SUPPORT MATERIAL

CLASS-X

SCIENCE
2012 - 2013

Venue :
R.P.V.V., Sector-XI, Rohini, Delhi

Published by :
Directorate of Education Govt. of NCT of Delhi

List of Members who prepared Support Material

For Science for Class-X
Group Leader
Mr. Rajpal Sherawat
Principal, R.P.V.V., Sec.-XI, Rohini, Delhi
Sl. No. Name

Designation

Name of the School

1.

Ms. Sadaf Fatima Merchant T.G.T. (N. Sc.)

R.P.V.V., Sec.-XI,
Rohini,Delhi

2.

Mr.Anil Kumar Nirwal

T.G.T. (N.Sc.)

R.P.V.V., Sec.-XI,
Rohini,Delhi

3.

Mr. Siddharth Kaushik

T.G.T. (N.Sc.)

R.P.V.V., Civil Lines,

Delhi

4.

Ms. Jyoti Puri

T.G.T. (N.Sc.)

S.K.V., Kamdhenu,
D-Block, Mangolpuri,
Delhi

5.

Ms. Meenakshi Tyagi

T.G.T. (N.Sc.)

G. Co.ed.S.S.S.,
Sec.-XI, Rohini, Delhi

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List of Contents
Chapter
No.

Name of the
Chapter

Page
No.

1.

Chemical Reactions and Equations

2.

Acid, Bases and Salts

3.

Metals and Non Metals

4.

Carbon and its compound

5.

Periodic Classification of Elements

6.

Life Processes

7.

Control and Coordination

8.

How do Organisms Reproduce

9.

Heredityand Evolution

10.

Light - Reflection and Refraction

11.

Human eye and colourful World

12.

Electricity

13.

Magnetic effects of Electric Current

14.

Sources of Energy

15.

Our Environment

16.

Management of Natural Resources

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CHAPTER 1

SECTION A : READING
q

Chemical Reaction : Whenever a chemical change occurs we can say that

a chemical reaction has taken place
eg

Food gets digested in our body

Rusting of iron.

Chemical Equation : A chemical reaction can be expressed symbolically

by using chemical equation
eg magnesium is burnt into air to form magnesium oxide can be represented
as
Mg + O2

MgO

We can observe or recognise a chemical reaction by observing change

in state, colour, by evolution of gas or by change in temperature.

Physical state of the reactant and products are mentioned to make chemical
reaction more informative. eg we use (g) for gas, (l) for liquid, (s) for solid
and (aq) for aqueous.

Balancing Equation : We balance the chemical equation so that no. of

atoms of each element involved in the reaction remain same at the reactant
and product side.
eg Fe + H2O

Fe2O3 + H2 can be written as

3 Fe(s) + 4H2O(g)
q

Fe2O3(s) +4H2(g)

Combination Reaction : The reaction in which two or more substances

combine to form a new single substance

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eg

CaO(s) + H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Calcium
Water
Calcium hydroxide
oxide
(slaked lime)

Quick lime

Ca(OH)2 slaked lime is used for white washing walls. It reacts will CO2 to
form CaCO3 and gives a shiny finish to the walls.
Ca(OH)2

(aq)+

CO2

(g)

CaCO3

(s)+

Calcium

Calcium

hydroxide

Carbonate

H2O (l)

Burning of Coal
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) + heat + light

Formation of water
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

Exothermic Reactions : Reaction in which heat is released along with the

formation of products.
eg. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Respiration is also exothermic reaction.

De composition of vegetable matter into compost.

De compositon Reactions : The reaction in which a single substance

decomposes to give two or more substances. De composition reactions can
be of three types
Thermal Decompositon : When a decompositon reaction is carried out by
heating

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Silver bromide behaves similarly

Sunlight 2Ag(s) + Br (g)

2Ag Br

The above two reactions are used in black and white photography.

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Endothermic Reactions The reactions which require energy in the form

of heat, light or electricty are called Endothermic Reactions.
2Ba(OH)2 + NH4Cl 2BaCl2 + NH4OH

Displacement Reaction : The chemical Reaction in which an element

displaces another element from its solution
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4 + Cu(s)
Copper
(aq)
Sulphate
Iron Sulphate

The nail becomes brownish in colour and the blue colour of Copper Sulphate
solution fade.

Other examples

Zn(s) + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu(s)

(aq)

(aq)

Copper
Sulphate

Zinc
Sulphate

Pb(s) + CuCl2 PbCl2

+ Cu(s)

(aq)

(aq)

Copper
Chloride

Lead
Chloride

Zinc and lead are more reactive elements than copper. They displace copper
from its compounds.
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Double Displacement Reaction : The reaction in which two different atoms

or group of atoms are mutually exchanged
eg. Na2 SO4

BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl

+ BaCl2

(aq)

(aq)

(aq)

Sodium
Barium
Barium
Sodium
Sulphate Chloride
Sulphate Chloride
A white substance is formed due to above reaction. The insoluble substance
is called precipitate.
Precipitation Reaction Any reaction that produces a precipitate is called a
precipitation reaction.
eg. Pb(NO3)2

(aq)

2KI PbI2 +2KNO3

(aq)

(aq)

Lead Nitrate

Potassium Lead Potassium

Iodide
Iodide
Nitrate
Oxidation : Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen
Heat 2CuO
eg. 2Cu + O2
When Copper is heated a black colour appears. If this CuO is reacted with
hydrogen gas then again Cu becomes brown as reverse reaction takes place
Heat Cu + H2O
CuO + H2

Reduction : Reduction is the loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen.

Redox Reaction : The reaction in which one reactant gets oxidised while
other gets reduced

eg.

ZnO + C Zn + CO
MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2

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Corrosion : When a metal is attacked by substances around it such as

moisture, acids etc.
eg.

Reddish brown coating on iron.

(ii)

Black coating on Silver.

Rancidity : When fats and oils are oxidised they become rancid and their
smell and taste change.

Antioxidants are added to foods containing fats and oil.

EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
(1 Mark)
Answer the following questions very breifly
1.

What happens when the milk is left at room temperature during summer?

2.

Write a chemical equation when magnesium is burnt in air to give magnesium

oxide.

3.

A substance under goes chemical reactions to produce simpler products,

what type of reaction is this?

4.

Why do copper vessels lose their shine when exposed to air?

5.

Which gas is produced by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on zinc

granules?

6.

Fe2O3 + 2Al Al2O3 + 2Fe

The above reaction is an example of which type of reaction.

7.

Name the type of reaction in which energy is absorbed.

8.

Why does the colour of copper sulphate solution change when an iron nail is
dipped into it?

9.

Give an example of decomposition reaction which proceeds by absorbing

electric energy.

10.

Why do we balance the chemical equation?

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Answer the following questions briefly

(2 mark)

1.

Write down the observations which indicate the occurence of a chemical

reaction.

2.

Why is respiration considered as an exothermic reaction? Explain.

3.

Transfer the following statements into Chemical equations and then balance
them.

4.

a)

Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.

b)

Potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and

hydrogen gas.

Identify the substances that are oxidised and the substances that are reduced
to the folllowing reactions.
1.

Na

O2

(s)

(g)

CuO

(s)

H2

Na2O

(s)

(g)

Cu + H O
2
(l)
(s)

5.

What happens when silver chloride is exposed to sunlight? Give one practical
application of this reaction. Write the equation also.

6.

Why is the bag used for potato chips flushed with nitrogen gas?

Answer the following questions in detail

1.

(3 marks)

Write down the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.
a) Zinc Carbonate(s) Zinc Oxide + Carbon Dioxide(g)
b) Aluminium(s) + Chlorine(g) Aluminium Chloride(s)
c) Magnesium(s)+ Water(l)

2.

Heat

Magnesium Hydroxide(l)+ Hydrogen(g)

Choose combination, displacement and double displacement reactions out of

the given reactions.
+ 4HCl(l) MnCl2

i)

MnO2

ii)

CaO

iii)

2AgCl(s) 2Ag(s) + Cl2

(s)

(s)

+ CO2

(g)

CaCO3

(s)

+ Cl2

(g)

+ 2H2O

(l)

(s)

(g)

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3.

What happens when CO2 is passed through slaked lime? Write the balanced
(g)
chemical equation. Write the type of reaction that has occured.

Explain the following questions detail

1.

(5 marks)

Balance the following chemical equation and identify the type of reaction they
represent
KClO3 KCl + O2
NH3 + O2 NO + H2O
Na2O + H2O NaOH
Na + H2O NaOH + H2
FeCl3 + NaOH Fe (OH)3 + NaCl.

2.

Define various types of chemical reactions. Write one chemical equation for
each type.

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CHAPTER 2

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

q

Acids
Sour in taste

Bases
Bitter in taste

Change the blue litmus to red

Change red litmus to blue

eg. HydrochloricAcid HCl

eg. Sodium hydroxide NaOH

SulphuricAcid H2SO4

Potassium hydroxide KOH

Nitric Acid HNO3

Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2

Acetic Acid CH3 COOH

Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH

Some Naturally occuring acids

Vinegar

Acetic Acid

Orange

Citric Acid

Lemon

Citric Acid

Tamarind

Tartaric Acid

Tomato

Oxalic Acid

Sour milk (Curd)

Lactic Acid

Ant and Nettle sting

Methanoic Acid

Acid Base Indicators Indicate the presence of an acid or base in a

solution.

Litmus solution It is a natural indicator. It is a purple day extracted from

Lichens. Other examples are Red Cabbage and coloured petals of Petunia
and turmeric.

Olfactory indicators Show odour changes in acidic or basic media. eg.

onion and clove.

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Acid Base Indicators

S. No.

Name of the
Indicator

Colour Change Colour Change

with Acid
with Base

A.

Blue litmus solution

To red

No change

B.

Red litmus solution

No change

To blue

C.

Turmeric

No change

To red

D.

Methyl orange

To red

To yellow

E.

Phenolphthalein (colourless)

No change

To pink

Dilute Acid : Contains only a small amounts of acid and a large amount of
water.

Concentrated Acid : A concentrated acid contains a large amount of acid and

a small amount of water.

Chemical Properties of Acids and Bases

Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen
(Refer activity 2.3 on page No. 19 of NCERT Book)
2HCl + Zn ZnCl2 + H2
2HNO3 + Zn Zn (NO3)2 + H2
H2SO4 + Zn ZnSO4 + H2
2CH3COOH + Zn (CH3COO)2 Zn + H2

Pop test : When a buring candle is brought near a test tube containing
hydrogen gas it burns with a Pop sound. This test is conducted for examining
the presence of hydrogen gas.

Base + Metal Salt + Hydrogen

NaOH + Zn Na2ZnO2 + H2
Sodium Zincate
Note Such reactions are not possible with all the metals.

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Action of Acids with metal Carbonates and metal bicarbonates

Metal Carbonate + Acid Salt + Carbondioxide + Water
Na2CO3

(s)

+ 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Metal bicarbonate + Acid Salt + Carbondioxide + Water

NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + CO2 + H2O
q

Lime water Test : On passing the CO2 gas evolved through lime water,
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
Lime water
White precipitate
On passing excess CO2 the following reaction takes place
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Ca(HCO3)2 aq
Soluble in water

Neutralisation Reactions
Base + Acid Salt + Water
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Neutralisation reacton takes place when the effect of a base is nullified by
an acid and vice versa to give salt and water.

Reactions of metal oxides with acids

Metal Oxide + Acid Salt + Water
CuO

Copperoxide

HCl

CuCl2

Hydrochloric

Copper + Water

acid

chloride

H2O

Note : Appearance of blue green colour of the solution because of formation

of CuCl2.
Metallic oxides are said to be basic oxides because they give salt and water
on reacting with acids.
q

Reaction of Non Metallic Oxide with Base

Non metallic oxide + Base Salt + Water
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
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Note : Non Metallic oxides are said to be acidic in nature because on reacting
with a base they produce Salt and Water.
q

All acidic solutions conduct electricity

Refer activity 2.3 on page 22 of NCERT Book
Glowing of bulb indicates that there is a flow of electric current through the
solution.

Acids or bases in a Water Solution

Acids produce H+ions in the presence of water
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl
H3O+ Hydronium ion.

H+ion cannot exist alone. It exists as H+(aq) or (H3O+) hydronium ion.

H+ + H2O H3O+

Bases provide (OH) ions in the presence of water

H2O
+

NaOH(s)
Na (aq) + OH (aq)
H2O
+

KOH(s)
K (aq) + OH (aq)
H2O
2+

Mg(OH)2(s)
Mg (aq) + 2OH (aq)
q

Alkalis
All bases donot dissolve in water. An alkali is a base that dissolves in water.
Common alkalis are
NaOH

Sodium hydroxide

KOH

Potassium hydroxide

Ca(OH)2

Calcium hydroxide

NH4OH : Ammonium hydroxide

Note : All alkalis are bases but all bases are not alkalis.
q

Precaution must be taken while mixing acid or base with water. The acid must
always be added to water with constant stirring as it is highly exothermic
reaction.
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When an acid or a base is mixed with water they become dilute. This results
in the decrease in the concentration of H3O+ or OH per unit volume in acids
and bases respectively.
q

Strength of an Acid or Base

Strength of acids and bases depends on the no. of H+ions and OHions
produced respectively.
With the help of a universal indicator we can find the strength of an acid or
base. This indicator is called PH scale.
pH = Potenz in German means power.
This scale measures from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline) 7 Neutral
(water in Neutral).
pH paper : Is a paper which is used for measuring PH.
Variation of PH
S.
PH
No. Value

Colour of the
pH Paper

Nature of
Solution

H+ion
Conc.

O H i o n
Conc.

1.

Dark red

2.

Orange or yellow

Acidic

high

low

3.

7:

Green

Neutral

Equal

Equal

4.

10

Bluish green or blue

Alkaline

low

high

5.

14

Dark blue or voilet

highly basic

very low

very high

Highly acidic very high

very low

strong Acids give rise to more H+ions.

eg. HCl, H2SO4 and HNO3.

Weak Acids give rise to less H+ ions

eg. CH3 COOH, H2 CO3 (Carbonic acid)

Strong Bases Strong bases give rise to more OH ions.

eg. NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2

Weak Bases : give rise to less OH ions.

eg. NH4OH
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More about Salts

Salts and their derivation
S. No. Name of Salt

Formula

Derived from Derived from

1.

Potassium Sulphate

K2 SO4

KOH

H2SO4

2.

Sodium Sulphate

Na2SO4

NaOH

H2SO4

3.

Sodium Chloride

NaCl

NaOH

HCl

4.

Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl

NH4OH

HCl

Note : NaCl and Na2 SO4 belong to the family of sodium salts as they have
the same radicals. Similarly NaCl and KCl belong to the family of chloride
salts.
Importance of pH in our daily life
q

Importance of pH in our digestive system pH level of our body regulates

our digestive system. In case of indigestion our stomach produces acid in a
very large quantity because of which we feel pain and irritation in our stomach.
To get relief from this pain antacids are used. These antacids neutralises the
excess acid and we get relief.

pH of Acid Rain : When pH of rain water is less than 5.6 it is called Acid
Rain.When this acidic rain flows into rivers these also get acidic, which causes
a threat to the survival of aquatic life.

pH of Soil : Plants require a specific range of pH for their healthy growth. If

pH of soil of any particular place is less or more than normal than the farmers
add suitable fertilizers to it.

