1

Formulae Sheet
Midterm Exam 2, Spring 2015
Conversion Factors:
1 m = 3.281 ft; 1 in = 2.54 cm; 1 mile = 5280 ft; 1 mile = 1.61 km;
cycle
1 hr = 3600 s; 1 liter = 1000 cm3 ; 2 radians = 360 ; 1 N = 1 kgm
s2 ; 1 Hz = 1 s .
Standard Prefixes:
Giga
Mega
kilo
centi
milli
micro
nano

G
M
k
c
m

109
106
103
102
103
106
109

xf xi
x
; Average speed over time interval t: vave =
; Distance traveled: d = vt.
t
tf ti
v
vf vi
m
Acceleration: a =
=
;
Density: = .
t
tf ti
V
Newtons Second Law: F = ma; Weight: W = mg (g = 9.8 m/s2 ).
Velocity, speed: v =

Force due to a spring: Fspring = kx.

Pressure: P =

F
.
A

Kinetic energy: KE = 12 mv 2 ; Potential energy due to gravity: P Egrav = mgh, stored in spring: P Espring = 12 kx2 .
Conservation of energy: KEi + P Ei = KEf + P Ef .
r
r
1
1
k
g
1
; Frequency of pendulum: f =
Frequency, period: f = ; Frequency mass/spring system: f =
T
2 m
2 L
v
Wavelength: = .
f
Speed of Sound:
r
FT
;
(i) On a string or wire: v =

(ii) In air: v = (331.3 + 0.6t) m/s, where t is temperature in C, i.e., at room temperature (t = 20 C), vsound =
343.3 m/s.
Importance of diffraction: if encountering an opening of approximate diameter d, or an obstancle of typical size d,
diffraction is (i) important for d; (ii) much less important for  d.
Interference due to path length difference:

(i) Constructive: |d2 d1 | = n, n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . ; (ii) Destructive: |d2 d1 | =

n+

1
2


, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .

Change in frequency due to Doppler Effect:




vsound
(i) Source moving, observer stationary: fobs = fs
, ( approaching, + receding);
vsound vs 
vsound vobs
(ii) Observer moving, source stationary: fobs = fs
, (+ approaching, receding);
vsound
Beats: two tones fA and fB presented simultaneously, beat frequency fbeat = |fB fA | is the frequency of the
(fA + fB )
resultant amplitude modulation at a sum frequency of fsum =
.
2
r
FT
Velocity of wave on a string or wire of tension force FT and mass per unit length = m/L: vwave =
.

Harmonic series for transverse

standing waves on a string of length L and mass per unit length = m/L:
r
nv
n
T
2L
=
, n =
, where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
fn = nf1 =
2L
2L
n

2
Harmonic series for longitudinal standing waves in pipe/tube of length L with speed of sound v:
nv
2L
; fn =
= nf1 , n = 1, 2, 3,
Open at both ends: n =
n
2L
4L
nv
Open at one end, closed on other: n =
; fn =
= nf1 , n = 1, 3, 5, (only odd values of n).
n
4L
Fourier Synthesis and Analysis:
Any complex periodic wave with fundamental frequency f1 can be built up using Fourier synthesis from an infinite
harmonic series (i.e., fn = nf1 ) of sinusoidal waves of different amplitudes, i.e., An sin(2fn t). Some standard or
well-known waves are:

TABLE I:
Fourier Amplitudes
A1 = constant, all other An = 0
A1
Sawtooth (Ramp)
An =
, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
n
Waveform
Sine

Square

An =

A1
, n = 1, 3, 5, . . .
n

Triangle

An =

A1
, n = 1, 3, 5, . . .
n2

Sound Levels:
1
dB difference between two signals: dB = 10 log A
A2
Sound Intensity Level (Li or SIL in dB): Li = 10 log II0 , relative to a reference sound intensity I0 = 1012 W/m2 .
Sound Pressure Level (Lp or SP L in dB): Lp = 20 log pp0 , relative to a reference sound pressure p0 = 2 105 Pa
or N/m2 .
In most normal situations, Lp = Li .
W
Sound Power Level (in dB) of a source: LW = 10 log W
, relative to a reference sound power W0 = 1012 W.
0
Inverting a logarithm: if x = log(y), then y = 10x .
If given two sources with sound intensity levels LI1 and LI2 in decibels, convert into two intensities I1 and I2 , add
the intensities Itot = I1 + I2 , then convert Itot back to decibels.
Definition of Intensity: I = W/A, where W is power, and A is area.
W
where the source has sound power of W Watts and the intensity is
Variation of Intensity with Distance: I =
4r2
measured a distance of r meters away.
Gain =

Output Quantity
, Power Gain = 10 log(W0 /Wi ).
Input Quantity

On an equal temperment scale (where one octave, i.e., a doubling or halving of frequency, is twelve semitones):
to move up from a note of frequency f0 by n octaves to frequency f :
f0
f = f0 (2)n ; and to move down n semitones: f = n ;
2
to move up from a note of frequency f0 by n semitones to frequency f :
f0
f = f0 (1.0596)n ; and to move down n semitones: f =
.
1.0596n