Chromium Coated Piston Head / Liner / Ring

ABSTRACT

To coat hard chromium on cylinder wall and piston rings to reduce frictional
losses in IC engines thereby increasing its wear resistance.
The experimental results are studied and shown using ANSYS software.
Different coatings used are Monolithic (cylinder wear resistance will be
improved by material itself (alloyed)).
Quasi monolithic (alloy material + coating).
Heterogeneous (Adding additional liners/sleeves) for improving wear
resistance in cylinder wall and piston.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO.

2.

3.

TITLE

PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES

vi

LIST OF SYMBOLS

vii

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Way to reduction

1.2 Method of analysis

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Existing system

2.2 Proposed system

MATERIAL COMPONENTS

3.1 Cast iron

3.2 Types of cast iron

3.2.1 Grey Cast Iron

3.2.2 White Cast Iron

3.2.3 Malleable Cast Iron

3.2.4 Ductile Cast Iron

10

3.3 Cast Iron liner

3.3.1 Types of CastIron liner

12

3.5 Hard chrome

13

3.5.1 Types of hard chrome

14

3.5.2 Properties of hard chrome

15

3.6.1 Manually operated 5/2 DCV

3.7 Load cell

5.

11

3.4 Aluminium bore

3.6 Directional control valve

4.

10

15
15
16

OPERATIONS INVOLVED

17

4.1 Electroplating

17

4.2 Surface grinding

17

4.3 Drilling

19

WORKING METHODOLOGY

21

5.1 Methodology

21

5.2 Process chart

22

6.

7.

5.3 Working Process

23

COMPONENTS AND PARTS

24

6.1 Coated and uncoated models

24

6.2 Final model

27

DESIGN CALCULATIONS

28

7.1 Stroke volume calculations

28

7.2 Friction power loss calculation

28

8.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

32

9.

ANSYS RESULTS

33

9.1 Results of cast iron material

33

9.2 Results for hard chrome material

37

10.

COST EXPENDITURE

41

11.

FABRICARTED MODEL

42

12.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

43

12.1 Future scope

43

12.2 Merits

43

12.3 De-merits

43

12.4 Applications

43

13.

CONCLUSION

44

14.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

47

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.

TITLE

PAGE NO.

1(a)

Frictional mechanical loss

1(b)

3D model-Petrol engine

1(c)

2D model-Petrol engine

3(a)

Cast iron liner

10

3(b)

Cylinder liners

11

3(c)

Aluminium cylinder blocks

13

3(d)

Diagrammatic representation of 5/2 DCV

15

6(a)

3D model (uncoated material)

24

6(b)

3D model (coated material)

24

6(c)

3D model of piston

25

6(d)

Cut sectional view

25

6(e)

3D model (hard chrome coated)

26

6(f)

2D model

26

6(g)

Finished model

27

9(a)

Thermal effect on cylinder wall

33

9(b)

Thermal effect on cylinder inner wall

34

9(c)

Thermal effect on top face piston

35

9(d)

Thermal effect on piston sides

36

9(e)

Thermal effect on piston rings

37

9(f)

Thermal effect on cylinder wall

38

9(g)

Thermal effect on piston

39

9(h)

Thermal effect on top face piston

40

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.

TITLE

PAGE NO.

2(a)

Bore specifications

2(b)

Bore specifications

8(a)

Material properties

32

10(a)

Cost estimation

41

13(a)

Comparison table

44

LIST OF SYMBOLS
Vs = Stroke Volume
D = Diameter of Piston in cm
L = Stroke Length in cm
Ip=Indicated power in Watts
Bp= brake power in Watts
Fp= Friction power in Watts
Imep= Indicated mean effective pressure
Bmep= brake mean effective pressure
Fmep= Friction mean effective pressure
L

= Stroke Length in m

A = Area of the cylinder in m2

n

= Number of stroke per min

K = No of cylinders

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The Reduction of friction losses in automotive engines offers big
potential when looking for possibilities to cut down fuel consumption. In the
engine block, the inner wall of the cylinder bore forms the sliding surface for
the piston and piston rings assembly. Thus the specification of the cylinder bore
material as well as the topography and the quality of the running surface in the
cylinder bore play a crucial role in the optimization process of the tribological
system cylinder piston piston ring. Friction Losses in the engine account for
about 10% to as much as 15% of the energy that is available in Fuel, such as
Gasoline (Petrol, Benzene) or Diesel Fuel. While in the most Modern Low
Friction Engines, the losses still account for about 7% to 9%. Mechanical
Friction Losses in Piston Engines consist of following:

Friction between Pistons and Cylinder bore (35%)

Friction between Piston Rings and Cylinder bore (26%)

Friction between Connecting Rod Bearings and Crankshaft Pin and

Piston Pin (14%). Friction between Main Bearings and Crankshaft (17%).