Our body functions between the range of 7.0 to 7.8 living organisms can
survive only in the narrow range of pH change.

Tooth decay and pH : Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by

degredation of sugar and food particles remaining in the mouth. Using toothpaste
which is generally basic can neutralise the excess acid and prevent tooth
decay.

Bee sting or Nettle sting contains methanoic acid which causes pain and
irritation. When we use a weak base like baking soda on it we get relief.

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Neutral Salts : Strong Acid + Strong base

pH value is 7
eg. NaCl, CaSO4
Acidic Salts : Strong Acid + weak base
pH value is less than 7
eq. NH4Cl, NH4 NO3
Basic Salts : Strong base + weak acid
pH value is more than 7
eg. CaCO3, CH3 COONa
q

Chemicals from Common Salt

Sodium chloride is called as common salt used in our food. It is derived
from seawater.
Rock Salt is the brown coloured large crystals. This s mined like coal.
Common Salt is an important raw material for many materials of daily use
such as.
Sodium hydroxide
Washing Soda
Bleaching Power.

Sodium Hydroxide
Preparation : Prepared by the method called chlor-alkali
Called chlor-alkali because we get chlorine and a base in this.
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)

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Bleaching Power
Preparation Ca(OH)2

Cl2 CaOCl2

calcium hydroxide

chlorine

bleaching
power

H2O
water

uses in textile, factories and laundry, used as disinfectant

q

Baking Soda
Common name Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
Preparation NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Sodium
chloride

Water

Carbon
dioxide

Ammonia

Sodium hydrogen
carbonate

On heating NaHCO3 produces :

NaHCO3

Heat

Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2

CO2 produced causes dough to rise and make cakes, pastries spongy.
Uses :

In household, ingredients of antacid

In making baking power

On heating baking powder produces

NaHCO3 + H+ CO2 + H2O + Sodium Salt of acid
q

Washing Soda
Preparation : Recrystallisation of sodium carbonate
Na2CO3 + 10H2O
Uses

Heat

Na2CO3. 10H2O

Used in glass, soap and paper industry

Cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
Removal of hardness of water.
Manufacturere of borax.

Water of crystallisation : Fixed no. of water molecules present in one formula

unit of a salt.

On heating copper sulphate crystals water droplets appear, formula of

hydrated copper sulphate CuSO4. 5H2O.
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gypsum also contains water of crystallisation.

Formula of gypsum CaSO4.2H2O

On heating gypsum at 373k it becomes CaSO4.H2O is plaster of

paris.

Plaster of Paris is used as plaster for fractured bones.

When plaster of Paris is mixed with water it changes to gypsum.

CaSO4. H2O + 1 H2O CaSO4.2H2O

Uses of plaster of Paris : Making toys, decorative material and smooth surfaces.

EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short answer type questions

(1 mark)

1.

Two solution have pH number 4 and 9 respectively which solution has more
H+ ion concentration?

2.

Why should cured and sour substances not be kept in brass and copper
vessel?

3.

What is the chemical name of bleaching powder?

4.

Write down the molecular formula for one strong and one weak acid.

5.

Explain why plaster of Paris should be stored in a moisture proof container?

6.

Name the gas evolved when dil. sulphuric acid acts on sodium carbonate.

7.

What is the use of common salt in soap industry?

8.

What do you observe when a buring candle is brought near the testube
containing hydrogen gas?

9.

Name the indicator used to measure pH values over the whole range.

10.

Write the formula of washing powder.

Short Answer Type Questions

(2 marks)

1.

Write two physical properties of an acid

2.

Complete the reaction CaCO3 + H2O name the products formed.

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3.

A testtube contains solution of NaOH and Phenolphthalein. Why the colour

of the solution changes when HCl in added to it.

4.

Why metallic oxides are called as basic oxides and non-metallic oxides are
calles acidic oxides?

5.

In a beakey a solution of HCl is poured and an electric circuit containing bulb

is placed systemtically. What happens to the bulb and why?
What will happen if HCl is repplaced by NaOH?

6,
7.

Identify the type of reaction

H X + M OH MX + HOH
Why all bases are not alkalies but all alkalis are bases?

Answer the following questions in detail

(3 marks)

1.

What is acid rain? What is its pH? How does it affect the aquatic life?

2.

What happens when a metal react with dilute hydrochloric acid? Write the
reaction
NaOH + Zn _________ + _________.

3.

What happens when an acid or a base is added to the water? Why does the
beaker appear warm? Why should we always add acid or base to the water
and not water to the acid or base.

Answer the following question in detail

1.

2.

(5 marks)

(a)

Write down five products formed with the help of common salt on
industrial level.

(b)

Write down the chemical name of these compounds and one use of
each of them.

Fill in the blanks

a)
Acid + ______ Salt + Water..
b)
c)

_____ + Metal Salt + _____

Metal carbonate / metal hydrogen carbonate + acid

_______ + _______ + _______.

d)

NaOH

e)

Na2CO3 + 10H2O _______.

H2 O

_______ + _______

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CHAPTER 3

METALS AND NON-METALS

q

About 118 elements are known today. There are more than 90 metals, 22
non metals and a few metalloids.

Sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium(Mg), aluminium(Al), calcium(Ca),

Iron(Fe), Barium(Ba) are some metals.

Oxygen(O), hydrogen(H), nitrogen(N), sulphur(S), phosphorus(P), fluorine(F),

chlorine(Cl), bromine(Br), iodine(l) are some non-metals

*Physical properties of metals:

q

Solid at room temperature except mercury

Ductile (drawn into wires)

Malleable (beaten into thin sheets)

Sonorous(produce sound)

Lustrous(natural shine)

Have high melting point. Cesium and gallium have very low melting point.

Generally good conductor of heat and electricity, except lead and mercury
which are comparatively poor conductors. Silver and copper are best
conductors.

Have high density. Sodium and potassium can be cut with knife, they have
low density.

Physical properties of non-metals:

q

Occur as solid or gas. Bromine is liquid.

Generally bad conductors of heat and electricity. Graphite a natural form of

carbon is a good conductor.

Non-sonorous.
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Non-lustrous, only iodine has lustre.

Metals form basic oxides like Magnesium oxide(MgO), while non-metals

form acidic oxides (as in acid rain).

*Chemical properties of metals:

1.

Reaction with air

Metals can burn in air, react or don't react with air.
Metal

+ oxygen Metal Oxide

Some metals like Na and K are kept immersed in kerosene oil as they react
vigorously with air and catch fire.

Some metals like Mg, Al, Zn, Pb react slowly with air and form a protective
layer.

Mg can also burn in air with a white dazzling light to form its oxide

Fe and Cu don't burn in air but combine with oxygen to form oxide. When
heated iron filings burn when sprinkled over flame.

Metals like silver, platinum and gold don't burn or react with air.
2Na +

O2

Na2O

2Mg +

O2

2MgO

2Cu +

O2

2CuO

4Al +

302

2Al2O3

Amphoteric Oxides : metal oxides which react with both acids as well as
bases to form salt and water e.g. Al2O3, ZnO.
Al2O3

HCl

AlCl3

H2 O

Al2O3

NaOH

NaAlO2

H2 O

2.

Reaction with water :

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Na

H2 O

NaOH

H2

H2 O

KOH

H2

Ca

H2 O

Ca(OH)2

H2

Mg

H2 O

Mg(OH)2 +

H2

In case of Ca and Mg, the metal starts floating due to dubbles of hydrogen
gas sticking to its surface.
Al

H2 O

Al2O3

H2

Fe

H2 O

Fe3O4

H2

Try Balancing these Chemical equations yourself

3.

Reaction with dilute acids:

Metal + dilute acid Salt + Hydrogen gas
Metals react with dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute sulphuric acid to form
salt and hydrogen gas.
Fe

2HCl

FeCl2

H2

Mg

2HCl

MgCl2

H2

Zn

2HCl

ZnCl2

H2

2Al +

6HCl

2AlCl3

3H2

Copper, mercury and silver dont react with dilute acids.

Hydrogen gas produced is oxidised to water when metals react with nitric
acid. But Mg and Mn, react with very dilute nitric acid to evolve hydrogen
gas.
Mg
4.

2HNO3

Mg(NO3)2 +

H2

Reaction of metals with other metal salts :

Salt
Metal A +

solution

Salt

solution

of B

Metal B

of A

All metals are not equally reactive. Reactive metals can displace less reactive
metals from their compounds in solution. This forms the basis of reactivity
series of metals.
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Reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in order of their decreasing

activities.

Fe

CuSO4

FeSO4

Cu

Zn

CuSO4

ZnSO4

Cu

Reaction between Metals and Non-Metals :

Reactivity of elements can be understood as a tendency to attain a completely

filled valence shell.

Atom of metals can lose electrons from valence shells to form cations (+ve
ions).

Atom of non-metals gain electrons in valence shell to form anions (ve ions).

Oppositely charged ions attract each other and are held by strong electrostatic
forces of attraction forming ionic compounds.

Formation of MgCl2
Mg

2,8,2
Cl2
2,8,7

2e

Mg2+

2e

2,8 (Magnesium ion)

2Cl
2,8,8 (Chloride ion)

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Properties of Ionic Compounds :

Are solid and mostly brittle.

Have high melting and boiling points. More energy is required to break the
strong inter-ionic attraction.

Generally soluble in water and insoluble in kerosene, petrol.

Conduct electricity in solution and in molten state. In both cases, free ions are
formed and conduct electricity.

Occurance of Metals
Minerals : elements of compounds occuring naturally are minerals.
ORES : mineral from which metal can be profitably extracted is an ore. For example,
sulphide ore, oxide ore, carbonate ore.

Metals at the bottom of activity series like gold, platinum, silver, copper
generally occur in free state. But copper and silver also occur in sulphide and
oxide ores.

Metals of medium reactivity (Zn, Fe, Pb etc.) occur mainly as oxides, sulphides
or carbonates.

Metals of high reactivity (K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al) are very reactive and thus
found in combined state.

GANGUE : ores are naturally found mixed impurities like soil, sand, etc. called
gangue. The gangue is removed from the ore.
METALLURGY : step-wise process of obtaining metal from its ore.
*Enrichment of ore
*Obtaining metal from enriched ore.
*Refining of impure metal to obtain pure metal.
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Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series :

By heating the ores in air at high temperature.
*Mercury from cinnabar

Heat 2HgO + 2SO2

2HgS + 3O2
Heat 2Hg + O2
2HgO
* Copper from copper sulphide

Heat 2Cu2O _ 2SO2

Cu2S + 3O2
Heat 6Cu + SO2
2Cu2O + Cu2S
Extracting Metals in the Middle of Activity Series :
*Metals are easier to obtain from oxide ores, thus, sulphide and carbonate ores are
converted into oxides.
*Metal ore heated strongly in excess of air (Roasting)

Heat 2ZnO + 2SO2

2ZnS + 3O2
Metal ore heated strongly in limited or no supply of air (Calcination)

Heat ZnO + CO2

ZnCO3
Reduction of Metal Oxide :
1.

USING COKE: Coke as a reducing agent.

Heat Zn + CO
ZnO + C
2.

USING DISPLACEMENT REACTION : highly reactive metal like Na, Ca

and Al are used to displace metals of lower reactivity from their compounds.

Heat 3Mn + 2Al2O3 + heat

MnO2 + 4Al

Heat 2Fe + Al2O3 + heat

Fe2O3 + 2Al

In the above reaction molten iron is formed and is used to join railway tracks.
This is called thermit reaction.
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Extracting Metals at the Top of Activity Series :

These metals

have more affinity for oxygen than carbon.

are obtained by electrolytic reduction. Sodium is obtained by electrolysis of

its molten chloride NaCl Na+ + Cl
As electricity is passed through the solution metal gets deposited at cathode
and non-metal at anode.

At cathode :
Na+ + e Na

At anode :
2Cl Cl2 + 2e

Refining of Metals :

Impurities present in the obtained metal can be removed by electrolytic refining.

Copper is obtained using this method. Following are present inside the
electrolytic tank.

Anode slab of impure copper

Cathode slab of pure copper

Solution aqueous solution of copper sulphate with some dilute sulphuric

acid

From anode copper ions are released in the solution and equivalent amount
of copper from solution is deposited at cathode.

Impurities containing silver and gold gets deposited at the bottom of anode
as anode mud.

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Corrosion :

Metals are attacked by substances in surroundings like moisture and acids.

Silver - it reacts with sulphur in air to form silver sulphide and articles become
black.

Copper - reacts with moist carbon dioxide in air and gains a green coat of
copper carbonate.

Iron-acquires a coating of a brown flaky substance called rust. Both air and
moisture are necessary for rusting of iron.
Prevention of corrosion:

Rusting of iron is prevented by painting, oiling, greasing, galvanizing, chrome

plating, anodising and making alloys.

In galvanization, iron or steel is coated with a layer of zinc because zinc is

preferably oxidized than iron.

Alloys : These are mixture of metals with metals or non-metals

Adding small amount of carbon makes iron hard and strong.

Stainless steel is obtained by mixing iron with nickel and chromium. It is hard
and doesnt rust.

Mercury is added to other metals to make amalgam.

Brass : alloy of copper and zinc.
Bronze : alloy of copper and tin.

In brass and bronze, melting point and electrical conductivity is lower than
that of pure metal.
Solder : alloy of lead and tin has low melting point and is used for welding
electrical wires.

Question Bank
1 MARK
1

Name a metal which is the best conductor of electricity and one which is poor
conductor of electricity.

Why food cans are coated with tin and not with zinc?

3.

Name any two alloys whose electrical conductivity is less than that of pure
metals.

4.

Name the non-metal with lustre.

5.

Define amphoteric oxide.

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6.

An aqueous solution of Al2O3 is electrolysed. Name the element collected at

anode.

7.

An oxide of an element was dissolved in water. The final solution turned red
litmus blue. Is the element metal, non-metal or a metalloid?

8.

What happens when cinnabar is heated?

9.

Ionic compounds have high melting point. Why?

10.

Name two metals which are found in nature in free state.

2 MARKS
1.

Why Magnesium and calcium float when they react with water?

2.

Write the chemical equations of heating of Cu and Fe.

3.

Write two chemical equations to show that Al2O3 is an amphoteric oxide.

4.

What is galvanization? Why it is done?

5.

Hydrogen gas is not evolved generally when metals react with nitric acid.
Explain.

6.

Explain the thermit process. Write the chemical equation involved.

7.

Distinguish between roasting and calcination.

8.

Every ore is a mineral but not every mineral is an ore. Explain.

9.

Why highly reactive metals can't be obtained from their oxides using coke as
a reducing agent?

3 MARKS
1.

Diagrammatically show the formation of MgO.

2.

Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity under specific conditions.

Name the two conditions and give reasons.

5 MARKS
1.

i)

What is reactivity series of metals? Arrange the metals zinc, magnesium,

aluminium, copper and iron in a decreasing order of reactivity.

ii)

What is observed when you put

iii)

a)

Some zinc pieces into blue copper sulphate solution.

b)

Some copper pieces into green ferrous sulphate solution.

Name a metal which combines with hydrogen gas. Name the compound
formed.
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2. Give reasons:
i)

Platinum, gold and silver are used to make jewellery.

ii)

Sodium and potassium are stored under oil.

iii)

Aluminium is a highly reactive metal, still it is used to make utensils for

cooking.

iv)

Carbonate and sulphide ores are usually converted into oxides during
the process of extraction.

