A Case in Point:

In the nineteenth century, before the science of psychology was established, a lot of people
interested in the mind and behaviour studied phrenology. Phrenologists believed that behaviour
could be understood by studying the bumps on peoples heads. A particular bump in a particular
place was supposed to be associated with particular types of behaviour. We now know that this is
nonsense. Nonsense or not, if the last hundred or so years of research in experimental psychology
had not taken place, we would have no systematic way of knowing that this is nonsense.
Psychological methods allow us to assess these ideas.
RESEARCH STRATEGIES
In science, facts are not incontrovertible truths
Experimental results = famous theories are mere interpretations of events
The detective in a crime scene = scientist, can never be sure of the facts since all there
is to go on is the evidence that has been uncovered so far.
The scientist = detective, with sufficient data, brings together the facts into a tentative
explanation of events.
Therefore, Psychology does not give definitive answers to offer the ultimate explanation of events
or human behavior. It offers the best possible explanations of how human beings act, think, feel
given the state of knowledge as it exists at that time.
Methods used, scales of measurement used in Psychology vary in their ability to provide accurate
and reliable information about behavior.
Psychology began as a scientific study of behavior and tries to achieve two goals:
1) To collect evidence and facts upon which to base Psychological theories
2) To find ways in measuring and analysing behavior.
Three kinds of research strategies used in Psychology: (1) Descriptive; (2) Correlational and; (3)
Experimental
(1) Descriptive research: some important psychological theories have grown out of descriptive
research > serves the purpose of observing and recording.
Ex: A psychologist might observe the extent to which people are altruistic or aggressive toward
each other.
It describes some phenomenon, more structured > based on theory
By itself, descriptive research cannot prove what causes some phenomenon but can reveal
important information about peoples behaviors and attitudes.
Are Qualitative studies which refer to meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics,
metaphors, symbols, description of things.
Methods: Observation, surveys, interviews, case studies
OBSERVATION / OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
= unless we are trained observers and practice the skill regularly:

we might not know what to do

we might not know what to look for

we might not remember what we saw

we might not realize that what we are looking for is changing form one
moment to the next

we may not communicate our observations properly/effectively

= For observations to be effective, they have to be SYSTEMATIC:

o
Have some idea of what you are looking for
o
Know whom you are observing
o
When and where to observe
o
How the observations will be made
o
In what form they will be recorded (writing, tape recording, video, etc.)
WHERE SHOULD OBSERVATIONS BE DONE OR MADE?
(1) LABORATORY Observation: a controlled setting with many of the complex factors of the real
world removed.
Ex: Albert Bandura (1965) studied aggression among children
children behaved more aggressively after observing a model being rewarded for
aggression > conducted the study in a laboratory with adults the children did not
know > controlled: when the child witness the aggression, how much aggression the
child saw, what form of aggression.
Bandura would not have had as much control over the experimental observation or as
much confidence in the result if it took place or conducted in the childrens homes
and if familiar people has been present (parents, siblings, friends)
Disadvantages of Laboratory research:
(1) Almost impossible to conduct research (in lab) without the participants
knowledge that they are being observed. WARNING: Hawthorne Effect or Reactivity.
(2) Lab setting = unnatural > cause the participants to behave unnaturally
(3) Subject/participants who take part in lab experiments may not fairly
represent groups from diverse cultural backgrounds
(4) subjects/participants may be intimidated by the setting
(5) Some aspects of the minds and behavior are difficult, if not impossible to
examine in a laboratory > unethical
(2) NATURALISTIC Observation: observing in a real world setting, making no effort to
manipulate or control situations.
Ex: You may want to observe how people act or treat one another in places like the cafeteria or the
library.
Ex: Egypt (1993), study on the relationship between caregiving behavior and the positive
development of toddlers 18 30 months of age > twice a month, researchers observed children and
caregivers in their homes for 30 minutes > noting behaviors such as: how frequently the caregivers
talked with the children, or guided their play, observed the number of vocalizations made by
children, the amount of time they spent playing with objects > same in the western countries, the
more Egyptian caregivers talked with and guided young childrens play the more alert, vocal and
actively involved in play the children were.
WAYS IN WHICH OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES CAN BE DONE:
(1) UNSTRUCTURED observations: not commonly made since they provide no measurable data and
take the form of descriptions of behavior.
> the observer simply keeps some record of what they saw at particular time during the
study.