Fig. 1(a): Frictional mechanical losses

1.1 WAY TO REDUCTION
Gray cast iron provides itself a good tribological behaviour for the
cylinder piston piston ring system. However, the on-going substitution of
cast iron in engine blocks by aluminium. Casting alloy requires the development
of a new tribological system. Aluminium casting alloy except for the hypereutectic Al-Si alloy variants are not sufficiently wear resistant for this
application. Different solutions have been developed over the years ranging
from the introduction of cylinder liners consisting of suitable materials as
pressed -in or cast-in parts, the application of properly adapted surface treatment
or coating technologies to the development of special aluminium alloys.
1.2 METHOD OF ANALYSIS
1.0

MODELING AND SIMULATION (ANSYS 12.0)

2.0

PRACTICAL MODEL SIMULATION

ARRANGEMENTS.

OF

PISTON

CYLINDER

Fig. 1(b): 3D MODEL-Petrol engine

Below shown is the 2Dimensional representation of a 4- stroke petrol engine
that clearly explains the piston rings contact with the inner walls of the cylinder.

10

Fig. 1(c): 2D MODEL-Petrol engine

The right hand side shown is the exploded view of piston in contact with the
inner walls of cylinder liner in detail.
The contact between piston rings and cylinder liner form the main factor for the
cause of high frictional loss, it can be reduced if the piston rings and the inner
surface of cylinder walls are coated with materials having low co-efficient of
friction.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
11

1. Gawne.D.T.;Despres.N.J.The influence of process conditions on friction

and wear of electrodeposited chromium coatings Journal of Vacuum
Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films. Publication Year:
2010. Materials used: chromium.
Description:
Crackfree deposits give markedly higher friction coefficients and
wear rates than heat treated conventional coatings with the same
hardness.
2. Amjad SalehEl-Amoush AymanAbu-Rob,

Hmood

Edwan, Khalid

Atrash, Mohannad Igab Tribological properties of hard chromium coated

1010 mild steel under different sliding distances. Publication Year: 2008.
Materials used: Hard Chromium coated 1010 carbon steel .
Description:
The coefficient of friction was found to decrease as the sliding
distance increases.

3. John Lenny Jr. Replacing the Cast Iron Liners for Aluminum Engine
Cylinder Blocks: A Comparative Assessment of Potential Candidates
Publication Year: 2006.
Description:
The total weight of the bore is reduced to about 45%.

2.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

Hero hondas Splendor 100cc engine specifications are tabulated:

12

S.No

Parameter

Dimensions

Cylinder Bore

ID: 53+0.02

Material

Aluminium ( Al)

OD : 53+0/-0.01
2

Cylinder Liner

ID : 50.01+0/-0.05

Cast Iron

Piston

OD: 50 +0/ -0.01

Aluminium alloy
(Al-si)

Piston Ring

OD :50.10 +0/ -0.05

Cast iron

Table 2(a): Bore Specifications

REMARKS:
The frictional coefficient is high, thereby there is an increase in the
wear rate of piston ring and inner sides of the cylinder wall.
Hardness of cast iron is less when compared to the hardness of
hard chromium.
Thermal expansion of cast iron is more which leads to greater
frictional losses.
2.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM
Revised 4 stroke 100cc engine specifications are tabulated:

13

S.No

Parameter

Dimensions

Material

Surface Treatment

Cylinder

ID: 53+0.02

Aluminium

Honing process

Bore

(Al)
OD : 53+0/-0.01

Cylinder
Liner

Piston

Cast Iron

Hard Chromium

ID :49.98 +0/

(thickness 25

-0.05

microns)

OD: 50 +0/ -0.01

Aluminium

Surface grinding.

alloy (Al-si)
4

Piston Ring

OD:50.10 +0/ -0.05

Cast iron

Hard Chromium
(thickness 25
microns)

Table 2(b): Bore Specifications

REMARKS:

Highly wear resistance.