METALS AND NON-METALS

IN BRIEF

Metals are generally solid, sonorous, lustrous, good conductor of heat and
electricity, malleable, ductile, high melting point, high densities, form basic
oxides, form +vely charged ion.

Non-metals are generally solid or gas, non-lustrous, non-sonorous, bad

conductor of heat and electricity, have low melting point, form acidic oxides
and form -vely charged ions.

Metals like Na, K and Ca are highly reactive, while others like Magnesium,
Aluminium, Zinc and Lead are less reactive and some others are least reactive
like silver, gold and platinum.

Metals generally displace hydrogen from acids.

Reactivity series is based on displacement capability of metals and is a series

of metals in the order of their decreasing reactivity.

Metals and non-metals react to form ionic compounds which are soluble in
water, have high melting point and are good conductor of electricity in their
aqueous solution or molten state.

Ores are minerals from which a metal can be profitably extracted.

Metals are extracted from their ores according to their reactivity.

Sulphide and chloride ores are roasted while carbonate ores are roasted.

Pure metals can be obtained using electrolytic refining process.

Metals are generally attacked by air and corrode. To alter the properties of
metals alloys are made.

Steel, stainless steel, amalgams, brass, bronze and solder are some alloys.

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CHAPTER 4

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

q

Carbon is a versatile element.

In earths crust, carbon is 0.02% and found in form of minerals.

Atmosphere has 0.03% of Carbon dioxide.

All living structures are carbon based.

Covalent Bond in Carbon

The atomic number of carbon is 6 and its electronic configuration is 2, 4. To

attain a noble gas configuration it can

1.

Gain 4 electrons. But it would be difficult for nucleus to hold 4 extra electrons.

2.

Lose 4 electrons. But it would require a large amount of energy to remove

4 electrons.

It is difficult thus for an atom of carbon to either gain or lose electrons.

Carbon attains the noble gas configuration by sharing its valence electrons
with other atoms. Atoms of other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
chlorine also show sharing of valence electrons.

Formation of H2, O2 and N2 is shown as below :

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It is evident that the number of shared pair of electrons can be one, two or
three. Try making the structures of H2O and CH4.

Bond formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms is called
covalent bond.

Covalently bonded molecules have low melting and boiling points because of
comparatively weaker intermolecular forces, unlike ionic compounds.

These molecules are generally poor conductor of electricity since no charged

particles are formed.

Versatile Nature of Carbon Atoms:

Two important properties of carbon atom enable carbon to form enormously large
number of compounds.

CATENATION : property of carbon atom to form bond with other atoms of

carbon is called catenation. Like carbon, silicon forms compounds with hydrogen
upto seven or eight atoms of silicon.
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TETRAVALENCY : Having a valency of 4, carbon atom is capable of bonding

with atoms of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine and other elements.
The smaller size of carbon atom enables nucles nucleus to hold the shared pair of
electrons strongly, thus carbon compounds are very stable in general.
Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds

ALKANE : CnH2n+2

ALKENE : CnH2n

ALKYNE : CnH2n2

Electron dot structure of a saturated carbon compound, ethane is as follows:

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Electron dot structure of an unsaturated cabon compound, ethene is as follows:

TRY DRAWING THE ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE OF ETHYNE

Formulae and Structures of Saturated Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen

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On the basis of structures the hydrocarbons can be:

Structural isomers : these are the compounds having identical molecular formula
but different structures. For example, isomers of butane.

Heteroatom and Functional Group :

*In hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogen atoms can be replaced by other
atoms in accordance with their valencies. The element that replaces hydrogen is
called a heteroatom.
*These heteroatoms and the group containing them impart chemical properties to
the compound and hence are called functional groups.

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Homologous Series:

It is a series of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes for

hydrogen in a Carbon chain.

For instance, the ALCOHOLSs: CH3 OH, C2H5 OH, C3H7 OH, C4H9 OH.

The successive member differs by CH2-; unit and 14 units of mass.

The chemical properties are imparted by the functional group thus all members
have similar chemical properties. But the members have different physical
properties.

The physical properties vary among the members of homologous series due
to difference in their molecular mass.

Melting point and boiling point increases with increasing molecular mass.

Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds:

1.
Identify the number of carbon atoms in the compound.
2.
Functional group is indicated either by prefix or suffix.
Functional Group
Suffix
Prefix
Alkene
ene
Alkyne
yne
Alcohol
ol
Aldehyde
al
Ketone
one
Carboxylic acid
oic acid
chlorine
chloro
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3.

If a suffix is added, then final e is removed from the name eg. methanol
(methane-e = methan + ol).

Chemical properties of Carbon compounds :

1.

COMBUSTION :

*Carbon compounds generally burn (oxidize) in air to produce carbon dioxide and
water, and release heat and light energy.
CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O + heat and light
*Saturated hydrocarbon burns generally with a blue flame in good supply or air and
with a yellow sooty flame in limited supply of air.
*Sooty flame is seen when unsaturated hydrocarbons are burnt.
*Burning of coal and petroleum emits oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which are
responsible for acid rain.
2.

OXIDATION :

*Alcohols can be converted to carboxylic acids by oxidizing them using alkaline

potassium permanganate or acidified poatassium dichromate (they add oxygen to
the reactant, thus are called oxidizing agents).
CH 3 - CH 2 OH

3.

Alkaline KMnO 4 + heat

CH 3 COOH
Acidified K 2 Cr2 O7 + heat

ADDITION REACTION:

Hydrogen is added to unsaturated hydrocarbon in presence of palladium or nickel

as catalyst.
Vegetable oils are converted into vegetable ghee using this process.

Saturated fatty acids are harmful for health and oils with unsaturated fatty acids
should be used for cooking.

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4.

SUBSTITUTION REACTION :

In saturated hydrocarbons, the hydrogen attached to carbon can be replaced by

another atom or group of atoms in presence of sunlight.
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl (sunlight required)
IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS : Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid
Ethanol :

*Consumption of dilute ethanol causes serious health issues and intake of pure
alcohol is lethal.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL
C2H5OH Reacts with Sodium
to from Sodium Ethoxide and
Hydrogen

When C 2 H 5 OH is Heated with

Concentrated Sulphuric Acid at 443
k, It is Dehydrated to Ethene

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Ethanoic Acid (CH3COOH) / Acetic Acid :

*5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar.

*Pure acetic acid is called glacial acetic acid.

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Esterification :
Carboxylic acids react with alcohols in presence of few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid as catalyst and form sweet smelling compounds called ester.
Hydrolysis :
On heating with an acid or a base the ester forms back the original alcohol and
carboxylic acid.
CH3COO CH2CH3 + NaOH CH3COONa + CH3-CH2OH
CH3COO CH2CH3

Dil.H 2 SO 4

HEAT

CH3COOH + CH3-CH2OH

*Alkaline hydrolysis of ester is also called saponification.

Soaps and Detergents

Soap is sodium and potassium salt of carboxylic acids with long chain.

Soaps are effective with soft water only and ineffective with hard water.

Detergents are ammonium or sulphonate salts of carboxylic acids with long

chain. They are effective with both soft as well as hard water.

An ionic part (hydrophilic) and a long hydrocarbon chain (hydrophobic) part

constitutes the soap molecule.

Structure of a Soap Molecule

Cleansing Action of Soaps :

Most dirt is oily in nature and the hydrophobic end attaches itself with dirt,
while the ionic end is surrounded with molecules of water. This result in
formation of a radial structure called micelles.

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An emulsion is thus formed by soap molecule. The cloth needs to be

mechanically agitated to remove the dirt particles from the cloth.

Scum : The magnesium and calcium salts present in hard water reacts with
soap molecule to form insoluble products called scum, thus obstructing the
cleansing action. Use of detergents overcome this problem as the detergent
molecule prevents the formation of insoluble product and thus clothes get
cleaned.

EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
1MARK
1.

How an atom of carbon attain noble gas configuration?

2.

Draw the electron dot structure of a molecule of water.

3.

Define catenation.

4.

The kerosene/gas stove used at home has inlets for air. Give reason.

5.

Write only the chemical equation for dehydration of ethanol by hot conc.
Sulphuric acid.

6.

Write the number of covalent bonds present in propane.

7.

Define the term: oxidising agent.

8.

Write the formula for first member of ketone.

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9.

Would you be able to check if water is soft by using a soap?

10.

Write the molecular formula of an alkyne containing 10 atoms of hydrogen.

2 MARKS
1. Define saponification. Write a chemical equation for it.
2. Covalent compounds generally don't conduct electricity. Why?
3.

Specify the condition in which ethanol undergo oxidation to form ethanoic

acid. Write the chemical equation.

4.

Define isomerism. Draw the structures of the two isomers of butane.

5.

Identify the functional group present in the following compounds: HCOOH,

HCHO, CH3Br and C10H21OH

3 MARKS
1.

What is a homologous series? Write any two characteristic features of any

homologous series using one example.

2.

Write any three differences between soaps and detergents.

5 MARKS
1.

Differentiate between ethanol and ethanoic acid on the basis of any three
physical properties and two chemical properties.

2.

An organic compound 'A' is used as a preservative in pickles and has molecular

formula C2H4O2. This compound reacts with ethanol to form a sweet smelling
compound 'B'.
i)

Determine the compound 'A'.

ii)

Write the chemical equation for its reaction with ethanol to form
compound 'B'.

iii)

Write any two uses of compound 'B'.

iv)

Which gas is produced when compound 'A' reacts with washing soda?
Write the chemical equation

v)

How can vinegar be obtained from compound 'A'?

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CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS IN BRIEF

Carbon is a versatile non-metal.

Carbon atom like atoms of other non-metals like oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen
and chlorine shares electrons.

Carbon forms large number of compounds due to catenation and tetravalency.

Carbon can form single, double and triple covalent bonds.

The compounds of hydrogen and carbon are called hydrocarbons, which can
be saturated or unsaturated.

Structurally hydrocarbons can have straight chain, branches or cyclic structure.

Difference in Structural arrangement of same molecule gives rise to isomerism.

In a hydrocarbon, a heteroatom can replace the hydrogen atom and imparts

it chemical properties.

Homologous series is a series of compounds with same general formula and

same chemical properties but different physical properties.

Carbon based compounds are excellent fuels.

Ethanol is an important industrial compound. It reacts with reactive metals and

is also dehydrated to ethene.

Ethanoic acid is another important compound. It combines with ethanol to

form sweet smelling esters.

Soaps and detergents are used as cleansing agents. Detergents efficiently

cleanses with soft and hard water.

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CHAPTER 5

PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF
ELEMENTS
q

Elements : Substances containing atoms of only one type. eg. Na, Au, Mg etc.
There are around 118 elements known to us.

Elements are classified to make the study easy.

Dobereiners Traids : When the elements were written in order of increasing

atomic masses the atomic mass of the middle was the average of the atomic
mass of the other two elements.
eg.

Elements

Atomic Mass

Ca

40.1

Sr

87.6

Ba

136.3

Limitations : Only three triads were recognised from the elements known at
that time.
q

Atomic mass of an element is the relative mass of its atom as compared widh
the mass of a Carbon-12 atom taken as 12 units

Newlands law of octaves :

Based on increasing atomic mass of elements.

When elements are arranged it was found that every eighth element had
properties similar to that of the first. eg properties of sodium and Lithium are
the same.

Limitations :

Applicable only upto Calcium

Properties of new elements couldnt fit in it.

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It some cases properties of the elements were not same as defined by octave.

Worked well only with lighter elements.

Mendeleev's periodic law : The properties of elements are the periodic function
of their atomic mass.
Mendeleev's periodic table based on the chemical properties of elements.
Contain eight vertical columns called groups and seven horizontal rows called periods
form Mendeleevs peridic table.
Achievements of Mendeleevs Periodic table

Elements with similar properties could be grouped together

Some gaps were left for the undiscovered elements.

Noble gases could be placed without disturbing the existing order.

Limitations:

No fixed position for hydrogen

No place for isotopes

No regular trend in atomic mass.

Modern Periodic Table

Modern Periodic Law : Properties of elements are a periodic function of their
atomic number.

Atomic Number denoted by Z and equals to the no. of protons in the

nucleus of an atom.

Modern periodic table contains 18 vertical columns known as groups and 7

horizontal rows known as periods.

Elements in a group have valence electrons

No. of the shells increases as we go down the group.

Elements in a period have same number of shells.

Each period marks a new electronic shell getting filled.

No. of elements placed in a particular period depends upon the fact that how
electrons are filled into various shells.
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Maximum no. of electrons that can be accomodated in a shell depend on the

formula 2n2 where n is the no. of the given shell.
eg. k shell 2 x (1)2 = 2 elements in the first period L shell 2 x (2)2 = 8
elements in the second period.

Position of the element in the periodic table tells about its reactivity.

Trends in the Modern Periodic Table

Valency : No. of valence electrons present in the outermost shells.

Atomic Size : Atomic size refers to radius of an atom.

Atomic size or radius decreases in moving from left to right along a period
due to increase in nuclear charge

Atomic size increases down the group because new shells are being added
as we go down the group.

Metallic Character : Metallic character means the tendency of an atom to lose

electrons.

Metallic character decreases across a period because the effective nuclear

charge increases that means the tendency to lose electrons decreases.

Metals are electropositive as they tend to lose electrons while forming bonds.

Metallic character increases as we go down a group as the effective nuclear

charge is decreasing. Non metals are electronegative. They tend to form
bonds by gaining electrons.

Metals are found on the left side of the period table while non-metals are
towards the right hand side of the periodic table.

In the middle we have semi-metals or metalloid because they exhibit some

properties of both metals and non metals.

Oxides of metals are basic in nature while oxides of non-metals are acidic in
nature.
(Refer the table given on side page)

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Gradation in Periodic Properties

S.
No.

Property

Variation
across period

Reason

Variation Reason
along group

1.

Atomic size

Decreases

Due to increase Increases

in nuclear charge

due to addition
of new shells.
due to increase in
distance between
outer most electron
and nucleus.

2.

Metallic
Character

Decreases

3.

Non-Metallic Increases
Character

due to increase
Increases
in effective
nuclear charge
tendency to lose
valence electrons
decreases.

due to decrease in
effective nuclear
charge tendency to
lose valence electrons
increases.

due to increase
Decreases
in effective
nuclear charge
tendency to gain
electrons increases

due to decrease in
effective nuclear
charge tendency to
gain electron
decreases

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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answer type Questions.

(1 mark)

1.

Write down three elements which represent Dobereiners triad.

2.

Write down two drawbacks of Newlands law of octaves.

3.

Which important property did Mendeleev used to classify the elements in his
periodic table.

4.

Explain why the number of elements in the third period is 8?

5.

Name the most metallic and most non-metallic element in the periodic table.

6.

Define Isotopes.

7.

What was the need for classification of elements?

8.

Name two elements that have two electrons in their outermost shell.

9.

How many vertical columns and horizontal rows are there in modern periodic
table. What is the special name assigned to them?

10.

Name the element having electronic configuration 2, 8, 2.

Short Answer type Questions

(2 Marks)

1.

Why He, Ne and Ar are called inert gases?

2.

Which one has greater atomic size Cl or Br?

3.

What were the drawbacks of Mendeleevs periodic table? Write any two.

4.

How does the tendency to lose electrons will change in a group and why?

5.

Justify the statement Atomic size of an element decreases along a period

whereas increasing down the group.

6.

