLE FREE ZONE (OFZ)
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM AREAS
LOCAT(ILISO) N SIGNS
12/2/2014
43
LLOOCCA O0 TTH TTAAXXIIWWAAYY

ATTEEDD N HEE
IDENTIFIES TAXIWAY ON WHICH AIRCRAFT

IS LOCATED
12/2/2014
44
LLOOCCAATEEDD O0 N TTHEE RUNWAY
22
IDENTIFIES RUNWAY ON WHICH AIRCRAFT

IS LOCATED
12/2/2014
45
LLOOCCA AA TTHEE EEDDGGEE OOFF

ATEEIDD TT
PPRROOTTEECCTEEDD AARREEAA FFOO'RR
RRUUNWA'AYY
IDENTIFIES THE BOUNDARY OF THE RUNWAY

PROTECTED AREA ON CONTROLLED
AIRPORTS
IT IS INTENDED THAT PILOTS EXITING THIS
AREA WOULD USE THIS SIGN AS A GUIDE
TO JUDGE WHEN THE AIRCRAFT IS CLEAR
OF THE PROTECTED AREA
12/2/2014
46
LLOOCCAATTEED EEDDGGEE
D AATT TT HEE
OO'FF TTHHEE IILLSS
CCRRIITTICCAALL
AARREEAA
IDENTIFIES THE BOUNDARY OF THE ILS

CRITICAL AREA ON CONTROLLED
AIRPORTS
IT IS INTENDED THAT PILOTS EXITING THIS
AREA WOULD USE THIS SIGN AS A GUIDE TO
JUDGE WHEN THE AIRCRAFT IS CLEAR OF THE
ILS CRITICAL AREA
12/2/2014
47
TAXIWAY ENDING MARKER
INDICATES TAXIWAY DOES NOT CONTINUE
12/2/2014
48
DIRECTION SIGNS
BLACK INSCRIPTIONS ON A YELLOW
BACKGROUND (ALWAYS HAS AN ARROW)
PROVIDES DIRECTIONAL INFORMATION
12/2/2014
49
LLOOCCA O0 N TAAXXIIWWAAYYSS
ATEEDD
AA NDDARYUSNWAYS
ON TAXIWAYS -- PROVIDES DIRECTION TO

TURN TO NEXT INTERSECTION TO MANEUVER
AIRCRAFT ONTO NAMED TAXIWAY
ON RUNWAYS -- PROVIDES DIRECTION TO
TURN TO EXIT RUNWAY ONTO NAMED
TAXIWAY
12/2/2014
50
LLOOCCAATT TTHHEE
EEDD OONN
TTAAXXIIWW
AA YY
PROVIDES GENERAL TAXIING DIRECTION TO

NAMED RUNWAY
12/2/2014
51
SIMILAR
TO DIRECTION SIGNS EXCEPT THAT THEY

POINT TOWARD A GENERAL LOCATION SUCH AS:
APRON FUEL
CIVIL
MIL
CARGO INT
TERM
PAX
FBO
A DOT () IS READ AS AND
DESTINATION SIGNS
12/2/2014
52
LLOOCCA O0 N
ATTEEDD
TTAAXXII AANDD
WWAAYY
S
RRUUNW
WAAYYS
PROVIDES
GENERAL TAXIING DIRECTION TO

IDENTIFIED DESTINATION
12/2/2014
53
SUCH AS NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES -HAVE BLACK INSCRIPTIONS ON A

YELLOW BACKGROUND
DISTANCE REMAINING SIGNS HAVE A SINGLE
WHITE NUMBER ON A BLACK BACKGROUND 20
TO 75 FEET FROM THE PAVEMENT EDGE,
DEPENDING UPON THE SIZE OF THE SIGN
SPECIAL INFORMATION SIIGNS

12/2/2014
54
LLOOCCAATEED RUNWAY
D O0 N THEE
PROVIDES REMAINING RUNWAY LENGTH IN

1,000 FOOT INCREMENTS
12/2/2014
55
SURFACE MOVEMENT GUIDANCE

AND
CONTROL SYSTEM
(SMGCS)
PRONOUNCED SMIGS, THIS SYSTEM IS
COVERED BY ADVISORY CIRCULAR (AC) 12057
REQUIRES A LOW VISIBILITY TAXI PLAN FOR
ANY AIRPORT WHICH HAS TAKEOFF OR
LANDING OPERATIONS WITH LESS THAN
1,200 FEET RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE
(RVR) VISIBILITY CONDITIONS 12/2/2014 CE2303
RAILWAYS,AIRPORTS
56
APPLIES TO BOTH AIR CREW AND VEHICLE