Low coefficient of friction.
Low thermal expansion.
Longer life of cylinder bore.
CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL COMPONENTS

3.1 CAST IRON

14

Cast iron is iron or a ferrous alloy which has been heated until it liquefies,
and is then poured into a mould to solidify. It is usually made from pig iron. The
alloy

constituents

affect

its

colour

when

fractured: white

cast

iron has carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey
cast iron has graphitic flakes which deflect a passing crack and initiate countless
new cracks as the material breaks. Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main
alloying elements, with the amount ranging from 2.14 wt% and 13 wt%,
respectively.
Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this
technically makes these base alloys ternary FeCSi alloys, the principle of cast
iron solidification is understood from the binary ironcarbon phase diagram.
Since the compositions of most cast irons are around the eutectic point of the
ironcarbon system, the melting temperatures closely correlate, usually ranging
from 1,150 to 1,200 C (2,100 to 2,190 F), which is about 300 C (572 F)
lower than the melting point of pure iron.
Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. With its
relatively low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability,
resistance to deformation and wear resistance, cast irons have become
an engineering material with a wide range of applications and are used in pipes,
machines and automotive industry parts, such as cylinder heads (declining
usage), cylinder blocks and gearbox cases (declining usage). It is resistant to
destruction and weakening by oxidation (rust).

3.2 TYPES OF CAST IRON

15

3.2.1 GREY CAST IRON

Grey cast iron is characterised by its graphitic microstructure, which
causes fractures of the material to have a grey appearance. It is the most
commonly used cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on
weight. Most cast irons have a chemical composition of 2.54.0% carbon, 13%
silicon, and the remainder is iron. Grey cast iron has less tensile
strength and shock

resistance than

steel,

but

its compressive

strength is

comparable to low and medium carbon steel.

3.2.2 WHITE CAST IRON

It is the cast iron that displays white fractured surface due to the presence
of cementite. With a lower silicon content (graphitizing agent) and faster
cooling rate, the carbon in white cast iron precipitates out of the melt as
the metastable phase cementite, Fe3C, rather than graphite. The cementite which
precipitates from the melt forms as relatively large particles, usually in a
eutectic mixture, where the other phase is austenite (which on cooling might
transform to martensite). These eutectic carbides are much too large to provide
precipitation hardening (as in some steels, where cementite precipitates might
inhibit plastic deformation by impeding the movement of dislocations through
the ferrite matrix). Rather, they increase the bulk hardness of the cast iron
simply by virtue of their own very high hardness and their substantial volume
fraction, such that the bulk hardness can be approximated by a rule of mixtures.
In any case, they offer hardness at the expense of toughness. Since carbide
makes up a large fraction of the material, white cast iron could reasonably be
classified as a cermet. White iron is too brittle for use in many structural
components, but with good hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively low
16

cost, it finds use in such applications as the wear surfaces (impeller and volute)
of slurry pumps, shell liners and lifter bars in ball mills and auto genous
grinding mills, balls and rings in coal pulverisers, and the teeth of a backhoe's
digging bucket (although cast medium-carbon martensitic steel is more common
for this application). It is difficult to cool thick castings fast enough to solidify
the melt as white cast iron all the way through. However, rapid cooling can be
used to solidify a shell of white cast iron, after which the remainder cools more
slowly to form a core of grey cast iron. The resulting casting, called a chilled
casting, has the benefits of a hard surface and a somewhat tougher interior.
High-chromium white iron alloys allow massive castings (for example, a
10-tonne impeller) to be sand cast, i.e., a high cooling rate is not required, as
well as providing impressive abrasion resistance. These high-chromium alloys
attribute their superior hardness to the presence of chromium carbides. The
main form of these carbides are the eutectic or primary M7C3carbides, where
"M" represents iron or chromium and can vary depending on the alloy's
composition. The eutectic carbides form as bundles of hollow hexagonal rods
and grow perpendicular to the hexagonal basal plane. The hardness of these
carbides are within the range of 1500-1800HV

3.2.3 MALLEABLE CAST IRON

Malleable iron starts as a white iron casting that is then heat treated at
about 900 C (1,650 F). Graphite separates out much more slowly in this case,
so that surface tension has time to form it into spheroidal particles rather than
flakes. Due to their lower aspect ratio, spheroids are relatively short and far
from one another, and have a lower cross section vis-a-vis a propagating crack
or phonon.
17

They also have blunt boundaries, as opposed to flakes, which alleviates

the stress concentration problems faced by grey cast iron. In general, the
properties of malleable cast iron are more like mild steel. There is a limit to how
large a part can be cast in malleable iron, since it is made from white cast iron.