Why metallic oxides are basic in nature whereas Non-metallic oxides are
acidic in nature.

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Long Answer Type

1.

2.

How do we calculate the valency of an element from its electronic configuration?

How does the valency vary in a period?

How does the valency vary in going down a group?

Study the variation in the atomic radii of elements given below and arrange
them in an increasing order
Na
186

3.

(3 Marks)

Li
152

Rb

Cs

246

262

231

ii)

Name the element which has the smallest and the largest atoms.

iii)

How does the atomic size vary as we go down a group.

Four elements ABCD along with their electronic configurations are given
below
Elements

Electronic Configuration
4.

2, 1

2, 8

2, 8, 1

2, 8, 8

Now answer the following questions

a)

Which two elements belong to the same period,

b)

Which two elements belong to the same group

c)

Which element out of A and C is more reactive and why?

Long Answer Type Question

(5 Marks)

1.

Write down five major differences between Mendeleev periodic table and
modern periodic table.

2.

Examine elements of the third period and classify them as metals and non
metals.
ii)

On which side of the table do you find metals and why.

iii)

On which side of the table do you find the non-metals and why?
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CHAPTER 6

LIFE PROCESSES
All living things perform certain life processes like growth, excretion, respiration,
circulation etc.
All the processes like respiration, digestion, which together keep the living organisms
alive and perform the job of body maintenance are called life processes.
Examples :

Kinds of nutrition in which in organic

materials like CO2, water etc are utilized to
prepare organic food by the process of
photosyntheses

Kinds of nutrition in which in organisms do

not possess the ability to synthesize their
own food. They depend on autotrophs for
their food supply directly or indirectly.

Eg. Green Plants

eg. Animals, Fungi

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Autotrophic Nutrition :
The organisms which carry out autotrophic nutrition are called autotrophs (green
plants)

Autotrophic nutrition is fulfilled by the process by which autotrophs take in CO2 and
H2O and convert these into carlohydrates in the presence of chlorophyll, sunlight is
called PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Equation :

Raw Materials for Photosynthesis :

q

Sunlight

Chlorophyl Sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll

CO2 enters through Stomata, and Oxygen (O2) is released as by product

through stomata on leaf.

Water water + dissolved minerals like Nitrogen phosphorous etc are taken
up by the roots from the soil.

Site of Photosynthesis :
Chloroplast in the leaf. Chloroplast contain chlorophyll. (green pigment)
Main Events of Photosynthesis :
q

Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll

Conversion of light energy into chemical energy + splitting (breaking) of water

into hydrogen and oxygen.

Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates.

STOMATA : Tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves

FUNCTIONS :
(i)

Exchange of gases O2/CO2

(ii)

Loses large amount of water [water vapour] during transpiration.

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How do organisms obtain their food

Unicellular / single celled organism : food is taken up through entire surface.
Example : (i) Amoeba. (ii) Paramaecium

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NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS

The human digestive system comprises of alimentary canal and associated disgestive
glands.
Mouth

Intake of whole food

Teeth

Chewing/grinding of food.

Tongue

Rolling of food

+
Tasting of food
+
Swallowing / pushing down of the food
Salivary Glands
Secrete Saliva + Mucus.
Salivary
amylase
[Saliva]

Starch

Oesophagus

Stomach

Sugar

Taking food from mouth to stomach by

Peristaltic movements
[contraction and expansion of muscles of the oesophagus]
Gastric glands secrete Gastric juice

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AK

Small Intestinal

Small Intestine

Villi helps in absorption of food into the blood.

[finger like projections]

small intestine

Receives
secretion from

Emulsification : The process of breakdown of large fat

globules into smaller fat globules by bile juice.
Large intestine

Absorb excess of water.

The rest of the material is removed from the body via the
anus. (Egestion)

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AK

Respiration
Respiration involves
(i)

Gaseous exchange : Intake of oxygen from the atmosphere and release of

CO2 Breathing

(ii)

Breakdown of simple food in order to release energy inside the cell

Respiration

Cellular

Breakdown of Glucose by various pathways

* Takes place in the presence of

oxygen
* Occurs in mitochondria
* End products are CO2 and H2O
* More amount of energy is released

* Takes place in the absence of

oxygen
* Occurs in cytoplasm
* End products are alcohol or lactic
acid.
* Less amount of energy is released.
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AK

Human Respiratory System

Passage of air through the respiratory system.
Nostril

Nasal Passage

Nasal Cavity

Pharynx

Larynx

Trachea

Bronchi

Lungs

Bronchioles

Alveolar
Blood capillaries

* During inhalation the thoracic

cavity (chest cavity) expands
* Ribs lift up
* Diaphragm become flat in shape
* Volume of lungs increases and air
enters the lungs

* Thoracic cavity contracts

* Ribs move downwards
Diaphragm becomes dome shaped
* Volume of lungs decreases and air
exits from the lungs.

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Exchange of Gases between alveolus, blood and tissues.

Terrestial Organism use atmospheric oxygen for respiration

Aquatic Organisms used dissolved oxygen for respiration
Respiration in Plants :
Respiration in plants is simpler than the respiration in animals. Gaseous exchange
occur through
1.

Stomata in leaves

2.

Lenticels in stems

3.

General surface of the roots.

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Life Process (II)

Transporation and Excretion

Human beings like other multicellular organism need regular supply of food,
oxygen etc., This function is performed by circulatory system or Transport
system.

The circulatory system in human beings consists of :

The circulatory system in human beings consists of :

A Pumping Organ
Heart
Deoxygenate
Blood
(from body)

Blood vessels
- Arteries & Veins
Vena
Cava

Body Parts

Right
Atrium
(Relaxed)

A circulatory medium
Blood & Lymph
Right
Atrium
(contracts)

Right
ventricle
contracts

Blood Circulation
in Human Heart

via AoRTA

Right
Ventricle
(relaxed)

Lungs
Left
Ventricle
(contracts)

Left
Ventricle
(relaxed)

Left
Atrium
(contracts)

Left
Atrium
(relaxed)

Oxygenated
blood

AORTA

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Blood
(A fluid Connective Tissue)
Solid Component
Blood Corpuscles
R.B.C.s
- carries respect
gas (O2, CO2)
- contain Hb
impart red colour
to me blood
-

Liquid Component
PLASMA

Blood
Platelets

W.B.C.
Provide Body
defence by
engulfing the
germ cells &
producing
antibodies

helps in
Blood
Clotting

A yellow colour fluid

contain 90% water &
10% Organic substances
like
- Plasma Proteins viz.
albumin, globulin
inorganic-mineral ions

Lymph - a yellowish fluids escapes from the blood capillaries into the
intercellular spaces contain less proteins than blood. Lymph flows from the
tissues to the heart assisting in transportation and destroying germs.
Blood Vessels

Arteries

Veins

1.

Carry Oxygenated blood from

heart to body part except
pulmonary Artery

1.

Carry deoxygenated blood

from body parts to heart
except pulmonary vein.

2.

Also called distributing Vessel

2.

Also called collecting Vessel.

3.

Thick and elastic

3.

Thin and Less elastic.

Transportation in Plants
There are two main conducting Pathways in a Plant

Xylem

Phloem

1.

Carries water & minerals

from the roots to other part
of the plant

1.

Carries product of
photosynthesis from leaves
to the other part of the plant.

2.

No energy is used.

2.

Energy is used from ATP

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Transpiration is the process of loss of water as vapour from aerial parts of the
plant.
Function :
1. Absorption and upward movement of water and minerals by creating
PULL.
2. helps in temperature regulation in Plant.

Transport of food from leaves (food factory) to different part of the plant is
called Translocation.
EXCRETION

The process of the removal of the harmful metabolic wastes from the body.

Excretory system of human beings includes :

1) A pair of kidneys
ii) A Urinary Bladder
iii) A pair of Ureter
iv) A Urethera

Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary
bladder where it is stored until it is released through the urethera.

The purpose of making urine is to filter out waste product from the blood ie,
urea which is produced in the liver.

Each kidney has large numbers of filtration units called nephrons.

The Urine formation involves three steps

1. Glomerular Filtration : Nitrogenous wastes, glucose water, amino acid
filter from the blood into Bowman Capsule of the nephron.
2. Tubular reabsorption : Now, useful substances from the filtrate are
reabsorbed back by capillaries surrounding the nephron.
3. Secretion Extra, water, salts are secreted into the tubule which open up
into the collecting duct & then into the ureter.
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Haemodialysis : The process of purifying blood by an artificial kidney. it is

meant for Kidney failure patient.

Excretion in Plants
Through stomata
(Transpiration)

Oxygen, CO2 & H2O

Other wastes may be stored in leaves, bark etc. which fall off from the plant.

Plants excrete some waste into the soil around them.

Gums, Resin fi
In old Xylem

Some metabolic wastes in the form of crystals of Calcium oxalates in the

leaves of colocasia and stem of Zamikand.

Life Processes
EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.

State one difference between autotrophic and heterotrophic mode of

nutrition.

2.

What will happen to a plant if the xylem is removed.

3.

What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?

4.

Name the tissue that transports water and minerals in plants.

5.

What is the role of acid in our stomach?

6.

What is emulsification

7.

Name the organelle in which photosynthesis occur.

8.

Name the largest artery in the human body.

9.

Define transpiration

10.

What are structural and functional unit of kidneys called.

Short Answers (2 Marks or 3 Marks)

1.

How is small intestine designed to absorb digested food?

2.

What are stomata? Draw a labelled diagram of stomata.

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3.

Write the equation for the process of breakdown of glucose in a cell

i)

in the presence of oxygen

ii)

in the absence of oxygen.

4.

Write the difference between inhalation and exhalation.

5.

List the three events which occur during photo synthesis.

6.

How does transpiration helps in upward transport of substances.

7.

Describe the process of double circulation in human beings.

8.

Write the functions of the components of blood.

Long Answers (5 Marks)

1.

Explain the process of digestion of food in mouth stomach and small

intestine in human body. Draw a well labelled diagram.

2.

Draw a diagram showing Human Respiratory system. Label the following

parts
i)

Larynx

ii)

iii)

Bronchus

iv) Lungs

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CHAPTER 7

Control and Coordination

Living organisms respond and react to various stimuli like heat, light, cold, touch,
pressure etc. Plants and animals both respond to stimuli but in different manner.
Example : withdrawl of hand on touching a hot object.
Control and Coordination in Animals
It is brought about in all animals with the help of two main systems
a) Nervous System

b)

Endocrine System

Nervous System :
Functions
i)

To receive the information from environment

ii) To receive the information from various

body parts. (Stimuli fi
Response)
iii) To act accordingly through muscles and glands.
Stimulus : Any change in environment or within that bring about the reaction eg:
touching a hot plate.
Response : The reaction of our body to these changes. eg. withdrawal of our hand
How do we detect that we are touching a hot object?
Receptors : Are specialised tips of some nerve cells that detect the information
from the environment.
Receptors
are
Sense Organs
Inner
Ear

Photo receptors
Eyes

Skin

Olfactory
Receptor
(Nose)

Gustatory
Receptor
(Tongue)

Hearing/
Balance of
the body

Visual
Stimulus

Pain
Touch
Heat

Smell
Detection

Taste
Detection

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Neuron : Structural and functional unit of nervous system.

Neuron (3 main parts)
I

II

III

Dendrite

Cell body
and Axon

Synapse

Information is
acquired

Information
travels as an
electrical impulse

Part where
electrical signal
is converted into
chemical message
for onward transmission
to next neuron
by release of neurotransmitters

Nucleus
Nerve
ending

Dendrite
Axon

Cellpody

Structure of neuron
Fig. 7.1 (a) P 115

Synapse : The point of contact between the terminal branches of axon of one
neuron with the dendrite of another neuron is called synapse.
Reflex Action
A quick, sudden, immediate response of the body to the certain stimuli that
involves Spinal cord. eg. (not brain) withdrawal of hand, knee jerk etc.
Reflex arc : The pathway through which impulses pass is called reflex arc.

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Stimulus

eg. Heat

Sensory Nerves

RECEPTOR
ORGAN
(SKIN)

Spinal Cord
Response

eg. Withdrawal
of
Hand

EFFECTOR
ORGAN
(MUSCLE)

Motor Nerves

Refer to diagram Fig 7.2 Reflex arc

Response
Responses are of three main types
Voluntary : Controlled by fore brain
eg. Talking, Writing
Involuntary : Controlled by mid and hind brain
eg. Heart beat, vomiting, regulation of heartbeat
Reflex action : controlled by spinal cord
eg. Withdrawl of hand on touching a hot object.
Human Nervous System
Central Nervous
System

Peripheral
Nervous
System

Autonomic
Nervous
System

(CNS

(PNS)

(ANS)

Brain

Spinal
Cord.
Fore Brain
Mid Brain

Cranial
Nerves

Spinal
Nerves

Arise from
the brain

Arise from
Spinal Card

Sympathetic
Nervous
System

Para
Sympathetic
Nervous
System

Hind Brain

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Human Brain
Human brain has three major parts or regions
a) Forebrain b) Mid Brain c) Hind Brain
FOREBRAIN
Most complex/specialized part of the brain is CEREBRUM
FUNCTIONS :
1. Thinking part of the brain
2. Control the voluntary actions.
3. Store information (Memory)
4. Centre associated with HUNGER
5. Receives sensory impulses from various body parts and integrates it
Mid Brain :
HYPOTHALAMUS : Chemical co-ordination
PITUITARY GLAND : Secretes hormones
Hind Brain :
CEREBELLUM i) Controls posture and balance
ii) Control precision of voluntary actions
MEDULLA

Controls involuntary actions

eg. blood pressure, salivation, vomiting

PONS

Involuntary action, regulation of respiration

Fig 7.3 Human Brain

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PROTECTION OF BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD

Brain :
Spinal Cord :

Brain is protected by a fluid filled balloon which acts as shock

absorber and enclosed in cranium (Brain Box)
Spinal Cord is enclosed in Vertebral column.

Coordination between Nervous and Muscular Tissue

Information
[collected by
Nervous tissue]
(Sensory Nerve)

Central
Nervous
System
[CNS]

Information
Processed
by
[CNS]
Decesion
made
[by CNS]

Action
Muscle shorten
Contraction
[Muscle cell]

(Motor Nerves)
Message
Muscles
[Change in shape
and arrangement
of proteins]

Passed to
muscles

Coordination in Plants
Movement in Plants
Movement dependent
on growth

Movement independent
of growth
[immediate response
to stimulus]
eg. dropping of leaves
of Touch-me-not
plant on touching it

Tropic movements
[directional movements
in response to stimulus]
Phototropism

Geotropism

Chemotropism

Hydrotropism

Movement
towards light

Movement
towards gravity

Movement
towards Chemicals/
growth of pollen
tube towards avule

Movement
towards /
water

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Plant hormones :
Are chemical compounds which help to coordinate growth, development and
responses to the environment.
Plant hormones : Main plant hormones are :
a) Auxin : [Synthesized at shoot tip]
Function : Helps in growth
Phototropism : more growth of cells towards light.
b) Gibberellin : Helps in the growth of the stem
c) Cytokinins : Promotes cell division
d) Abscisic acid : Inhibits growth, cause witting of leaves.
(Stress hormone)

Hormones in Animals
Hormones : These are the chemical messengers secreted in very small amounts by
specialised tissues called ductless glands. They act on target tissues/organs usually
away from their source.
Endocrine System helps in control and coordination through chemical compounds
called HORMONES

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S.
No.