OPERATORS
TAXI ROUTES TO AND FROM THE SMGCS
RUNWAY MUST BE DESIGNATED AND
DISPLAYED ON A SMGCS LOW VISIBILITY
TAXI
ROUTE CHART
SMGCS (cont.)
12/2/2014
57
STOP BAR LIGHTS
RUNWAY GUARD LIGHTS
TAXIWAY CENTERLINE LIGHTING
GEOGRAPHIC POSITION MARKINGS
CLEARANCE BAR LIGHTS
SMGCS
INCLUDE:
c FEATURES
u
12/2/2014
58
STOP BAR
LIGHTS
REQUIRED AT INTERSECTIONS OF AN ILLUMINATED

(CENTERLINE LIGHTED) TAXIWAY AND AN ACTIVE
RUNWAY FOR OPERATIONS LESS THAN 600 FEET
RVR
CONSIST OF A ROW OF RED UNIDIRECTIONAL, INPAVEMENT LIGHTS INSTALLED ALONG THE

HOLDING POSITION MARKING
12/2/2014
59
STOP BAR LIGHTS (cont.)
WHEN TURNED OFF BY THE CONTROLLER,

THEY CONFIRM CLEARANCE FOR THE PILOT OR
VEHICLE TO ENTER THE RUNWAY
OPERATE IN CONJUNCTION WITH GREEN

CENTERLINE LEADON LIGHTS
12/2/2014
60
NEVER CROSS AN
ILLUMINATED
R ED
WA R
S T
NI N G
OP BAR
12/2/2014
61
WILL BE INSTALLED AT ALL TAXIWAYS

WHICH PROVIDE ACCESS TO AN ACTIVE
RUNWAY
ALTERNATELY FLASHING YELLOW LIGHTS
USED TO DENOTE BOTH THE PRESENCE OF

AN ACTIVE RUNWAY AND IDENTIFY THE
LOCATION OF A RUNWAY HOLDING
POSITION MARKING
RUNWAY GUARD LIGHITTS

12/2/2014
62
TAXIWAY CENTERLIINE
LIGHTING
GUIDE GROUND TRAFFIC UNDER LOW

VISIBILITY CONDITIONS AND DURING
DARKNESS
CONSIST OF GREEN INPAVEMENT LIGHTS
12/2/2014
63
GEOGRAPHIC POSITION
MARKINGS
. ~ -' . .
"~
'T
. ~
': ..,; l
..
. -,'.-.~
t'::.l. :_=:.Jt
..
j..'~.
f._.
....
'
A PINK SPOT OUTLINED WITH A BLACK AND

WHITE CIRCLE AND DESIGNATED WITH A
NUMBER AND/OR LETTER
ATC WILL VERIFY THE POSITION OF

AIRCRAFT AND VEHICLES USING
GEOGRAPHIC POSITION MARKINGS
CAN BE USED EITHER AS HOLD POINTS OR

FOR POSITION REPORTING
64
CLEARANCE BAR
LIGHTS
THREE YELLOW IN-PAVEMENT CLEARANCE

BAR LIGHTS
USED TO DENOTE HOLDING POSITIONS FOR

AIRCRAFT AND VEHICLES
CO-LOCATED WITH GEOGRAPHIC POSITION
MARKINGS WHEN USED FOR HOLD POINTS
12/2/2014
65
FOR ADDITIONAL SMGCS INFORMATION

REFER TO THE AERONAUTICAL
INFORMATION MANUAL OR THE
PARTICULAR AIRPORTS
SMGCS LOW VISIBILITY TAXI ROUTE CHART
SMMG AAIIRRPPOORT NOO HHAAVVEE

