Anatomy and Physiology

One of the most important structure

of the nervous system is the brain.
The human brain has many essential
functions in the human system. The
brain

is

responsible

for

our

imaginations, speech, memories and

limb

movements to

secretion

of

hormones and is control of the

organs within the body. The brain
consists of its parts that also plays a
big role in performing tasks that then sends signal to the body,
The brain has two types of cells: neurons and glial cells. The neurons are
responsible for all functions in the body while the glial cells or the non-neuronal cells
serves as a support of the neurons. The brain is coverted by a tissue which is called
the meninges, which has 3 layers: dura mater, arachnoid layer and pia mater. The
dura mater, a whitish and nonelastic membrane in which its outer surface is attached
to the inside of the cranium. The thin membrane is the arachnoid layer, in which it
covers the entire brain and is located between the dura mater and pia mater. Lastly,
is the third one which is the pia mater, that is attached to the surface of the entire
brain and has many blood vessels that reach deep into the brain. A clear fluid that
surrounds the brain and spinal cord is called the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The
function of this fluid is to cushion the brain structure from injury. The brainstem is the
one responsible for connecting the brain to the spinal cord and acts as the relay
station of the body and the brain. It is made up of three structures: midbrain, pons
and medulla oblongata.
The relay station for all messages that travel from the cerebral cortex to the
rest of the body or to the brain is the Thalamus which is located above the
brainstem. When this is affected; movement, sensation and coordination is impaired.
This sturcture is also responsible for controlling pain and other sensations, and also
fo the attention and wakefulness. Beneath the occipital lobe is the Cerebellum.
Balance and coordinating movements is the role of the cerebellum. When either side

has an abnormality, it then produces symptoms on the same size that was affected.
Cerebrum forms the major portion of the brain. It is divided into left and right cerebral
hemisphere. The great longitudinal fissure and the corpus callossum separates
bothe the hemisphere which then allows communication between two sides of the
brain. The brain also has four lobes: the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital.
These four lobes has also distinct functions. The hypothalus is the one responsible
for communnicating the pituitary gland to manage hormone secretions and
controlling the body functions such as the temperature, emotion, sleep and other.
The trillions of cells in the body require an abundant and continuous supply of
oxygen to carry out their vital functions. As cells use oxygen, they give off carbon
dioxide, a waste product the body must get rid of. The respiratory system organs
oversee the gas exchanges that occur between the blood and the external
environment.
The

organs

of

the

respiratory

system include the nose, pharynx, larynx,

trachea,

bronchi

and

their

smaller

branches, and the lungs, which contain the

alveoli, or terminal air sacs. Because gas
exchanges with the blood happen only in
the alveoli, the other respiratory system
structures

are

really

just

conducting

passageways that allow air to reach the

lungs. These passageways have an important job which is to purify, humidify, and
warm incoming air. Thus, the air finally reaching the lungs has many fewer irritants.
The respiratory system is composed of the upper and lower respiratory tracts.
Together, the two tracts are responsible for ventilation or the movement of air in and
out of the airways.
The major function of the respiratory system is to supply the body with oxygen
and to dispose of carbon dioxide. At least four distinct events must occur. First,
Pulmonary Ventilation occurs where in the air must move into and out of the lungs so
that gases in the alveoli of the lungs are continuously refreshed. This process is
commonly called breathing. Second, External Respiration occurs where gas

exchange between the pulmonary blood and alveoli must take place. Third,
Respiratory Gas Transport happens where oxygen and carbon dioxide must be
transported to and from the lungs and tissue cells of the body via the bloodstream.
Fourth, Internal Respiration occurs where in at the systemic capillaries, gas
exchanges must be made between the blood and tissue cells.
The respiratory system depends on the cardiovascular system for perfusion,
blood flow through the pulmonary system.
The primary organs of the cardiovascular system are the heart and blood
vessels. Using blood as the transporting fluid, the cardiovascular system carries
oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and other substances to and from the tissue cells
where exchanges are made. White blood cells and chemicals in the blood help to
protect the body from such foreign invaders as bacteria, toxins, and tumor cells. The
heart

acts

as

the

blood

pump,

propelling blood out of its chambers

into the blood vessels to be transported
to all body tissues.
Most simply stated, the major
function of the cardiovascular system is
transportation. The force to move the
blood around the body is provided by
the

beating

heart

and

by

blood

pressure.
As the heart beats, or contracts, the blood makes continuous round trips into
and out of the heart, through the rest of the body, and then back to the heart only to
be sent out again.
In a healthy heart, the atria contract simultaneously. Then, as they start to
relax, contraction of the ventricles begins. Systole and diastole mean heart
contraction and relaxation because most of the pumping work is done by the
ventricles.
Although it is a single organ, the heart functions as a double pump. The right
side works as the pulmonary circuit pump. It receives relatively oxygen-poor blood

from the veins of the body through the large superior and inferior vena cava and
pumps it out through the pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary trunk splits into the right
and left pulmonary arteries, which carry blood to the lungs, where oxygen is picked
up and carbon dioxide is unloaded. Oxygen-rich blood drains from the lungs and is
returned to the left side of the heart through the four pulmonary veins. Its only
function is to carry blood to the lungs for gas exchange and then return it to the
heart.
Blood returned to the left side of the heart is pumped out of the heart into the
aorta from which the systemic arteries branch to supply essentially all body tissues.
This second circuit, from the left side of the heart through the body tissues and back
to the right side of the heart, is called the systemic circulation.
The term cardiac cycle refers to the events of one complete heartbeat, during
which both atria and ventricles contract and then relax. The average heart beats
approximately 75 times per minute.
The body is protected by the largest organ of the body which is the skin. The
skin is very essential in the human body. It is composed of the two main layers which
is the dermis and epidermis. The skin consists of thick outer layers , systems of
sweat glands sensitive to temperature changes and an extensive layer of fatty tissue
under the surface of the skin.
Epidermis contains mostly these
cells called the keratinocytes although it
consists of four main types of cells which is
the others: the melanocytes, langerhans
cells,

merkel

dependent

cells

on

oxygenations,

the

.the

epidermis

dermis

metabolite

is

as

for

provision

and

removal of metabolic waste products. The

dermis is mainly the nutrient provider and physical supporterto the epidermis. In this
layer, it consists the lymph vessel, nerve endings, hair follicles and glands. In the
dermis, it has two layers in which the first layer is the papillary layer in which it
contains the nerves and capillaries while the reticular layer contains strong

connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibres. The collages is essential for
the provision of the ability to stretch and contract.
The skin is importance in sensation, protection, thermoregulation and
synthesis of vitamin D. In sensation, the cells in the skin are sensitive to the external
stimuli such as the cold, heat or any pressure. The thermoregulatory function is one
of the receptors in the skin to monitor temperature and transmission of impulses. It is
a protection since is serves as a protective barrier for the internal organs. Also the
secretions of the skin which are usually acidic , it avoids the colonization of harmful
microoganisms. Lastly, is the vitamin D, which is necessary for controlling the
phosphorus and calcium that is usually absorbed on the small intestine and
mobilised from the bone.

Bibliography
Hinkle, J., & Cheever, K. (2014). Brunner & Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing
13th Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Retrieved February
26,2016.

Marieb, E. (2009). Essentials of Human Anatomy and Phsiology Ninth Edition. Singapore:
Pearson Education, Inc. Retrieved February 26,2016.
McLafferty, E. (et a.l). (2012). The integumentary system: anatomy, physiology and function
of skin.Nursing Standard. 27, 3, 35-42. Retrieved February 26,2016.