Hormone

Endocrine
Gland

Location

Functions

1.

Thyroxine

Thyroid

Neck/
Throat
region

Regulation of metabolism
of carbohydrates, fats
and proteins.

2.

Growth
hormone

Pituitary

Mid

Regulates growth and

development.

3.

Adrenaline

Adrenal

Above
both
kidneys

Regulation (increasing)
of blood pressure, heart
heat, carbohydrate
metabolism (during
emergency)

Testosterone
in Males

Testes

Changes associated
with puberty
(Sexual maturity)

estrogen

Ovaries

Genital/
lower
abdomen
area

Insulin

Pancreas

Below
stomach

Reduces and regulates

blood sugar level

4.
SEX
Hormone

5.

G
O
N
A
D
S

IODISED SALT IS NECESSARY BECAUSE :

Iodine mineral is essential part of thyronine hormone so it is important that we
must consume iodised salt as in turn it is essential for thyroid gland as it controls
carbohydrate, proteins and fat metabolism for best balance of growth deficiency of
iodine might cause disease called goitre
Diabetes :
Cause : It is due to deficiency of Insulin hormone secreted by Pancreas that is
responsible to lower/control the blood sugar levels.
Treatment : Patients have to internally administer injections of insulin hormone
fi
which helps in regulating blood-sugar level.
Feedback Mechanism
fi
makes sure that hormones should be secreted in precise quantities and at right
time, which is regulated by feedback mechanism.

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SWITCH OFF
Feedback sent

Sugar level in the blood rises

Detected by cells of Pancreas
Synthesis insulin
Blood sugar level falls

(like a float in watertank)

Stop secreting more
insulin

EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.

Where is auxin synthesized in plants?

2.

Which gland is known as Master gland?

3.

Name the hormone that regulates blood sugar level.

4.

What is synapse.

5.

What are tropic movements? Give one examples

6.

Define hormones

7.

Which hormone has inhibiting effect on growth of plants

8.

What is phototropism?

9.

What are the components of central Nervous System.

10.

What happens at synapse between two neurons.

Short Answers (2 Marks)

1.

Draw diagram of neuron and label cell body, dendrites and axon.

2.

What is reflex arc? Explain with the help of a flow-chart.

3.

Mention one function of each of the following

i)

Cerebellum

ii)

Pons.

4.

What is the cause of diabetes? How it can be controlled.

5.

Why it is advisable to use iodised salt.

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6.

What are the different receptors present in our body? What are their
functions.

7.

What are plant hormones? Name a plant hormone that promotes growth in
plants.

8.

What are sensory and motor neurons? Write their functions.

Long Answers (5 Marks)

1.

2.

What are hormones (in animals) List four characteristics of hormones. Name
the hormone required for the following.
i)

Development of moustache and beard in human male

ii)

Lowering of blood glucose.

Mention the functions of

a)

Fore brain

b)

Mid brain

c)

Hind brain

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CHAPTER 8

How do Organisms Reproduce

Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new

individuals similar to themselves.

Reproduction ensured continuity of life on earth.

Reproduction - A bridge to hereditary transmission.

It involves continuation of characters from the parents to daughter cells by

Copying of DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules present in the
chromosomes of the cell.

Copying of DNAs is also not a foolproof exercise, even minute changes bring
about Variation in the blue print of the offsprings.

The useful variations are retained while the harmful one does not go beyond.

Actually variations help the species to withstand drastic environmental

changes, thus save the species from becoming extinct and promotes its
survival for a longer time.

This inbuilt tendency of variation is the "fuel" for Evolution.

REPRODUCTION

Asexual Reproduction
1. A single parent is involved

Sexual Reproduction
1. Both Parents involved

2. Gametes not formed

2. Gametes are formed

3. Progeny is Identical to parent

3. Progeny is only genetically

similar to the parent.

eg. Fission in Amoeba

Asexual Reproduction is extremely useful as a mean of rapid multiplication.

It is common in lower plants and animals.

Different form of Asexual Reproduction.

1. FISSION : the parent cell divides/splits into two daughter cell-Binary
Fission; splits into many cells-multiple Fission

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2. BUDDING : A new organism is produced as an outgrowth of the parent

body part.

3. Spore Formation : Spores are

small, bulb like structure develops
at the top of the erect hyphae of the
fungus plant, released into the air
and germinate, into new
individuals after landing into food
or soil.

4. FRAGMENTATION : It is the accidental process when the broken pieces

of an organism (fragments) grows into a complete organism.
eg. fragmentation in
spirogyra

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5. REGENERATION : When the simple animals like Hydra Planaria

develop a new individual from their broken older part it is known as
regeneration. It is carried out by specialised cells which grow large numbers
of cells.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION :
A mode of reproduction in which part like the stem, root, leaves develop into new
plant under favourable conditions.
Benefits
1.

Plants can bear flowers, fruits earlier than those produced from seeds.

2.

Growing Banana, orange, rose, jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce
seeds.

3.

Genetical similarity is maintained in the plants.

eg. Sugarcane, rose, grapes by layering or grafting.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
When reproduction takes place as a result of fusion between two gamets, one from
each parent, it is called sexual reproduction.

This process of fusion between two gamets is called fertilization.

The formation of gamets involves exchange of chromosomal (genetic)

fragments between homologous chromosomes causing genetic
recombination which leads to variation.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

It occurs mostly in flowering plants. In fact flowers are the reproductive organ of
plants.
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FLOWERS
Bisexual Flowers
Both male and female
reproductive part i.e., stamen &
carpel present.

Unisexual Flowers
Either male or female
reproductive part is present.
Eg. Papaya, Watermelon

Eg. Hibiscus, mustard

A typical flower consists of four main whorls namely calyx (sepals), Corolla
(Petals), Androecium (Stamens) and Gynoecium (Carpels).
Reproductive Part of Flower
STAMEN
(male part
Filament

(2n)
Anther
MEIOSIS
(n) Pollen grain
(male gamet)

CARPEL
(female part)
Style
Stigma
Ovary
(2n)
Egg cell (ovule) [n]

Pollen grains of a flower transfer to stigma of the carpel of the same flower
(Self-Pollination) or to the carpel of the another flower (Cross-Pollination).

This transfer of pollens is achieved by agent like wind, water or animals.

After Pollination, the pollen grains reach to the egg cell in the form of a pollen
tube.

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Fertilization : The fusion between the pollen grain and female egg cell. It
occurs inside the ovary. Zygote is produced in this process.

Zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule
develops a tough coat and is converted into a seed.

Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to forms a fruit, while the seed contains the
future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under suitable
condition. This process is known as Germination.
REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

Humans use a Sexual Mode of reproduction.

It needs sexual maturation which includes creation of the germ cells ie, egg
(ova) in the female and sperm in the male partener & this period of sexual
maturation is called Puberty.

Human beings have a well developed male and female reproductive system.

The formation of male germ cell (sperms) takes place in the testes (male
reproducture organ)

Actually a pair of testes are located inside scrotum situated outside the
abdominal cavity. It is meant to keep relatively a low temperature needed for
the production of sperms by testes.

Moreover testes release a male sex hormone called testosterone whose

function is to:
1. Regulate the production of sperm
2. Brings about changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty.
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The sperms along with the secretion of prostate gland and seminal vesicle,
together constitute semen, which is released and made to enter into the female
genital tract during Copulation.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

?
The female germ cells or eggs are made in the ovaries, a pair of which is
located in both side of abdomen.
?
When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs.
?
At the puberty, some of these Eggs start maturing. One egg is produced every
month by one of the ovaries.
?
The Egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a fallopian tube. These
two fallopian tube unite into an elastic bag like structure known as Uterus.
?
The Uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
?
Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube of female genital tract.
?
The fertilized egg also called zygote (2n) gets implanted in the lining of the

Uterus, and start dividing. Actually uterus is richly supplied with blood to
nourish the growing embryo. If zygote is not formed, the inner wall of uterus
breaks which causes bleeding through vagina. This process is called
MENSTRUATION. It occurs at a regular interval of 28 days.
?
The Embroyo gets nutrition fromthe mother's blood with the help of a special

tissue called PLACENTA. It provides a large surface area for glucose and
oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo. Similarly the wastes from
developing embryo are removed to mother's blood through placenta.
?
The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the

uterus. after Nine months (36 weeks) of development inside mother's womb.
It is also called Gestation Period.
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The sexual cycle in a woman continues upto the age of 45 to 50 years. After
that the ovary do not release egg. This stage is called Menopause. It a also
marks the end of menstruation in the woman.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
?
Reproductive Health means a total well-being in all aspects of reproductive,

ie., physical emotional, social and behavioural.

?
Contraception : It is the avoidance of pregnancy. It can be achieved by

Methods of contraception
PHYSICAL
BARRIER
To prevent union of
sperm & egg.
Use of condoms,
Diaphragm & cervical
caps.

SURGICAL
METHOD
Also called sterilization
in Vasectomy, the vas
deferens of male is
blocked to prevent
sperm transfer.
In Tubectomy, the
fallopian tube of female
is blocked to prevent
egg to reach uterus.

CHEMICAL
METHOD
Oral contraceptive
(OCs) - changes the
hormonal balance to
check the egg release in
females. OCs cause side
effect.

Copper-T or loop is
placed in uterus to
prevent pregancy.
?
Healthy society needs a balanced sex ratio that can be achieved by educating

the people to avoid malpractices like female foeticide & pre-natal sex
determination.
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STDs)
VIRAL STDs
Eg. H.I.V. - AIDS
Warts

Bacterial STDs
Eg. Syphilis &
Gonorrhoea

STDs are communicated during unsafe sexual contact.

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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
1.

Where is the DNA present in the cell?

2.

What is bisexual/hermaphrodite?

3.

Write suitable condition necessary for seed germmration.

4.

Write the function of the secretion of seminal vesicle and prostate gland.

5.

Name the part of female body in which the egg is fertilized.

6.

Name the chemical method to prevent the pregnancy.

2 Marks
7.

What is importance of DNA copying in reproduction.

8.

Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the
individual?

9.

Why is vegetative propagation practised for growing some types of plants?

10.

Name any two STDs. What measures can you suggest to prevent them.

11.

Distinguish between male & female gamete.

12.

Write two important function of testosterone.

13.

What is placenta. Also write its two functions?

14.

Draw a well labelled diagram of human female reproductive system.

Explain the menstrual cycle of female.

15.

Draw a labelled diagram to explain the fertilization in the higher plant.

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CHAPTER 9

Heredity and Evolution

Genetics : Branch of science that deals with Heredity and variation.
Heredity : It means the transmission of features/ characters/ traits from one
generation to the next generation.
Variation : The differences among the individuals of a species/ population are
called variations.
MENDEL AND HIS WORK ON INHERITANCE
Gregor Johann Mendel (1822&1884) : Started his experiments on plant
breeding and hybridisation
Mendel fi
was known as Father of Genetics
Plant selected by Mendel : Pisum sativum (garden pea). Mendel used a number
of contrasting characters for garden pea.
TABLE OF CONTRASTING CHARACTERS. (SEVEN PARTS)
CHARACTER
DOMINANT
RECESSIVE
TRAIT
TRAIT
Flower colour
Purple
White
Flower position
Axial
Terminal
Yellow
Green
Seed colour
Round
Wrinkled
Seed shape
Inflated
Constricted
Pod shape
Green
Yellow
Pod colour
Tall
Dwarf
Height of plant
Seven pairs of contrasting characters in Garden
Pea
Mendels Experiments : Mendel conducted a series of experiments in which he
crossed the pollinated plants to study one character (at a time)
Monohybrid Cross :
Cross between two pea plants with one pair (monohybrid cross) contrasting
characters
Example : Tall / Short Plants.
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PARENT
GENERATION

Dwarf plant

Tall plant

tt
T

TT
T

GAMETES

Tt

F1 GENERATION
(first filal generation)
SELF POLLINATION

Tt
(F1) Tt

All tall plants

Tt
(F1)

GAMETES
T

TT
F2 GENERATION
(Second Final
TALL
Gneration
Phenotypic ratio
Phenotypic ratio

Tt

Tt

tt

TALL

TALL

SHORT

3:1
1:2:1

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82

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TT
tt

Both dominant gene

Both recessive gene

Tt

Pure or
conditon

One dominant, one

recessive gene

homozygous

Hetrozygous
condition.
[Hybrid]

Phenotypic ratio : 3:1

Genotypic ratio : 1:2:1
Phenotype fi
Physical appearance [Tall or Short]
Genotype fi
Genetic make up [TT, Tt or tt]
Observations :

1. All F1 progeny were tall

(no medium height plant (half way characteristic)
2. F2 progeny were short
3. Phenotypic ratio F2 3:1
Genotypic ratio F2 1:2:1

Conclusions :

1. TT and Tt both are tall plants while tt is a short plant.

2. A single copy of T is enough to make the plant tall, while
both copies have to be 't' for the plant to be short.
3. Characters/Traits like 'T' are called dominant trait (because
it express itself) 't' are recessive trait (because it remains
supressed)

Dihybrid Cross : A cross macle between two plants having two pairs of
contrasting characters is called dihybrid cross.
PARENT
GENERATION

GAMETES

ROUND
GREEN SEEDS

WRINKLED

YELLOW SEEDS

RRYY
fl
RY

rryy
fl
ry

F1
RrYy
[round, yellow]
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F1
RY
Ry
rY
ry
fl

Selfing F1fi
Rr Yy

F1

Rr Yy

RY
Ry
rY
ry

G
A
H
E
T
E
S

RY

RY
RRYY

Ry
RRYy

rY
RrYy

ry
RrYy

flRy

RRYy

RRyy

RrYy

Rryy

rY

RrYY

RrYy

rrYY

rrYy

ry

RrYy

Rryy

rrYy

rryy

F2

PHENOTYPIC RATIO :

Round, yellow
Round, green
Wrinkled, yellow
Wrinkled, green

GENOTYPIC RATIO :

RRYY
RRYy
RrYY
RRyy
RrYy
Rryy
rrYY
rrYy
rryy

;
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

:9
:3
:3
:1

1
2
2
1
4
2
1
2
1

RATIO : 1 : 2 : 2 : 1 : 4 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1
Observations :

1. When RRYY was crossed with rryy in F1 generation all

were Rr Yy round and yellow seeds.
2. Self pollination of F1 plants gave parental phenotype + two
mixtures (recombinants) Round wrinkled, green yellow :
seeds plants appeared in the ratio of 9:3:3:1

Conclussions :

1. Round and yellow seeds are DOMINANT characters

2. Occurence of new phenotypic combinations show that
genes for round and yellow seeds are inherited
independently of each other.
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Sex Determination
Phenomenon of decision or determination of sex of an offspring
FACTORS
Responsible for Sex Determination
Environmental
In some animals the temperature
at which the fertilised eggs are
kept decides the gender.