TT
GCCS TS MMAAYY
ALLLL OOFF THHEESEE
FFEEA ~TUUR EES

12/2/2014
66
OCEN 201
Introduction to Ocean &
Coastal Engineering
Coastal Processes & Structures
Jun Zhang
Jun-zhang@tamu.edu
12/2/2014
67
Coastal Processes
Typical beach profile and coastal zone
- Beaches dissipate wave energy and are
constantly adjusting to the wave environment
(shoaling, wave breaking, sand bar & surf zone,
Fig. 4-1, pp80)
Littoral Transport (sediment transport)
- Long shore transport (parallel to the
shoreline, long shore current)
- Offshore-onshore transport (perpendicular to
the shoreline)
12/2/2014
68
Beach Profile Fig. 4-1, pp102
!~3~
-~~-~~~
Blll1ff
o.~
E&t.arpmem
"-'i3!-~~~
-----
Scarp
12/2/2014
69
Consequences of Coastal Processes

Beach erosion (Natural or Man-Made
Causes)
Table 4-1 pp104 (old E. pp81)
Beach Protection & Nourishment
-
coastal structures
12/2/2014
70
Coastal Erosion
12/2/2014
71
Coastal Erosion
Hwy 87
Texas Coast
Infrastructure
Property
Environment
12/2/2014
72
Beach Nourishment
12/2/2014
73
Economic
value of
Beaches
12/2/2014
74
Coastal Processes
Sediment Transport
Wind and Waves

12/2/2014
75
Coastal Structures
Break waters: (rubble mound, sheet pile, stone
asphalt, Dolos, concrete cassions, floating
structures
(coastal & offshore))
Jetties & Groins (normal to the shorelines)
Sea walls
Bulkheads, Revetments, G-tubes
Sand Bypassing (continue the littoral process;
passive and active)
12/2/2014
76
Shore Protection ProjectsBreakwaters
BREAKWATER
I,
12/2/2014
77
12/2/2014
78
12/2/2014
7
9
Breakwater
12/2/2014
80
Waterway
Navigation
Jetties
12/2/2014
81
limit: of Wave Rtm1JlP

Design mgh W'atter
Seoondary
RUBBLE
MOUND
BREAKWATER
Armour
l.~}'ef
f'~gure9"8 Rubble: Moand B;(emlfa'er in De~p W'atter

(after CER:C 19 8'4)1
J
FI,gure. 9.9 'RubbLe:M'o1u2/n2d/20B14reakCwEa2te3r03

RinAILSWhaAlYlmS,lAi'IRWPOatRerTS
(aft CERCi ,1984)
82
VERTICAL BREAKWATER FIGURES:
a) Vertical Caisson
b) Composite Breakwater
12/2/2014
c) Armoured
Caisson
83
a) Sliding
b) Overturning
Design
Consideration
s
siipSiji-Tuce"
Slip Surface
c) Settlement followed by slip

failure and seaward tilt
e) Erosion beneath seaward and

shoreward edges
d) Settlement followed by slip

failure and shoreward tilt
f) Punching failure at seaward and

shoreward edges
g) Seabed scour and toe erosion
12/2/2014
84
Shore Protection Projects- Groins

1------------\10"01111
-----------
..-.11....
:PROFILE
NOTE;
Dimension, ond deloils to b.

determined by porticulor
lit. conditions.
Care Stone
'.~.
lQuorry Aun I
J ,".'
CROSS SECTION
12/2/2014
85
12/2/2014
86
12/2/2014
87
Shore Protection Projects- Revetments

Ouorrystone
Bags
Uniform-sIzed
c rrnor ~~one' or
graded
"'
rlprcp
_iL
Gabions
L.arge, rounded
field stone
ormcr
I-~'
Concrete
In
~---RocK-filled
qcbion baskets
---
Vegetation
end upland
species cbove the
in~erti(j(J1 zone
-', t..1r::lrsh species
in
t~e intenidol zone
12/2/2014
88
Different Kinds of Dolos

Concrete & Reinforced Concrete
Parallelepiped
hruk
G~ed
cube
Tetrapod
Haro@
Cob
(Anlirer t)'pe)
12/2/2014
89
Dolos
IIIusInIIion at inlBttocking affect
12/2/2014
90
Various Sea Walls