3.2.4 DUCTILE CAST IRON

A more recent development is nodular or ductile cast iron. Tiny amounts
of magnesium or cerium added to these alloys slow down the growth of graphite
precipitates by bonding to the edges of the graphite planes. Along with careful
control of other elements and timing, this allows the carbon to separate as
spheroidal particles as the material solidifies. The properties are similar to
malleable iron, but parts can be cast with larger sections.
3.3 CAST IRON LINER
The Cylinder Sleeves are used in variety of marine engines, diesel
engines, automotive and tractor engines as well as other models. These Cylinder
Sleeves are centrifugally casted and offer long term usage. We use Centrifugal
Cast Process to produce these Cylinder Sleeves. There are wet liner-sleeves and
dry liner-sleeves types of Cylinder Sleeves available.

18

Fig 3(a) cast iron liner

Raw Material
Grey cast iron.
Used In
Internal combustion engine.
3.3.1 TYPES OF CAST IRON LINER
Cylinder liners are the interior metal components within the piston that protect it
from the wear and tear of the operation of the motor. Three basic types of liners
are used: hot, dry and finned. The purpose of each type is to protect the piston
from heat and impurities using slightly different methods. Cylinder liners are
expensive, precisely manufactured products and are primarily purchased from
specialty shops.

19

Fig 3(b): Cylinder liners

DRY CYLINDER LINERS
Dry cylinder liners are among the basic piston protectors. They must
withstand extremely high temperatures and guard against impurities, so they are
constructed of high-grade materials, such as cast iron and ceramic-nickle
plating. Dry liners are much thinner than their counterpart, wet liners. They do
not interact with the engine coolant but instead provide a very close fit with the
jacket in the cylinder block to protect the piston from heat and impurities.
WET CYLINDER LINERS
Wet cylinder liners protect the pistons in a different way than dry ones,
but they are made from the same hardy material. They come in direct contact
with the engine coolant. Sometimes the wet cylinder liners are fitted with tiny
openings to help disperse the heat and impurities. These types of liners are
called water-jacket liners but are simply another type of wet cylinder liner. If the
liner doesn't have a cooling jacket, one is created by the liner by interacting with
the jacket present in the cylinder block.

20

FINNED CYLINDER LINERS

Finned cylinder liners are constructed of the same type of heat and
impurity-resistant metal. This type of liner is designed for the air-cooled engine,
and in operation works much like the dry cylinder liner in that the cooling
medium for the motor is air. However, these liners are fitted with tiny fins which
allow the inflowing air to draw with great force around the cylinder to provide
cooling.

3.4 ALUMINIUM BORE

Castings of aluminium are making an evermore significant contribution
to leveraging light construction potentials in modern passenger cars. The
heaviest individual component, the cylinder block, has meanwhile taken on a
key role. If we consider the enormous number of in-line engines produced,
especially four-cylinder and three-cylinder engines, but in- creasingly also sixcylinder engines in in-line and V arrange- ment, the cost/benefit aspect must
have absolute priority. The replacement of grey cast iron with aluminium for
cylinder blocks therefore pre-supposes low-cost concepts.

Fig 3.(c): Aluminium cylinder block.

21

3.5 HARD CHROME

Surface engineering is a hot topic these days, with applications
throughout a wide range of industrial sectors. Engineering surface treatments
and coatings can bring specialist properties of corrosion and wear resistance,
without compromising the characteristics of the substrate or base metal. Many
new processes are emerging, their innovations and developments sometimes
outpacing any proven industrial demand or performance demonstration. There is
vapor deposition, implantation, an expansive array of thermal spray coatings,
and many others, all attempting to attain the ultimate hard, tough, wear resistant,
low friction and anti-corrosion surface. And yet, for many applications, such a
coating already exists, with qualities too long taken for granted or even
overlooked, and its development too long neglected. Hard Chrome Plating
brings a wide variety of desirable properties and characteristics; properties that
many engineers require of their components and products. Hard Chrome Plating
is an electrolytic process utilizing a chromic acid based electrolyte. The part is
made the cathode and, with the passage of a DC current via lead anodes,
chromium metal builds on the component surface. A wide variety of parts can
be coated; it requires only the proper fixturing, a large enough bath, sufficient
lifting capacity, and adequate power sources. Hard Chrome Plating offers many
attractive properties to the engineer. Hard chrome can be applied at a very low
cost compared to alternatives, it can plate on a very wide variety of substance.
This explains why , despite environmental issues hard chrome continues to be a
widely specified and used.
3.5.1 TYPES OF HARD CHROME
There are three main types of hard chrome in operation. the plating rate of
each type of solution depends on the current density and efficieny of the plating
solution . sargeant solution consist of chromic acid and sulphate at a ratio of
about 100:1. This bath is often offered as a self regulated process, the controlled
22

solubility of a chosen sulphate compound is used to maintain the correct ratio of