Genetic
In some animals like humans gender or
individual is determined by a pair of
chromosome called sex chromosome

eg. in Turtle

XX Female
XY Male

Sex Chromosomes : In human beings there are 23 pairs of chromosome. Out of

these 22 chromosomes pairs are called autosomes and the last pair of
chromosomes that help in deciding gender of that individual are called sex
chromosome.
XX female
XY male
Sex determination in Human beings
PARENTS :

FATHER
XY

GAMETES
(Reproductive cells)

Zygote
formed
after fusion
of gametes

MOTHER
XX

XX
FEMALE

XX
FEMALE
50% probability
of a female child

XY
MALE

XY
MALE

50% probability
of a male child

This shows that half the children will be boys and half will be girls. All children
will in herit an X chromosome from their mother regardless whether they are boys
or girls. Thus sex of children will be determined by what they inherit from their
father, and not from their mother.
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Evolution
SITUATION-I
Group of red beetles
Colour variation arises during reproduction
All beetles red except
one that is green

One beetle Green

Reproduction

Crows feed on red beetle

Progeny beetles green

No. of beetles reduces

Crow could not feed on

green beetles as they
got camouflaged
in green bushes

Number of green
beetles increases
Situation 1 : Green beetles got the survival advantage or they were naturally
selected as they were not visible in green bushes. This natural selection is exerted
by crows resulting in adaptations in the beetles to fit better in their environment

SITUATION-II
Group of red beetles
Reproduction
All beetles are red except one
that is blue
Reproduces

One blue beetle

Reproduces

Number of red beetle

increases

No. of blue
beetle increases

Crows can see both blue and red beetles and can eat them
Number reduces but still red beetles are more and blue ones are few
Suddenly elephant comes and stamps on the bushes
But now beetles left are mostly blue.

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Situation 2 : Blue beetles did not get survivals advantage. Elephant suddenly
caused major havoc in beetle population otherwise there number would have been
considerably large.
From this we can conclude that accidents can change the frequency of some genes
even if they do not get survival advantage: This is called genetic drift and it leads to
variation.

Mechanism of Heredity
Characters or traits of an organism are controlled by the genes
A Section of DNA (cellular)
Gene
Provides information
For synthesis of Proteins
Proteins controls a character
Example :
Gene T

Gene t

responsible for
synthesis of efficient
enzyme (Protein)
responsible for
synthesis of less
efficient enzyme

87

More
production
of growth
hormone
Less
production
of growth
hormone

Results
in
Tall
Plants
Results
in
short
Plants

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Genetic drift. It leads to diversity without any adaptation

SITUATION-III
Group of red beetles
Habitat of beetles (bushes)
Suffer from plant disease
Average weight of beetles
decreases due to poor nourishment
No of beetles kept on reducing
Later plant disease gets eliminated
Number and average weight of the beetles
increases again
Situation 3 : No genetic change has occured in the population of beetle. The
population gets affected for a short duration only due to environmental changes

Acquired and Inherited Traits

Acquired Traits

Inherited Traits

1. These are the traits which are

developed in an individual due
to special conditions

1. These are the traits which are

passed from one generation to
the next.

2. They cannot be transferred to

the progeny

2. They get transferred to the

progeny.

3. They cannot direct evolution

3. They are helpful in evolution.

eg. Low weight of starving

beetles.

eg. Colour of eyes and hair

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Speciation
Micro evolution : It is the evolution which is on a small scale. eg. change in body
colour of beetles.
Speciation : it is the process of formation of new species.
Species : A group of similar individuals that along to a population that can
interbreed and produce ferrite off spring.
Geneflow : It is exchange of genetic material by interbreeding between
populations of same species or individuals
WAYS BY WHICH SPECIATION TAKES PLACE
Speciation takes place when variation is combined with geographical isolation.
Gene flow : occurs between population that are partly but not completely
seperated
Sub Population
X1 (local)

Interbreeding
[Reproduction]

Gene
flow

Sub Population
X1 (migrant)

Variation
in
Local
population

Genetic Drift
It is the random change in the frequency of alleles (gene pair) in a population over
successive generations.
*Natural Selection : The process by which nature selects and consolidate those
organisms which are more suitably adapted and posesses favorable variations
POPULATION Z
Sub Population
Z1

GEOGRAPHICAL
BARRIER
ISOLATION
(River, Mountain)

Sub Population
Z2

Over many-many generations

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Results in Accumulation of different variations in

Sub population Z1 and Z2
Genetic drift
Natural selection
Sub population Z1 and Z2 incapable
of interbreeding
Reproductive
Barrier
Formation of
Formation of
new Species 1
new Species 2
Genetic drift takes place due to
a) Severe changes in the DNA
b) Change in number of chromosomes
Evolution and classification
Both evolution and classification
are interlinked.
1. Classification of species is
reflection of their
evolutionary relationship.
2. The more characteristic two
species have in common the
more closely they are
related.
3. The more closely they are
related, the more recently
they have a common
ancestor.
4. S i m i l a r i t i e s a m o n g
organisms allow us to group
them together and to study
their characteristic

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Tracing Evolutionary Relationships

(Evidences of Evolution)
I.

Homologous Organs : (Morphological and anatomical evidences. These are

the organs that have same basic structural plan and origin but different
functions.
Example :
Forelimb of Horse
Winds of bat
Paw of a cat

(Running)
(flying)
(walk/scratch/attack)

Same basic
plan,
different
functions

II. Analogous Organs : These are the organs that have different origin and
structural plan but same function example :
Design different
Wings of bat fi
elongated fingers with skin folds
same function
ie. flight
Wings of bird fi
Feathery covering along the arm
III. Fossils : (Palaeontological evidences)
The remains and relics of dead organisms of the past.
Example :
i)

Fossil of wooly mammoth

ii) Archeopteryx (fossil bird)

iii) Dead insect caught in hot mud.
FOSSILS ARE PRESERVED TRACES OF LIVING ORGANISMS
Eg. AMMONITE

Fossil invertebrate

TRILOBITE

Fossil in vertebrate

KNIGHTIA

Fossil fish

RAJASAURUS

Fossil dinosaur skull

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AGE OF THE FOSSILS

i.

Deeper the fossil, older it is.

II. Detecting the ratios of different of

the same element in the fossil
material ie Radio-carbon dating.
[C-(14) dating)

Recent

1. ...........................
2. ...........................
3. ...........................
4. ...........................
5. ..........................
6. ..........................

Older

Evolution by stages
Evolution takes place in stages ie bit by bit over generations.
I.

Fitness advantage
Evolution of Eyes
Evolution of complex organs is not sudden it occurs due to minor changes
in DNA, however takes place bit by bit over generations.
enough to
Flat worm has rudimentary eyes give fitness
advantage
Insects have compound eyes
Humans have binocular eyes

II. Functional Advantage

Evolutions of feathers
Feathers fi
provide insulation in cold weather
but later they might become useful for flight.
Example :
Dinosaurs had feathers, but could not fly using feathers. Birds seem to have
later adapted the feathers to flight.
Artificial Selection :
Humans have been a powerful agent in modifying wild species to suit their own
requirement through out ages by using artificial selection. eg (i) Wild cabbage the
dissimilar looking structures have evolved from a common ancestral design. (ii)
Wheat (many varieties obtained due to artificial selection)

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WILD
CABBAGE

KALE

CABBAGE
with larger
leaves
with short distance
between the leaves
BROCCOLI

KOHL RABI
CAULIFLOWER

Has sterile
flowers

Arrested flower
development

With Swollen
parts

Molecular Phylogeny :
?
It is based on the idea that changes in DNA during reproduction are the basic

events in evolution
?
Organisms which are more distantly related will accumulate greater

differences in their DNA

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Human Evolution
Tools to Study Human Evolutionary Relationship

Excavating

Time dating

Fossils

Determining
DNA
Sequences

Although there is great diversity of human forms all over the world get all humans
are a single species
GENETIC FOOTPRINTS OF HUMANS
Hundreds/thousand of years ago
Earliest members arose in Africa

East Asia
South Africa

Africa
Philippines

Island
of
Indonesia

West
Asia

Central
Asia

Australia
Eurasia

?
They did'nt go in a single line
?
They went forward and backward
?
Moved in and out of Africa
?
Sometimes came back to mix with each other.

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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.

Define variation

2.

What is monohybird cross?

3.

What is dominant trait.

4.

What are genes?

5.

Define Homologous organs

6.

If an individual has XX chromosome [22+XX] will that individual be male

or female.

7.

Which plant Mendel had choosen for his experiments.

8.

How do Mendel's experiment show that traits may be dominant or recessive?

9.

Define analogous organs? Give example.

Short Answers (2 Marks)

1.

Differentiate between acquired and Inherited traits? Give example of each.

2.

Explain what are fossils? How the age of fossils be determined

3.

What is speciation? What factors lead to formation of a new species.

4.

Explain the mechanism of sex determination in humans.

5.

Differentiate between homologous and analogous organs. by giving

examples.

6.

Define inheritance. What are the units of inheritance

7.

What is genetic drift? How it contributes to the formation of new species

8.

Explain monohydrid cross by taking tall and dwarf plants. Mention the
phenotypic and genotypic ratio of F1 and F2 off springs.

Long Answer (5 Marks each)

1.

Explain the process of artificial selection by taking the example of wild

cabbage plant.

2.

Explain about the human evolution.

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CHAPTER 10

LIGHT-REFLECTION
& REFRACTION
Light is a form of energy, which enable us to see the object.
In this chapter we will study the phenomena of reflection and refraction using the
property of light i.e. straight line propagation (Light wave travel from one point to
another, along a straight line).
Reflection of Light
When the light is allowed to fall on highly polished surface, such as mirror, most of
the light gets reflected.
normal
Laws of Reflection
1.

2.

The angle of incidence is always equal to

angle of reflection.

i=
r
The incident ray, reflected ray and the
normal to the reflecting surface at the
point of incidence lie in the same plane.

Reflected
ray

Incident
ray
i

Points of incidences

Image formed by Plane Mirror (Plane reflecting surface)

Plane Mirror
A1

Object

Image

B1

1)

Virtual (imaginary) & Erect (Virtual

screen.)

2)

Laterally inverted (The left side of object appear on right side of image)

3)

The size of image is equal to that of object

96

The image that do not form on

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4.

The image formed is as for behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.

Reflection of light by spherical Mirrors

Mirrors, whose reflecting surface are curved inward or outward spherically are
called spherical mirror.
For example - Spoon } fi
The curved surface of shinning spoon can be considered
as curved mirror.
If it is curved inward fi
Act as concave mirror
If it is curved outward fi
Act as a convex mirror.

Reflecting
side

Reflecting
side

Concave
Mirror
OR CONVERGING
MIRROR

Convex
mirror
OR DIVERGING
MIRROR

Few Basic terms related to Spherical Mirror

Principal
Axis

Radius of curvature
R
F
f
focal length

Concave
Mirror

Radius of curvature
R

Principal
Axis

97

f
F
focal length
Convex
Mirror

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1.

Principal axis : Line joining the pole and centre of curvature of the spherical
mirror.

2.

Pole : The geometrical central point of the reflecting spherical surface.

(aperture), denoted by (P).

3.

Aperture : The width of reflecting spherical surface.

4.

Centre of curvature : The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror form a part

of sphere. It has a centre, which is known as centre of curvature, denoted by
(C)

5.

Radius of curvature : The separation between the pole and the centre of
curvature. ie. PC = R

6.

Focus point : The point on the principal axis, where all parallel rays meet
after reflection, denoted by (F)

7.

Focal length : The length between the pole and focus point i.e. PF = f

8.

Relationship between focal length and Radius of curvature.

F= R
2

Image formation by spherical Mirror

Before we learn the formation of image or ray diagram, let us go through few tips
a)

Remember, A say of light which is parallel to principle axis always pass

through focus (meet at focus) or vice-versa

P
Principal
Axis

P
Principal C
Axis

F
CONCAVE
MIRROR

CONCAVE
MIRROR

Principal
Axis

CONVEX MIRROR
Appear as if coming
from focus pt in case of convex mirror

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Principal
Axis

b)

A ray of light which passes through centre of curvature (it is also known as
normal at the point of incidence on spherical mirror) will retrace their path
after reflection

Pole (P)
Principal
Axis

CONCAVE
MIRROR

P
Principal
Axis

c)

CONVEX
MIRROR

A ray of light falling on pole get reflected at the same angle on the other side of
principal axis.

i=
r

99

i=
r
F

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Note : A ray of light passes through centre of cus-valerie reflecting spherical

surface is always act as normal at the point of incidence. If we know the normal we
can draw angle of incidence and angle of reflection
i
r

ng
(passi c)
h
g
u
o
r
th

al
norm dence
inci
f
o
t
p
at

Note : The image will only form when two or more rays meets at apoint. Image
formation by a concave mirror for different position of the object
1.

Object
At infinity

Position of
Image
At focus

P
C

2.

Object
Beyond C

Size of
Image
Highly diminished
(point size)

A
object

B1

C image

Object
At C

A
B1 B

P
F

Position of
Image
Between F&C

Nature
Real and
Inverted

Size of
Image
Small

A1

3.

Nature
Real and
Inverted

Position of
Image
At C

Nature
Real and
Inverted

Size of
Image
Same Size
of object

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4.

Object
Between C&F

i=
r
Position of
Nature

i
Image
P
Real and

r
Beyond C
Inverted

A
Object
B1

Image
A

5.

Size of Image
Enlarged

Object
At F

A
B

i
P

i=
r
Position of
Nature
Image
Real and
At (infinity)
Inverted
Size of Image
Highly enlarged
A1

6.

Object
Between F&P
(Special Case)

i
r
B

B1

Position of Image
Behind the mirror
Size of Image
Enlarged

Nature
Virtual
and
Erect

Image formation by Convex Mirror

1.

Object
At infinity

P
F

Position of Image
At focus

Size of Image
Highly diminished

101

Nature
Virtual & erect

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1.

Object
Anywhere between
infinity and pole
of the mirror

A
A1

P
B

B1

Position of Image
Between P & F

Size of Image
Very small

Nature
Virtual & erect

Uses of Concave Mirror

1.

Used in torches, search light and headlight of vehicle.

2.

Used to see large image of face as shaving mirror

3.

Used by dentist to see large images of the teeth

4.

Large concave mirror used to focus sunlight (heat) in solar furnaces.

Uses of Convex Mirror

1.

Used as rear-view mirror in vehicles because it gives erect image. It also helps
the driver to view large area.

Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirror

1.

The object is always placed to the left side of mirror.

2.

All distance should be measured from pole (P); parallel to principal axis.

3.

Take 'P' as origin. Distances measured

Right of the origin (+ x - Axis) are taken positive
Left of the origin ( x-Axis) are taken negative
Perpendicular to and above principal axis (+y-Axis) are taken positive
Perpendicular to and below principal axis (y-Axis) are taken negative
+y
o
x

+x

(Cartesian system)

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MIRROR FORMULA

f fi
distance between F and Pole
v fi
distance of image from Pole
u fi
distance of object from Pole
R fi
distance between centre of curvature and pole.

1
1
1
F = v + u
R
where f = 2

MAGNIFICATION
It is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to height of the object
m=

height of image h1
=
height of object h

It is also related to 'u' and 'v'

v
m= u
2
\
from 1 and 2 equation
1

m=

h
h

1
image height from principle axis
v where h fi
1
= u
h fi
Object height from principle axis.