The role of SUBJECTIVITY in both perception and memory: it is unlikely

that two observers in an unstructured situation will record the same account of an event
they have both witnessed.

(2) PARTICIPANT Observation: more sociological method than psychological

The researcher is in close involvement with the day to day lives of the
person he or she is studying

Observers actually take part in the same activities (or other environment) as
the person under study.

Ensure that the individuals being studied do not alter their behavior as a
consequence of being closely studied in this way (Hawthorne Effect the very act of
studying a person or group is likely to introduce erratic changes in their behavior)
(3) STRUCTURED or SYSTEMATIC Observation: often the starting point of scientific
investigations under more controlled conditions.

Designed to limit the scientist to the recording of only small number of

events or behaviors.
Increased accuracy and reliability, manageable and predetermined
phenomenon = observer be more objective in what is recorded.
Event Sampling used to record responses to events of interest, frequency of occurrence
of events in a particular situation
time-based Sampling how often do events occur and when they occur (systematic or
random)
Situation Sampling studying behavior in different circumstance, locations
and conditions and often with different participants.

Assignment Groupwork: (Intimacy: public park, mall, tambayans, library, dorm); (helping behavior of
men =chivalry: library, CUB/Coop, dorm)
What to record?
Time of observation (best to time sample: at least 2 separate observations, Specific
behaviors, Who are being observed

CASE STUDIES
Is an in depth look at a single individual or case.
Are performed for practical or ethical reasons. The unique aspects of an
individuals life cannot be duplicated or tested in other individuals.
Information collected: fears, hopes, fantasies, traumatic experiences,
upbringing, family relationships, heath records > to understand the persons mind and behavior.
Case histories provide dramatic, in depth portrayals of peoples lives
BUTbe cautious about generalizinga case study is unique
Case studies involve judgements of unknown reliability.
SURVEYS AND INTERVIEWS

The quickest way to get information is to ask them for it

A standard set of questions is used to obtain peoples self-reported attitudes or beliefs about
a particular topic.
Can be used to study a wide variety or range of topics
Forms/Methods: face to face, questionnaire, over the phone, internet, etc.
Some surveys/interviews are unstructured and open-ended, others are structured and ask
more specific questions.
Disadvantages or weaknesses of survey and interviews:
The tendency of participants to answer questions in a way that they think is socially
acceptable or desirable rather than the truth (social desirability effect)

CORRELATIONAL STUDIES
Requires more subjects than usual

 Aimed to investigate whether or not two (or more) measured quantities seem to occur together
in people
The goal is to describe the strength of relationship between two or more events or
characteristics
The more strongly the two events are correlated (related/associated) the more effectively we
can predict one event from the other.
!!! Just because a correlation exist between two characteristics does not mean that one of them
causes the presence of the other = cannot infer cause and effect.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the
behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant.
An experiment is conducted in an environment such as a laboratory where background or
extraneous variables can be controlled (lighting, temperature, noise levels, etc.) the
experimenter controls all conditions that could alter the subjects behavior during
investigation.
If the behavior under study changes when a factor is manipulated:
a) the manipulated factor has caused the behavior to change
b) the cause is the factor that was manipulated, the effect is the behavior that changed
because of the manipulation

BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH STRATEGIES:

1) Independent variable: manipulated, influential, potential cause. This variable can be manipulated
independently from other factors to determine its effect.
2) Dependent variable: a factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in
the independent variable; it is measured.
3) Experimental group: a group whose experience is manipulated
4) Control group: is as much like the experimental group as possible and is treated in every
way like the experimental group except for the manipulated factor. Serves as the
baseline, against which the effects of the manipulated condition can be compared.
5) Random Assignment: researchers assign participants to experimental and control
groups
by chance. Reduces the likelihood that the experiments results will be due to any pre-existing
differences between groups.
Class Activity: Experimental vs Non-experimental methods
Divide the class into groups and assign each group one proverb/saying.
Agree on the meaning you would want to give the proverb and translate it into a research
hypothesis.
Determine the appropriate research method to test this hypothesis.
(Variation: you may ask the groups to role play the research and ask the other classmates to guess
the proverb)
1) Too many cooks spoil the broth.
2) Misery loves company.
3) Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
4) Birds of a feather flock together.
5) Out of sight, out of mind.

6) Time flies when youre having fun.

7) Kung may tyaga, may nilaga.
8) Opposites attract.
9) Ang hindi marunong lumingon sa pinanggalinan ay hindi makakarating sa paroroonan.
10) Two heads are better than one.