I::RGY - J\I3S0RI3JNG
LLE BElCH
P"LM BEACH
Jf.c<SOW
E'JRDPE
CREAT BRITlA'II
HOLLAN)
OENIIARK
JI...IlIPER ISl..N>JO
IAI"~II\ B::J.CH
VIRG NlI' 8 EACH
~ERf.W.,y
GAlVi:STON. TEXAS
E~IROPE
SLCUM
GI<I:.AI wnw..
GREt,T SR TIIIN
HD_LAND
DEHVAoRK
GERVANY
---"
GRE/.T BR'TlIIN
SPIoIN
GRE/,T SR "PAN
~kAl\CE
G R E/.T BR TIll"
CREAT BFlITw..
SCJoN CI NAVIA
GERVANY
HO_LAI~D
POR'UC~L
SCIoN CI N.Wli\
CREAT Bf!ITw..
HO_LAND
GERVANY
12/2/2014
_"
CE
2303
RAILWAYS,AIRPORTS
AND
HARBOUR
ENGINEERING
91
Seawalls
Construction of Galveston seawall ~ 1902

12/2/2014
92
Ports and Harbors
12/2/2014
9
4
Sand Bypass Facility
New
South
Wales
and
Qu e e
12/2
/201
n
s
,
la n d
CE2
RA
303
ILW
AYS
,AIRP
ustra
95
Jetties at the
entrance of
Tweed River
Outlet of the sand pump
12/2/2014
96
Laboratory Research
Research Experience
for Undergraduates
(REU) Program
12/2/2014
97
Haynes Coastal Engineering

Laboratory
12/2/2014
98
Wave Refraction*, Diffraction & Reflectio

Wave Refraction: The direction of waves
may change when they enter from deep to
shallow water or from shallow to deep water.
s i n 1
sin
S n e lls la
w:
C2
Deep-2
Shallow-2
C1
, C is th e p h a s e v e lo c ity
Deep-1
12/2/2014
TS-1
S h a l l oRw99
CE2303 RAILWA YS ,A IR P O
AN D HARBOUR ENGINEERING
Wave direction is normal to the wave

crest line
Examples of Wave refraction in the
costal zone, see pp 117 Fig 4-21 (old
Edition: pp 90 Fig. 4-12).
Wave direction is normal to shore line.
In other words, wave crest-line is
parallel to the shore line.
12/2/2014
100
Wave front
Wave Refraction
fWrac:tign c<ly~d b~1 me-uQIl

with the land and sea bod
Beach
Refraction would lead to longshore

drift and beach erosion in this area
12/2/2014
101
Phenomena of wave shoaling (wave enters

from deep water to shallow water)
Wave refraction
Wave length becomes shorter
Wave group velocity is reduced
Wave becomes steeper, which leads to
wave breaking. Wave breaking leads to the
generation of long-shore current.
Definition of the surf zone: from the first
breaker (due to water depth) to the shore
line.
12/2/2014
102
General Refraction Analysis

R a y L in - A lo n g a r a y lin e , w a v e d ir e c tio n is a lw a y s
e
p a r a lle l to it o r w a v e c r e a tlin e is n o r m a l to it.
W a v e e n e r g y d e n s ity - A v e r a g e w a v e e n e r g y p e r u n
it le n g th
E g
H
/8 gA /2
Wave group (energy) ve

lo c ity
1
In in te r m e d ia te w a te r d e C g
p th
In d e e p w a
te r
kh
nC
Cg
In s h a llo w w a
te r
k 2
kh
Cg
s in h 2
2k
gh C
,
1
2
n 12/2/2014
103
1 . S te a d y s ta te ( tim e - in d e p e n d e n t)
2 . W a v e c h a r a c te r is tic s
a r e in p e n d e n t o f y
( lo n g s h o r e d ir e c tio n )
3 . B o tto m c o n to u r s is
p a r a le ll to th e s h o r e
lin e w h ic h is s tr ia g h t
W//////,//////W//////////////////////////////////////////////)}.
/-
1jgure 4.17
12/2/2014
-I
Characteristics of wave rayAsNdDuriHngARreBfrOacUtioRn EoNveGr

id
ea
liz
IN E E ReIdNGbathymetry. 104
W a v e e n e r g y flu x C g E
=
E e n e r g y c o n s e r v a tio n ( n o w a v e b r e a k
in g )
C g 0 E 0 b 0 C g 1 E 1 b1
S u b s c r ip t '0 ' d e n o te s
it a t
C g0
E1
E0
1
2
p0
C g 0 b0
C g 1 b1
p0
b0
2 C g 1 b1
deep water
H1
H
E1
E0
12/2/2014
105
H1
H
KR
Ks
E1
E0
b0
b1
KSKR
, k n o w n a s th e r e fr a c tio n c o e
ff.
C p0
2 C g1
, k n o w n a s th e s h o a lin g c o
e ff.
12/2/2014
pp117-118 (old edition pp91-92)
106
Wave Diffraction: When wave energy is