It magnitude m > 1 _____ Image is magnified

m = 1 _____ Image is of same size
m < 1 _____ Image is dimirushed
Few tips to remember sign convention for Spherical mirror
1

Object height h fi
always positive | Image height h

- negative
} Real
Virtual - positive

Object distance from pole u fi

is always negative
Image distance from pole

Real - Image
always negative
v fi
Virtual - Image always positive

Concave mirror always negative

Focal length f fi
Convex mirror always positive
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction of Light : Happens in Transparent medium when a light travels from
one medium to another, refraction takes place.
A ray of light bends as it moves from one medium to another

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Refraction is due to change in the speed of light as it enters from one transparent
medium to another.
Speed of light decreases as the beam of light travel from rarer medium to the denser
medium.
normal

normal
Incident
Ray

Denser medium

Raver medium
Denser medium

Rarer medium

Refracted Ray

When ray travel from Rarer to Denser it bends When ray travel from denser to
towards normal after refraction
rarer medium it bends away
from normal
Some Commonly observed phenomenon due to Refraction
1.

The stone at the bottom of water tub appear to be raised.

2.

A fish kept in aquarium appear to be bigger than its actual size.

3.

A pencil partially immersed in water appears to be displaced at the interface of

air and water.

Refraction through a Rectangular Glass Slab

A

Incident ray

Air (Rarer Medium)

i1
K

L
O
r1
i2 N

Here light ray changes is

1
direction at O and O , the
point at the interface of
transparent medium.

Glass
(Denser
Medium)

O
e

M
Air (Rarer Medium)

(Refracted Ray)
C
B

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When a incident ray of light AO passes from a rarer medium (air) to a denser
medium (glass) at point. O on interface AB, it will bends towards the normal. At pt
1
O , on interface DC the light ray entered from denser medium (glass) to rarer
medium (air) here the light ray will bend away from normal OO1is a refracted ray
OB is an emergent ray. If the incident ray is extended to C, we will observe that
emergent ray O1B is parallel to incident ray. The ray will slightly displaced laterally
after refraction.
Note : When a ray of light is incident normally to the interface of two media it will
go straight, without any deviation.
Laws of refraction of light1.

The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two
transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

2.

The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a

constant ie.
Sin i
constant
Sin r =
(r)

for given colour and pair of media, this law is also known as Snells Law
Constant n is the refractive index for a given pair of medium. It is the refractive
index of the second medium with respect to first medium.
n2
Sin i
Sin r = n1 = n21

Where 2 is for second

medium and 1 is for first
medium

Refractive Index
The refractive index of glass with respect is air is given by ratio of speed of light in
air to the speed of light in glass.
ng
Speed of light in air
c
nga = n =
= v
a
Speed of light in glass
C fi
Speed of light in vacuum = 3
108 m/s
speed of light in air is marginally less, compared to that in vacuum.
Refractive index of air with respect to glass is given by

na
a fi
air
Speed of light in glass
v
nag = n =
= c
g fi
glass
g
Speed of light in air

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The absolute refractive index of a medium is simply called refractive index

nm =

Speed of light in air

c
= v
Speed of light in the medium

Refractive index of water (nw) = 1.33

Refractive index of glass (ng) = 1.52
Spherical Lens
A transparent material bound by two surface, of which one or both surfaces are
spherical, forms a lens.
CONVEX LENS
A lens may have two spherical surfaces, bulging outwards, is
called double convex lens (or simply convex lens.
It is also known as converging lens because it converges the light.
CONCAVE LENS
A lens bounded by two spherical surfaces, curved inwards is
known as double concave lens (or simply concave lens)
It is also known as diverging lens because it diverges the light.
Few Basic Terms related to spherical lens.
R
Principal
Axis

C1
or (2F1)

f
O

F1

F2
Optical
centre (O)

R
Principal
Axis

C1

C2
or (2F2)

Optical centre (O)

O

F1

F2

C2

Convex
Lens

Concave
Lens

C1

106

C2

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1.

Centre of curvature - A lens, either a convex lens or a concave lens has two
spherical surfaces. Each of these surfaces form a part of sphere. The centre of
these two spheres are called centre of curvature represented by C1 and C2.

2.

Principal axis - Imaginary straight line passing through the two centres of
curvature

3.

Optical Centre - The central point of lens is its optical centre (O). A ray of
light, when passes through 'O' it remains undeviated i.e. it goes straight.

4.

Aperture - The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens.

5.

Focus of lens - Beam of light parallel is principal axis, after refraction from
1) Convex lens, converge to the point on principal axis, denoted by F,
known as Principal focus
Principal Axis
F1

F2

2) Concave lens, appear to diverge from a point on the principal axis, known
as principal focus.

F1

Principal
Axis

F2

The distance OF2 and OF1 is called as focal length

Tips for drawing Ray diagram
a)

After refraction, a ray parallel to principal axis will pass through F.

F1

F1

F2

(Converge)

F2

Principal
Axis

(Diverge)

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b)

A ray passes through F, after refraction will emerge parallel to principal axis.

F1

c)

F2
Principal
Axis

F2

F1
O

Principal
Axis

A ray passes through optical centre 'O', paeses without any deviation.

F1

F1

F2

F2

Principal
Axis

Image formation by a convex lens for various position of object

1.

Object
At infinity

2F1

2.

F1

F2

2F2

Object
Beyond 2F1
A
B1
B

2F1

F1

2F2

F2

Position of Image
At focus
F2
Size of Image
Highly
diminished
(point size)

Nature
Real &
inverted

Position of Image
Between F2 & 2F2

Nature
Real &
inverted

Size of Image
Small

A1

3.

Object
At 2F1
A
1

B
2F1

F1

2F2

F2

A1

108

Position of Image
At 2F2
Size of Image
Same size of
object

Nature
Real &
inverted

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4.

Position of Image
Beyond 2F2

Object
Between F1 & 2F1
A

Size of Image
Enlarged

B
2F1

F1

B1

2F2

F2

Nature
Real &
inverted

A1

5.

Object
At focus F1

Position of Image
at infinity

Size of Image
Highly Enlarged

B
2F1

6.

F1

(Special Case)
Object
Between F1 and
optical centre 'O'
Position of Image
On the same
side of the
object

F2

2F2

Size of Image
Enlarged

A1
A

2F1

F1 B

F2

2F2

Position of Image
At F1
Size of Image
Highly Diminished

F1

Nature
Virtual &
Erect

B1

Image formation by concave lens

1.
Object
Alt infinity

2F1

Nature
Real &
inverted

F2

109

Nature
Virtual &
Erect

2F2

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2.

Position of Image
Between F1 & O

Object
Between infinity
and optical centre
(at any point)

Size of Image
Very small

Nature
Virtual
& Erect

A
B
F1 B

2F1

F2

2F2

Sign Convention for Refraction by spherical lens

Similar to that of spherical mirror, only the difference is that all the measurement
are made from optical centre 'O'
+ y-axis
o
+ x-axis

x-axis

y-axis

LENS FORMULA
'O' fi
optical centre
f - distance between F and 'O'
u - distance of object from 'O'
v - distance of image from 'O'
r - distance between centre
of curvature & 'O'

1
1 1
=
f
v
u
f=

R
2

MAGNIFICATION
It is defined as the ratio of the height of image to the height of object.
m=

height of image
height of object

h
= 1
h

h image height
from principal axis
h object height
from principal axis

It is also related to 'u' & 'v'

m=

v
u

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From equation 1 & 2

m=

h1
h

v
u

If magnitude of m > | fi
Image is magnified
m = 1 fi
Image is of same size
m < | fi
Image is deminished
Few tips to remember sign convention for spherical lens
Object height h

fi
is always positive

Image height h1

Real fi
is always negative
Virtual fi
is always positive

Object distance from optical centre u fi

is always negative

Real fi
positive
Image distance from optical centre v fi
virtual fi
negative

Convex lens fi
is always positive
Focal length v fi
Concave lens fi
is always negative
Power of Lens
The degree of convergence or divergence of light ray achieved by a lens is known
as power of a lens.
It is difined as the reciprocal of its focal length Represented by P

f=

1
f

It f is given in meter, then

1
P=
f
It f is given in cm, then
100
P=
f

SI unit of power of a lens is "dioptre" denoted by 'D'

I dioptre or ID fi
It is the power of lens whose focal length is 1m
1
1
ID =
OR ID = 1m
1m

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Power convex lens or converging lens is always positive

f is +ve

F2

Power of concave lens or diverging lens is always negative

f is ve
F1

If any optical instrument have many lens, then net power will be
P = P1 + P2 + P3....

EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers Type Questions (1 Mark)
1.

If the angle of incidence is O, what is the angle of reflection?

2.

What is the nature of image formed by concave mirror if the magnification

produced by the mirror is +3?

3.

Give two uses of concave mirror?

4.

Find the focal length of a convex mirror, whose radius of curvature is 30 cm?

5.

What do you understand by magnification of a spherical mirror?

6.

An object is held at the principal focus of a concave lens of focal length f.

Where the image will form?

7.

Show the angle of incidence and angle of refection.

F

8.

Complete the ray diagram.

2F1

F1

112

F2

2F2

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9.

Define the SI unit of power of lens.

10.

When light undergoes refraction at the surface of seperation of two media,

what happens to speed of light.

Short Answer Type Questions (2-3 Marks)

1.

What do you understand by refraction of light. Draw the labelled ray

diagram, when ray passes through glass slab.

2.

The refractive index of glass is 1.54 and the speed of light in air is 3x10 m/s.
Calculate the speed of light in water?

3.

A convex mirror used on an automobile has a focal length of 6m. If vehicle

behind is at a distance of 12m. Find the nature and location of image.

(4m, virtual erect small)

4.

A concave lens of focal length 15cm, forms an image 10 cm from the lens.
How far is the object placed from the lens? Draw the ray diagram?

5.

Two thin lens of power +3.5D and - 2.5D are placed in contact. Find the
power and focal length, if the lens are in combination.
(p = + 10, f = 1m)

6.

What are the law of refraction. Define refractive index of a medium.

Very Long Answer Type Questions (5 Marks)

1.

2.

Draw the ray diagram, showing the image formed by concave mirror, when
object is placed at
a)

at infinity

b)

between F22F

c)

At 2F

d)

At F

e)

between F&P

Draw the ray diagram, showing the image formed by convex lens, when
object is placed at.
a)

At infinity

b)

between F1 & 2F1

c)

At 2F1

d)

Beyond 2F1

e)

between F1 & optical centre 'O'

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CHAPTER 11

The Hyman Eye and the Colourful World

In this chapter we will study Human eye that uses the light and enable us to see the
objects.
We will also use the idea of refraction of light in some optical phenomena in nature
i.e. Rainbow formation, twinkling of star, blue and red colour of sky etc.
Human Eye : A Sensitive sense organ
It acts like a camera, enable us to capture the colourful picture of the surroundings.
It forms an inverted, real image on light sensitive surface Retina

The Various parts of eye and their functions

1.

Cornea : It is a thin membrane through which light enters. It forms the

transparent bulge on the front of eyeball. Most of the refraction occurs at the
outer surface of the cornea.

2.

Eyeball : it is approximately spherical in shape, with a diameter of about

2.3cm.

3.

Iris : It is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of pupil. It is

behind the cornea.

4.

Pupil : It regulates and control the amount of light entering the eye. It is the
black opening between aqueous humour & lens.

5.

Crystalline eye lens : Provide the focussed real & inverted image of the
object on the retina. It is composed of a fibrous, jelly like material. This is
convex lens that converges light at retina.
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6.

Ciliary muscles : It helps to change the curvature of eyelens and hence

changes its focal length so that we can see the object clearly placed at different
positon.

7.

Retina : Thin membrane with large no. of sensitive cells.

8.

When image formed at retina, light sensitive cells gets activated and generate
electrical signal. These signals are sent to brain via optic nerue. Brain analyse
these signals after which we perceive object as they are.

How pupil works ?

Example : You would have observed that when you come out of the cinema hall
after watching movie in the bright sun light, your eyes get closed . And when you
entered the hall from the bright light, you won't be able to see and after some time
you would be able to see.
Here the pupil of an eye provide a variable aperture, whose size is controlled by iris
a)

When the light is bright : Iris contracts the pupil, so that less light enters the
eye.

b)

When the light is din : Iris expand the pupil, so that more light enters the eye.

Pupil open completely, when iris is relaxed.

Persistence of Vision : It is the time for which the sensation of an object continue
th
in the eye. It is about 1/16 of a second.
Power of Accommodation :
The ability of eye lens to adjust it focal length is called accommodation with the
help of ciliary muscles.
Ciliary Muslces
Relaxed
1. Eye lens become thin
2. Increases the focal length
3. Enable us to see distant object clearly

Contract
1. Eye lens become thick
2. Decreases the focal length
3. Enable us to see nearby object clearly

Near point of the Eye

It is 25cm for normal eye. The
minimum distance at which object can
be seen most distinctly without strain.

For point of the Eye

It is infinity for normal eye. It is the
farthest point upto which the eye can
see object clearly.

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DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTION

1.

CATARACT : The image can not be seen distinctly because eye lens become
milky and cloudy. This condition is known as cataract, it can cause complete
or partial loss of vision.
This can be corrected by surgical removal of extra growth (cataract surgery)

2.

Myopia : (Near Sightedness)

A person can see nearby object clearly, but cannot see distant object distinctly.
Image formed in front of the retina.

Normal
Eye

Image
formed
at Retina

Object

O1

Myopic
Eye

The Reason of defect

1.

Excessive curvature of eye lens (thick, decrease focal length)

2.

Elongation of the eye ball.

CORRECTION
Corrected by using a Concave Lens of appropriate power.

O1

Correction of Myopita

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(3) Hypermetropia (Far - Sightedness)

A person cannot see nearby object clearly, but can see distant object distinctly.
Image formed at a point behind the retina

NORMAL
EYE N

NORMAL
EYE N

Image formed
at Retina

Hypermetropic
eye
N1

The Reason of defect

1.

Increase in focal length of the eye lens (Thin eye lens)

2.

Eye ball has become too small.

CORRECTION
Corrected by using a Convex Lens of appropriate power.

N1

Correction of Hypermetropic eye

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4.

Presbyopia
As we become old, the power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases,
the near point gradually recedes away.
This defect is called Presbyopia. Person may suffer from both myopia and
hypermetropia.
Reason of defect- Gradual weakening of ciliary muscles and decreasing the
flexibility of the eye lens.
Correction- Using of Bifocal lens with appropriate power.
Bifocal lenses consist of both concave and convex lens, upper position consist
of concave lens and lower portion consist of convex lens.
Refraction of light through a Prism
Prism- It has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces.
These surfaces are inclines to each other. The angle between its two lateral
faces is called Angle of Prism.
A

Angle of Prism

D (Angle of deviation)

i- incident angle

Sun

t
ligh
B

e
(emergent

angle)

Em
erg
ent
ray

Angle of Deviation (D)

The angle between the incident ray and emergent ray.
Dispersion fo white light by a Glass Prism

D for red colour

D for violet colour

ht
te lig
i
h
W
beam

R
While light
Spectrum

D for violet colour >

D for red colour

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Inclined refracting surfaces of glass prism show exciting phenomenon.