the solution, these bath are cheap to run, but have low cathode efficiency and
give lower hardness and generally worse corrosion protection than more modern
systems. Fluoride catalysed processes are used with sulphate. They give a
much harder as plated deposit and have much higher cathode efficiency than
sergeant solution , and thus have a higher plating rate. The downside is that their
chemistry is much more aggressive to both equipment and plated parts, hence
metallic contamination is a serious issue. This has limited their use although
they have found some specific applications where they are used extensively.
Organic acid salts can also be used in conjunction with sulphate in the chrome
solution and have become foremost, preferred option. They have high
efficiency, plate to very hard deposits and due to high level of micro-cracking
found with these systems they offer good corrosion protection. Some of the
earlier systems used to have a negative effect on the rate of anode corrosion, but
more modern chemistries shows similar anode corrosion to the early sergeant
process
3.5.2 PROPERTIES OF HARD CHROME

High hardness.
Low coefficient of friction.
Excellent wear resistance.
Excellent corrosion resistance.

3.6 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE

Directional control valves are one of the most fundamental parts
in hydraulic machinery as well and pneumatic machinery. They allow fluid flow
into different paths from one or more sources. They usually consist of a spool
inside a cylinder which is mechanically or electrically controlled. The
23

movement of the spool restricts or permits the flow, thus it controls the fluid
flow.

3.6.1 MANUALLY OPERATED 5/2 DCV

Manually operated valves work with simple levers or paddles where the
operator applies force to operate the valve. Spring force is sometimes used to
recover the position of valve. Some manual valves utilize either a lever or an
external pneumatic or hydraulic signal to return the spool.

Fig 3(d): Diagrammatic representation of 5/2 DCV

3.7 LOAD CELL

A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force into an electrical
signal. This conversion is indirect and happens in two stages. Through a
mechanical arrangement, the force being sensed deforms a strain gauge. The
strain gauge measures the deformation(strain) as an electrical signal, because
the strain changes the effective electrical resistance of the wire. A load cell
usually consists of four strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge configuration.
Load cells of one strain gauge (quarter bridge) or two strain gauges (half bridge)
are also available.
The electrical signal output is typically in the order of a few milli volts
and requires amplification by an instrumentation amplifier before it can be used.
24

The output of the transducer can be scaled to calculate the force applied to the
transducer. The various types of load cells that exist include Hydraulic load
cells, Pneumatic load cells and Strain gauge load cells. The cell uses
conventional piston and cylinder arrangement. The piston is placed in a thin
elastic diaphragm.
The piston doesn't actually come in contact with the load cell. Mechanical
stops are placed to prevent over strain of the diaphragm when the loads exceed
certain limit. The load cell is completely filled with oil. When the load is
applied on the piston, the movement of the piston and the diaphragm
arrangement result in an increase of oil pressure which in turn produces a
change in the pressure on a Bourdon tube connected with the load cells.

CHAPTER 4
OPERARIONS INVOLVED
4.1 ELECTROPLATING
Hard chrome plating is generally used in those applications where parts
will be subjected to a very high degree of wear and thus a thicker layer of
chrome is required. The added thickness induces cracks and greater porosity on
the chrome surface. The cracks will increase with an

increase in chrome

thickness. Further machining, such as grinding, polishing or honing, is

necessary to improve the hard chrome plated surface so it can be used in contact

25

with cylinder liner. A coarse surface finish will substantially decrease the wear
resistance of the Cylinder liner.
Hard chrome plating is used in approximately 95% of all applications
with the remaining uses being thin dense chrome plating (See chart No. 1 for
description). Hard chrome plating is generally applied to exterior surfaces
where subsequent machining is easier.
Cylinder liner operate best against a hard chrome plated surface when
used with a lubricant, which promotes a film between the plated surface and the
seal surface. The lubricant can be wet, dry or a combination of both. At low
speeds under 500 ft/min (152 meters/min), pressures under 50 psi (3.2 bar), and
temperatures under 70F (21C), wet lubricants may need to be applied on the
chrome plated surface to fill in the surface irregularities in order to reduce seal
abrasion.
4.2 SURFACE GRINDING
Surface grinding is the most common of the grinding operations. It is a
finishing process that uses a rotating abrasive wheel to smooth the flat surface
of metallic or nonmetallic materials to give them a more refined look or to attain
a desired surface for a functional purpose.
The surface grinder is composed of an abrasive wheel, a work holding
device known as a chuck, and a reciprocating or rotary table. The chuck holds
the material in place while it is being worked on. It can do this one of two
ways: ferromagnetic pieces are held in place by a magnetic chuck, while nonferromagnetic and nonmetallic pieces are held in place by vacuum or
mechanical means. A machine vise (made from ferromagnetic steel or cast iron)
placed on the magnetic chuck can be used to hold non-ferromagnetic
workpieces if only a magnetic chuck is available.Factors to consider in surface
26