transferred laterally to wave direction, this
phenomenon is known as wave diffraction.
Wave diffraction occurs when waves
passing by a surface piercing body. It
may occur in deep or shallow water.
An example in shallow water is wave
diffraction behind a breaker water. See Fig.
4-22 at pp119 (old edition Fig. 4-13 at
pp93). (internet examples)
12/2/2014
107
Figure 4-13. Ac-rial pbOt~3pb

O'W3V~ dlffracdofl at CluumeJ I. land . TliIrb r breakwater in CaUr~mla..
Reprinted "itt. p~rmissiion (rom u~ AtBI CCH'(I~~' .n rlneenl (U' eE l. 1 9 " 1
A N D
HA
S h ( }f~ Pf O re d / l) n
R B O UR E N G I N E ERING
Man/iol. (FuU eltlDR n referenees),
108
Wave Reflection and Transmission: when

the water depth suddenly changes, part of the
incident wave energy is reflected in the
direction opposite to the incident wave
direction, part energy continues to propagate
(transmit) in the incident wave direction.
H i : in c id e n t w a v e h e
ig h t;
H r : r e fle c t e d w a v e h e
ig h t
H t : tr a n s m itte d w a v e h e ig h t
R e fle c tio n C o e C r
ff.
Hi
Ht
T r a n s m is s io n C o
Ct
e ff.
Hi
12/2/2014
109
R e fle c tio n C o e ff. o f a p la n e s lo p e

S u r f p a r a m e te r

whe
re
ta n
H i / L0
is th e s lo p
e
H i is th e in c id e n t w a v e h e ig h t
L 0 is th e w a v e le n g th in d e e p w a te r.
Using Fig 4-23 at pp 120 (old edition Fig. 4-14

at pp 94), you may determine the reflection
coefficient based upon the surf parameter.
12/2/2014
110
Wave Runup
Wave runup is important to the design of
the height of coastal structure, such as
seawalls and breakwaters.
H u n t (1 9 5 9 )
R
H
whe
re
ta n
H / L0
fo r ta n 0 .1
R is th e w a v e ru n u p .
H is th e w a v e h e ig h t
s e e F ig . 4 -2 4 (p 1 2 1 )
(o ld e d itio n F ig . 4 -1 5 (p 9
12/2/2014
111
Sediment Transport
3
B u o ya n c y in d
ex:
whe
re
s
gd s
B
1
s th e s p e c ific w e ig h t o f a s p h e r e
th e s p e c ific w e ig h t o f flu id
d s th e d ia m e te r o f s p h e re
th e k in e m a tic v is c o s i ty o f flu id .
B e c a u s e th e d ia m e te r o f th e s e d im e n t is n o t
u n ifo rm ,
ds
is re p la c e b d 5 0 , w h ic h is th e
y
m e d ia n d ia m e te r o f th e s e d im e n t.
B is n o n -d im e n s io n
a l.
12/2/2014
112
Sediment Transport
3
B u o ya n c y in d
ex:
s
gd s
B
1
In g e n e ra
1, th a t is , th e s e d im e n t p a r tic le is
l,
h e a v ie r th a n w a te r. T h e s u b m e rg e d w e ig h t o f th
e
p a rtic le is p ro p o rtio n a l dto a n d th e fa l lin g v e lo c ity
s
3
d e c re a s e s w ith th e in c re a s e in v is c o s ity o f w a t e
r.
H e n c e , s m a lle r b u o ya n c y in d e x in d ic a te s s m a lle
r fa llin g v e lo c ity a n d la rg e r b u o ya n c y in d e x re s u l
ts in la rg e r
fa llin g v e lo c ity.
12/2/2014
113
B a s e d o n th e b u o ya n c y in d e x , th e fa llin g v e lo c
ity
V f (a ls o k n o w n a s te rm in a l v e lo c ity) c a n b e
c o m p u te d u s in g E q . 4 -2 6 (p 1 2 5 o ld e d iti o n p 1 0
1)
o r F ig 4 -2 7 (p 1 2 5 ) (o ld e d itio n F ig . 4 -1 8 (p 1 0 2
)).
F a llin v e lo c ity te lls th e s u s p e n s io n tim e o f a
g
p a rtic le in w a te r a fte r it is s u s p e n d e d in th e w a te
r
c o lu m n .
If o n e k n o w s th e c u rre n t o r w a v e in d u c e d p a rtic
le
v e lo c ity, th e m o v e m e n t o f th e p a rtic le i n th e h o r
iz o n ta l d ire c tio n c a n b e c o m p u te d .
12/2/2014
RAILWAYS,AIRPORTS
CE2303
114
Reading Assignment:
Sediment Transport & Scour
Littoral Transport (sediment transport in
coastal or littoral zone)
Coastal Structure (jetties, groins, breakwater,
sand-bypass & G-tubes)
Dredging
12/2/2014
115
Reading Assignment:
Sediment Transport & Scour
Littoral Transport (sediment transport in coastal or
littoral zone)
Coastal Structure (jetties, groins, breakwater, sandbypass & G-tubes)
Dredging
12/2/2014
116