grinding are the material of the grinding wheel and the material of the piece
being worked on.
Typical workpiece materials include cast iron and mild steel. These two
materials don't tend to clog the grinding wheel while being processed. Other
materials are aluminum, stainless steel, brass and some plastics. When grinding
at high temperatures, the material tends to become weakened and is more
inclined to corrode. This can also result in a loss of magnetism in materials
where this is applicable.
The grinding wheel is not limited to a cylindrical shape and can have a
myriad of options that are useful in transferring different geometries to the
object being worked on. Straight wheels can be dressed by the operator to
produce custom geometries. When surface grinding an object, one must keep in
mind that the shape of the wheel will be transferred to the material of the object
like a mirror image.
Spark out is a term used when precision values are sought and literally
means "until the sparks are out (no more)". It involves passing the workpiece
under the wheel, without resetting the depth of cut, more than once and
generally multiple times. This ensures that any inconsistencies in the machine or
workpiece are eliminated.
4.3 DRILLING
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of
circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool,
often multipoint. The bit is pressed against the workpiece and rotated at rates
from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting
edge against the workpiece, cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is
drilled.
27

Drilled holes are characterized by their sharp edge on the entrance side
and the presence of burrs on the exit side (unless they have been removed).
Also, the inside of the hole usually has helical feed marks.
Drilling may affect the mechanical properties of the workpiece by
creating low residual stresses around the hole opening and a very thin layer of
highly stressed and disturbed material on the newly formed surface. This causes
the workpiece to become more susceptible to corrosion at the stressed surface. A
finish operation may be done to avoid the corrosion. Zinc plating or any other
standard finish operation of 14 to 20 m can be done which helps to avoid any
sort of corrosion.
For fluted drill bits, any chips are removed via the flutes. Chips may be
long spirals or small flakes, depending on the material, and process
parameters. The type of chips formed can be an indicator of the machinability of
the material, with long gummy chips reducing machinability.
Deep hole drilling is defined as a hole depth greater than ten times the
diameter of the hole. These types of holes require special equipment to maintain
the straightness and tolerances. Other considerations are roundness and surface
finish.
Deep hole drilling is generally achievable with a few tooling methods,
usually gun drilling or BTA drilling. These are differentiated due to the coolant
entry method (internal or external) and chip removal method (internal or
external). Using methods such as a rotating tool and counter-rotating workpiece
are common techniques to achieve required straightness tolerances. Secondary
tooling methods include trepanning, skiving and burnishing, pull boring, or
bottle boring. Finally a new kind of drilling technology is available to face this
issue: the vibration drilling. This technology consists in fractionating chips by a
28

small controlled axial vibration of the drill. Therefore the small chips are easily
removed by the flutes of the drill.
When cutting aluminum in particular, cutting fluid helps ensure a smooth
and accurate hole while preventing the metal from grabbing the drill bit in the
process of drilling the hole. When cutting brass, another soft metal that can grab
the drill bit and causes "chatter" the cutting edges of the drill bit, which
normally form an acute angle, a face of approx. 1-2 millimeters can be ground
on the cutting edge to create an obtuse angle of 91 to 93 degrees. This prevents
"chatter" where the drill tears rather than cuts the metal. However, the drill is
pushing the metal away. This creates high friction and very hot swarf.
For heavy feeds and comparatively deep holes oil-hole drills can be used,
with a lubricant pumped to the drill head through a small hole in the bit and
flowing out along the fluting. A conventional drill press arrangement can be
used in oil-hole drilling, but it is more commonly seen in automatic drilling
machinery in which it is the work piece that rotates rather than the drill bit.

CHAPTER 5
WORKING METHODOLOGY
5.1 METHODOLOGY
The methodology followed in this project is hetrogenous and we have
used pressed-in method to insert the cast iron sleeves inside the aluminium bore.
29

Inorder to increase the wear resistance, hard chromium is coated on the

inner walls of the castiron sleeves.

5.2 PROCESS CHART

SWITCH ON30AIR
COMPRESSOR

MAINTAIN 3 BAR
PRESSURE

ACTIVATE 5/2 LEVER OPERATED DCV

PISTON MOVEMENT
FROM TDC TO BDC

5.3 WORKING PROCESS

Turn on the air compressor and leave it for 5 minutes. Now set the
pressure gauge value as 3 bar. Connect all the air compressor cables in our
model. A 5/2 level operated spring return valve is used to actuate the piston. The
valve is checked for its connections. Now supply 3 bar pressure to the input of
the 5/2 lever operated spring return valve, the output cables of the DCV are

31

connected to the compact cylinder which in turn is attached to the piston rod of
the primary cylinder.
Now the supply is opened and when the lever of the DCV is moved, the
piton travels from bottom dead centre to top dead centre. The piston moves
rapidly when the lever is being operated continuously. For 3 bar input the piston
completes 60 strokes in one minute.

CHAPTER 6
COMPONENTS AND PART
6.1 COATED AND UNCOATED MODEL

32

Fig 6(a): 3D-model (Uncoated Material)

Fig 6(b):3D-model (Coated Material)

33

PISTON

Fig 6(c):3D-model of piston

Fig 6(d): Cut sectional view

34

Fig 6(e):3D-model (hard chrome coated)

PISTON

CYLINDER LINER

Fig 6(f): 2D-model

35

6.2 FINAL MODEL

Fig 6(g): Finished model

36

CHAPTER 7
DESIGN CALCULATION
7.1 Stroke Volume Calculation:
Vs = ( 3.14 * D^2 * L) (Reference IC engines- V.Ganeshan)
Vs = Stroke Volume
D = Diameter of Piston in cm
L = Stroke Length in cm
Vs = ((3.14)/4 *5*5*5)
Vs = 98.125 cc
7.2 Friction power loss Calculation :
Ip= Bp + Fp or Imep = Bmep+ Fmep
Ip=Indicated power in Watts
Bp= brake power in Watts
Fp= Friction power in Watts
Imep= Indicated mean effective pressure
Bmep= brake mean effective pressure
Fmep= Friction mean effective pressure
The friction power loss will be calculated by finding the
indicated power Ip and brake power Bp

37

Based on input pressure the indicated power will be calculated

Ip

= ( imp L*A*n*K / 60000 ) kW (Reference IC engines- V.Ganeshan)

imp = indicated mean pressure in bar

L

= Stroke Length in m

A = Area of the cylinder in m2

n

= Number of stroke per min

K = No of cylinders
Ip = (imp L*A*n*K / 60000) kW
Ip = (3* 10^5) (0.05* (3.14/4)*0.05 *0.05) * 60 * 1 /60000
Ip = (3*10^5) (9.8125*10^-5) (60) / 60000
Ip = 1766.25/60000
Ip = 0.029kW
To find the Fp the brake power need to be calculated as follows
Pressure, P =Force / Area
Force, F= 3*10^5 *((3.14/4)*0.05*0.05)
F= 589 N
Measured output Force (Load Cell) = 502 N
Difference in input & Output = 589 -432 = 157 N

38

Friction force (Fr) = (Co-efficient of friction) * Normal Force (dynamics of

machinery-Jayakumar.V)
= Fr/N
Fr=0.46 *157
Friction force, Fr= 72.22 N
Equivalent pressure loss for this force
Pressure, P=F/A
P= 72.22 / (3.14/4)*0.05*0.05
Pressure, P= 0.3675 bar
Therefore frictional pressure loss is 0.36bar
imp = bmp + fmp
bmp=3 bar 0.37 bar
bmp=2.63 bar
Substitute this value in below formula to get the Bp
Bp= ( bmp L*A*n*K / 60000 ) kW
Bp = brake power in kW
bmp= brake mean pressure
L = Stroke Length in m
A= Area of the cylinder in m2
n = Number of stroke per min
39

K = No of cylinders
Bp= ( bmp L*A*n*K / 60000 ) kW
Bp= ( 2.6* 10^5 ) ( 0.05* (3.14/4)*0.05 *0.05) * 60 * 1 /60000
Bp= (2.6*10^5) (9.8125*10^-5) (60) / 60000
Bp= 1766.25/60000
Bp= 0.025kW
Mechanical efficiency, = Bp/Ip
= (0.025 /0.029)
Mechanical efficiency, = 86.2%.