CE2303

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

CE2303

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

CE2303 RAILWAYS,AIRPORTS

Elements of Railway tracks

track on a railway or railroad, also known as the

The load transfer works on the principle of stress reduction - layer by

The greatest stress occurs

Type of Railway System

Urban Railway Transit:

Urban rail transit is an all-encompassing term for various

Light Rail : Light rail is a relatively new term, as an outgrowth of trams/streetcars.

Rapid Transit: A rapid transit, underground, subway, tube, elevated, or

Type of Railway System

Suburb mostly refers to a residential

Regional/Commuter Rail : Commuter rail, also called suburban rail, is a passenger

AND HARBOUR ENGINEERING

Permanent Way Materials

Fish Plate Joints

A. Fish Plate Joints

B. Insulated Rail Joints

2. To provide track segment isolation for the track

C. Alumino Thermit Welding

Thermit is the trade name for one of the

Flash Butt Welding Group is dedicated to

CE2303 RAILWAYS,AIRPORTS AND HARBOUR ENGINEERING

CE2303 RAILWAYS,AIRPORTS AND HARBOUR ENGINEERING

A railway sleeper is a rectangular object used as a base for railroad tracks.

Pre-Stressed Concrete Sleepers

The fastening of rails is usually taken care of

set:1. IJiI...4=.) , .,.~"':",111-.'d.

=-~ .-.....- .,_

Switches & Crossings (Turnouts)

Track gauge or rail gauge is the distance between the

The standard gauge (also named the Stephenson gauge after

Different gauges, from left: 1435mm,

- The most widely used narrow gauges are

When a railway line of one gauge meets a line of another

Depending upon the position in a railway track, sleepers may be

Transverse Sleepers: Transverse sleepers introduced in 1835 and

The salient features of timber/wooden sleepers with advantages and disadvantages.

Disadvantages of Timber Sleepers

Disadvantages of Timber Sleepers

Disadvantages of Steel sleepers

Cast Iron Sleepers

They consist of two pots or plates with rib and connected by

R.C.C and pre-stressed concrete sleepers are now replacing all

AND HARBOUR ENGINEERING

Disadvantages Concrete Sleepers

CE2303 RAILW AYS,AIRPORTS

A good ballast should be strong, hard-wearing, stable,

railroad switch, turnout or [set of] points is a mechanical

CE2303 RAILW AYS,AIRPORTS

Single Track and Double Track

double-track railway usually involves running

Airport Markings & Signs

Introducing Surface Movement

AAIIRRPPOORR AANNDD MMAARRKKIINNGG

LLAANDDIINGG,, OORR TTAAXXIIIINGG..

TYPES FOUND ON AIRPORTS INCLUDE:

WHITE INSCRIPTIONS ON A RED BACKGROUND

LLOOCCA OO TTAAXXIIWWAAYYSS AATT

LLOOCCAATT TT'HEE HHOOLLDD

CONTROLLED AIRPORT -- HOLD WHEN

ININDDIICC AANN ILILSS

HOLD WHEN INSTRUCTED BY ATC WHEN