40

CHAPTER 8
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Type

Paramet
er

Aluminium Cast Iron

Hard
Chromium

Physical

Density

2.70 gcm3

7.15 gcm3

7.19 gcm3

Mechanica
l

Young's
Modulus
Tensile
Strength

70 Gpa

110Mpa

279 Gpa

80Mpa

100Mpa

Yield
Strength

50Mpa

----

---

Elongation

43%

-----

Poisson
ratio

0.35

0.5% in
inches
0.27
0.48

0.48

---

Co-Efficient 0.27/0.22
of Friction

Thermal

0.21

Hardness
BHP

245Mpa

260 Mpa

1120 Mpa

Thermal
conductivit
y

237 Wm1K1

70 Wm1K1

93.9 Wm1K1

Thermal
expansion

(25 C) 23.1
mm1K1

(25 C) 11
mm1.K1

Table 8(a): Material Porperties

41

(25 C) 4.9
mm1K1

CHAPTER 9
ANSYS RESULTS
9.1 RESULTS OF CAST IRON MATERIAL

Fig 9(a): Thermal Effect On Cylinder Wall.

42

Fig 9(b): Thermal Effect On Cylinders Inner Wall.

43

Fig 9(c): Thermal Effect On Top Face Piston.

44

Fig 9(d): Thermal Effect On Piston Sides.

45

9.2 RESULTS FOR HARDCHROME MATERIAL

Fig 9(e): Thermal Effect On Piston Rings.

46

Fig 9(f): Thermal Effect on Cylinder wall

47

Fig 9(g): Thermal Effect on piston.

48

Fig 9(h): Thermal Effect on Top Face of the Piston.

49

Sl.No

Description

Quantity

Each
Price

Total Price

1.

Engine- Bore setup

02

Rs.3,200

Rs.6,400

2.

Base Plate & Cylinder Plate

01

Rs.500

Rs.500

3.

ADVU-32-80-A-P-A Cylinder and its

accessories

01

Rs.6300

Rs.6300

CHAPTER 10

COST EXPENDITURE

Table 10(a): Cost Estimation

50

CHAPTER 11
FABRICATED MODEL

51

CHAPTER 12
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE
12.1 FUTURE SCOPE
Hard chromium is a material that has high hardness, it finds its place not
alone in petrol engines but also in areas where there are more frictional losses.
Hard chromium can be mixed with other materials in order to improve its
wear resistance.
Hard chromium can also be employed in materials where the sliding
distance is more.
12.2 MERITS

Greater wear resistance.

Hardness of hard chromium is high.
Lower co-efficient of friction.
Lower thermal expansion.
Increased life of the sliding surfaces.
Good surface finish after honing process.

12.3 DEMERITS
Plating process is expensive.
Hard chromium is a toxic substance.
After hard chromium is coated it has to be honed.
12.4 APPLICATIONS
Used in petrol engines.
Used in diesel engines.
Used in hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders.
CHAPTER 13
52

CONCLUSION
To improve the mechanical efficiency by providing surface coating ( hard
Chrome) on the piston ring and the cylinder liner to get the optimum results .
The results as follows,
MATERIAL

ALUMINIUM

CAST IRON

CHROMIUM

THERMAL
EXPANSION

(25 C) 23.1
mm-1K-1

25 C) 11
mm-1.K-1

(25 C) 4.9
mm1K1

MECHANICAL
EFFICIENCY

Below 75

75 to 80

82 to 87

53

LIFE
Obviously less
because of its
lower thermal
expansion
property.
We can re-bore
the cylinder only
2 to 3 times .
After that we need
to change/replace
the entire cylinder
bore .
We can re-bore 2
to 3 times based
on the liner wall
thickness we have
chosen and the
new piston sets
for the re-bored
diameter . After
that we no need to
change the entire
bore of the system
we just re-place
the liner into new
one this will save
the cost.

Table 13(a): Comparison table

COMPARISON CHART

87%

86%

85%

CAST IRON

84%

HARD CHROME

83%

82%

81%
INPUT PRESSURE 3 BAR

54

TIME CHART

PERCENTAGE
120

100

80
PERCENTAGE
60

40

20

0
JANUARY

FEBRUARY

MARCH

55

APRIL

CHAPTER 14
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Gawne.D.T.;Despres.N.J.The influence of process conditions on friction
and wear of electrodeposited chromium coatings Journal of Vacuum
Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films.
2. Amjad SalehEl-Amoush AymanAbu-Rob, Hmood Edwan, Khalid
Atrash, Mohannad Igab Tribological properties of hard chromium coated
1010 mild steel under different sliding distances.
3. John Lenny Jr. Replacing the Cast Iron Liners for Aluminum Engine
Cylinder Blocks: A Comparative Assessment of Potential Candidates .
4. Hard chromium material which is toxic Safety Requirements British
Standards Institution.
5. Advance IC engines V. GANESHAN
6. Dynamics of machinery JAYAKUMAR
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron
http://www.verneschromeplating.com/chrome-plating.html
http://www.kiowa.co.uk/products/ADVU-32-10-A-P-A-Festo-Compactcylinder

56