Splitting of White light into band of colours
The band of the coloured components of light beam as called Spectrum i.e.
VIBGYOR
The splitting of light into its component colours is called Dispersion.
The different component colour of light bends at different angle with respect to
incident angle the red light bends the least while the violet bends most.
ISSAC NEWTON
He was the first, who obtained spectrum of sunlight by
using glass prism.
He tried to split the spectrum of white light more by using another similar prism,
but he could not get any more colours.
He repeated the experiment using second prism in on inverted position with
respect to the first prism.
Allowed all the colours of spectrum to pass through second prism. He found white
light emerges on the other side of second prism.
en
Scre
ght
te li
i
h
w

te
whi
t
h
lig

rce
Sou

He concluded that sun is made up of seven visible colour VIBGYOR

RAINBOW
It is the spectrum of sunlight in nature It is formed due to the
dispersion of sunlight by the tiny water droplet, present in atmosphere.
Water droplet act like prism.
It refract and disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally (internal
reflection) and finally refract it again, when it emerges out of the water droplet.
A rainbow is always form in a direction opposite to that of sun.
Due dispersion and internal reflection of light different colour reaches to
observers eye.
Red colour appear on top & violet at the bottom of rainbow

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Sunlight

Rain drop
A

At A
Refraction & dispersion takes place

At B
Internal refraction takes place
C

At C
Refraction & dispersion takes place
R
V

Atmospheric Refraction
1.

Apparent Star Position It is due to atmospheric refraction of star light.

The temperature and density of different layer of atmosphere keeps varying.
Hence we have different medium.
Distant star act as point source of light. When the starlight enter the earths
atmosphere it undergoes refraction continuously, due to changing refractive
index i.e. from Rarer to denser. It bends towards the normal.
Due to this the apparent position of the star is different from actual position.
The star appear higher than its actual position.
Actual
position
of Star

Apparent position of star

In atmosphere layer
.............................................
Refractive index
.............................................
.............................................
decreases
.............................................
.............................................
.............................................
.............................................
Atmosphere
.............................................
.............................................
EARTH
.............................................

2.

Twinkling of Star It is also due to atmospheric refraction

Distant star act like a point source of light. As the beam of starlight keeps
deviating from its path, the apparent position of star keeps on changing
because physical condition of earths atmosphere is not stationary
Hence the amount of light enters our eyes fluctuate some time bright and some
time faint.
This is the Twinkling effect of star

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Q. Why Planet do not twinkle?

Ans. Planets are closer to earth and are seen as extended source of light i.e. the
collection of large no: of point sized sources of light. Therefore the total
amount of light entering our eyes from all individual point source will nullify
the twinkling effect.
(3) Advance Sunrise and delayed sunset
This is also due to atmospheric refraction.
Because of this sun is visible about 2 minutes earlier than actual sunrise and
about 2 minutes after the actual sun set.
Apparent
position
of sun

Ob
se
Ea rver
rth o
n

Atmosphere

Horizon

EARTH

Actual
Sun

Apparent flattering of the suns disc at sun set and sun rise is due to atmospheric
refraction.
Scattering of Light
Tyndall Effect When a beam of light strikes the minute particle of earths
atmosphere suspended particles of dust and molecule of air the path of beam
become visible. The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particle
gives rise to Tyndall Effect.
It can be observed when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense forest.
The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering particles
Very fine particle
(scatter mainly
blue colour short
wave length)

Large size particle

(Scatter light of
longer wave length
i.e. red)

Very large enough

(The sky appear
white)

(1)

Why cloud Appear white The size of water droplet (scattering particle) is
very large, hence scattered all wavelength of light almost equally.

(2)

Why colour of sky is blue The molecules of air and other fine particles in
the atmosphere have size smaller than the wavelength of visible light. Since
the blue has shorter wavelength than red, hence it will scattered the most.
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According to Rayleigh scattering

1
Scattering of light a
l
Wavelength)
l
4 (
Scattering of light decreases with increase in wavelength
Q.

If there is no earths atmosphere? What will happen to scattering

phenomenon?

Ans. There will be no scattering and sky will appear dark.

(3)

Colour of the Sun of Sunrise and Sunset

While sunset and sunrise, the colour of the sun and its surrounding appear
red.
During sunset and sunrise, the sun is near horizon, and therefore the sunlight
has to travel larger distance in atmosphere. Due to this most of the blue light
(shorter wavelength) are scattered away by the particles. The light of longer
wavelength (red colour) will reach our eye. This is why sun appear red in
colour.

(4)

Why the danger signal or sign are made of red colour.

Red colour scattered the least when strikes the small particle of fog and
smoke because in has the maximum wavelength (visible spectrum). Hence
at large distance also, we can see the red colour clearly.

(4)

At noon sun appear white

At noon the, sun is overhead and sunlight would travel shorter distance
relatively through the atmosphere. Hence, at noon, the Sun appear while as
only little of the blue and violet colours are scattered.
(In the afternoon)
(In the early morning
or evening)

Light travel less

distance in atmosphere.

(Less blue
scattered)

(Blue scattered away

sun appear reddish

.............................................
.............................................
.............................................
Light Travel
large distance
.............................................
.............................................
in atmosphere
.............................................
.............................................
Atmosphere
Sun near
.............................................
.............................................
EARTH
horizon
.............................................

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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.
What is the phenomenon responsible for the blue colour of sky?
2.
What is the near and far point of a normal eye?
3.
Name the component of eye that is responsible for the adjustment of
eyelens?
4.
To an astronaut why does the sky appear dark instead of blue?
5.
How can your remove the defect of vision Presbyopia.
6.
Name three primary colour? (Ans. RED, BLUE, GREEN)
7.
Write the nature of image formed by our eye?
8.
What do you understand by Dispersion of light?
9.
What is Tyndall Effect?
10. A student has difficulty reading the black board while sitting in the last row.
What is the defect of vision and how it can be corrected?
Short Answers (2 Marks)
1.
Name the phenomenon responsible for formation of rainbow? Explain it
with the help of diagram?
2.
What is power of accommodation. How ciliary muscles helps in
accommodation?
3.
Why the sun appear red while sunset and sunrise. Explain?
4.
Why the star twinkle but not earth?
5.
Explain the function of
(i) Iris (ii) Pupil (iii) Retina
6.
Explain the refraction of light through glass prism with the help of diagram.
Show angle of emergence and angle of deviation?
Long Answer Type Questions (5 Marks)
1.
What is myopia. State the two causes of myopia? With the help of labelled
ray diagram show
(1) Eye defect
(2) Correction of myopia
2.
What is hypermetropia. State the two causes? With the help of labelled ray
diagram show
(1) Eye defect
(2) Correction of hypermetropia.
3.
Draw the labelled diagram of human eye and explain the image formation?
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CHAPTER 12

ELECTRICITY
Think life without electricity in this modern society. Is it possible to survive
without electrical energy in world of technology. Since we are science student, so it
is necessary to understand the basic concept behind the word electricity
Charge
(q)
It is a very small particles present in an atom it can be either negative (electron) or
positive (proton)
Coulomb is the SI unit of charge, represented by C.
Net charge (Q) Total charge
1018
IC Net charge is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly electrons 6
Q = ne (n is no: of electron)
19
10 C (negative charge on electron)
If Q = 1C, e = 1.6
n=

Q
1
=
19
e
1.6
10
100
18
18
=

10 = 6.2
10
16
18

n=6
10 electron
Current (I)
Rate of flow of net charge is called current. Denoted by (I)
I =

Q
t

t is time

SI unit of current is Ampere rep. by A.

Ampere
Defined as one coulomb of charge following per second.
1A =

1C
1s

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In an electric circuit the electric current flow in the opposite direction of the flow of
electron (ve charge) conventionally. It flows from the +ve terminal of battery or
cell to ve terminal.
Small quantity of current are expressed in
3

mA (milli Ampere) = 10 A
6

uA (micro Ampere) = 10 A
Ammeter It is an instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit.
It is always connected in series m a circuit
It is represented by the symbol + A in an electric circuit. It has
low resistance.
Electric Circuit It is a closed path along which an electric current flow.

Bulb
The arrow shows the direction
of electric current in circuit.

Ammeter A

+
+

Key

In this circuit ammeter is

connected in series.

Battery
(Having 3 cells)

The electron can only flow when there is difference of electric pressure. For
example water flowing through a tube It is only possible when there high
pressure at one side and low at another side, then it will move from high pressure to
low pressure.
In case of electric current, the flow of charge is made possible due to chemical
action with in a cell that generates the potential difference across the terminals of
the cell.
8. Electric potential Difference It is defined as the work done in carrying a unit
charge from one point to another between the two points of an electric circuits.
V Potential Difference
W Work
Q Net Charge
SI unit of potential difference Volts rep. by V
V=

W
Q

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One Volt
When 1 Joule of work is done to carry one coulomb (1C) of charge
from one point to another of a current carrying conductor then the potential
difference is send to be IV.
IV =

1J
1C

Voltmeter
It is an instrument, used to measure the potential difference and
+V
represented by the symbol
in an electric circuit. It is always
connected in parallel across the points between which the potential difference is to
be measured. It has high resistance.
Symbols for some commonly used instrument in circuit diagrams
+

(1) Cell

(2) Battery

(3) Key (switch) open

OR

(4) Key (Close)

OR

(5) Joint wire

(6) Wires with no join

(7) Bulb
+

(8) Ammeter

(9) Voltmeter

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Georg Simon Ohm (physicist) 1787 1854

Found the relationship between the current (I) flowing through a conductor and
potential difference (V) across the terminals of a conductor using the circuit
diagram.
+ V

GRAPH

A
+

V
(V)
+

Va
I
I (A)

In this circuit diagram we come across two new symbols

RESISTANCE (R)
OR

RHEOSTAT (Variable Resistance)

Ohms Law
He stated that the electric current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportion at to the potential difference across its ends, provided the
temperature remain constant
Va
I
V = IR
Where R is the proportionality constant for the given metal at given temperature
and is said to be resistance, the graph between V and I is always straight line.
Resistance It is the property of a conductor that opposes the flow of current. It is
represented by R and symbol is
SI unit of resistance Ohm OR W
1 Ohm The resistance of a conductor is said to be one Ohm, when the potential
difference across the conductor is 1V and the current flowing through it is 1A.
V = IR
\
R= V
I
1 Ohm or 1 W
= 1V
1A
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Rheostate
As we know that
V = IR

Shows that current through

\
1= V
conductor resistor is inversely
R
proportional is its resistance

So to increase or decrease the current accordingly in the circuit a component is

used is called Rheostat, that regulates the current without changing potential
difference. Represented by Rh
Its symbol is

OR

it a conductor has less Resistance, then more current will flow through it.
FACTORS ON WHICH RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS
(1) On its length (l)
(2) On its cross sectional area (A)
(3) On the nature of material
(Resistance)

Ra
l
1
Ra
A
l
Ra
A
R= l
A

(Directly prop. to length)

(inversely prop to cross-sectional area)

Where (rho) is a proportionality constant known as resistivity of the material

of conductor.
11. Resistivity ( ) the resistance offered by a wire of unit length and unit crosssectional area is called resistivity.
l
Since R =
Its SI unit is W
m
A
R.A
W
.
m2
\
==
l
m
\
SI unit of =
W
m.
For a material irrespective of length and area, the resistivity is a constant.
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Resistantly of a material vary with temperature

Resistivity of an alloy (homogeneous mixture of metals) is generally higher than
of its constituent metals. Example Constantan (alloy of Cu & Ni)
Alloys have high resistivity and do not oxidise (burn) readly at high temperature,
for this reason they are commonly used in electrical heating devices, like electric
iron, heater, toasters etc. For example Tungsten as filament of electric bulb.
Resistance in Series (Maximum Effective Resistance)
Let us take three resistance R1, R2 and R3 that are connected in series in a circuit.
R1

R2

R3

V1

V2

V3

I
+

Ohms low stated

V = IR

The current (I) flowing through the resistance in series will remain same, where as
the potential difference (V) across each resistor will be different.
V = IR
V1 = IR1 , V2 = IR2 , V3 = IR3
Total potential difference (V) = V1 + V2 + V3
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

the value of
} Putting
V, V , V & V
1

I R = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
Reff = R1 + R2 + R3
Thus, we conclude that effective Resistance of the several resistors joined in series
is equal to the sum of their individual resistance.
Resistance in Parallel (Minimum Effective Resistance)
Let us take three R1, R2 and R3, that are connected in parallel in the electric circuit.
R1

I1
I2
I1

R2

I3

R3

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Now,

I1 = V , I2 = V , I3 = V
R1
R2
R3

Total current (I) = I1 + I2 + I3

substitute the value of I1 , I2 , I3 and I
V = V + V + V
R
R1
R2
R3
V = V
R

1 + 1 + 1
R1
R2
R3

1 = 1 + 1 + 1
Reff
R1
R2
R3
Thus, we conclude that the reciprocal of total effective resistance of the several
resistors connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual resistance.
Disadvantage of series connection in on electric circuit :
1.

In series connection if any of the component fail to work, the circuit will break
and then none of the component (ex. TV, bulb, fan..) will work.

2.

It is not possible to connect a bulb and a heater in series, because they need
different value of current to operate properly.

Hence, to overcome this problem we generally use parallel circuit.

Heating effect of Electric Current :
Explanation Battery or a cell is a source of electrical energy.
Battery or Cell
(Chemical reaction in
it will produce potential
difference at its
two terminals)
Rest of energy of source is
converted into heat, that
raises the temperature
of gadget.
This is known as heating
effect of electric current

Electron
will come in motion
to flow current
through resistor
Part of this energy is
consumed in useful
work
(like rotating of fan)

To maintain this current,

the source has to keep
expending its energy

This effect is utilized in

devices such as electric
heater, iron etc.

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Mathematical Expression :
Let us suppose that current (I) is flowing through a resistor of resistance (R) for the
time (t). The potential difference across the resistance is (V).
W
V= Q
\
Work done in morning the charge Q will be
W = VQ
W
Then power, P = t [Rate of change of work done]
VQ
= t
Q
P = VI
I= t
(1)
Heat energy supplied by the source for time t will be
Energy or Work
H=P
t
P=
(2)
time
Put equation (i) in equation (2)
H = VIt
= (IR) It

\
V = IR Ohms Law]

H = I Rt
This is known as Joules Law
The law stated that the heat produced in a resistor is
(i) directly proportional to square of the current(I)
(ii) directly proportional to resistance (R) for given current
(iii) directly proportional to time (t) for which current flow through resistor.
Application of Heating Effect of Electric Current :
(1) Used in electric iron, toaster, oven, heater etc.
(2) It is also used in bulb to produce light.
(Filament of bulb is made of strong metal with high melting point such as
tungsten (m.pt = 3380C). This filament can retain as much of the heat
generated as possible, to become very hot and emit light)
(3) It is also used in the fuse connected in an electric circuit {Fuse a safety
device, protect the circuits and appliance by stopping the flow of high current.
The wire of fuse is made of an alloy of metals for ex Aluminium Copper, Iron
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lead etc. The alloy should be of low m.pt and high resistivity, fuse is always
connected in series circuit. When large current flow through the circuit, the
temperature of fuse wire will increase. This melts the fuse wire and break the
circuit.
Fuses used for domestic purposes are rated as 1A, 2A, 3A, 5A, 10A etc. for
various operation depending upon the power of appliance using.
Example- let us consider an appliance electric Iron which consume 1KW
electric power, at 220V
P = VI
I = P = 1KW = 1000W
V
220V
220V
I = 4.54A
In this case a 5A fuse is required.
Electric Power : In case of electricity, it is defined as the rate of change electrical
energy dissipated or consumed in an electric electrical energy dissipated or
consumed in an electric circuit.
P = VI
or P = I2R
2
V
or P =
R

( V = IR Ohms Law)
( I= V )
R

or P = Electrical Energy (E)

time (t)
SI unit of electric power is Watt (W).
1 Watt
Defined as the power consumed by a device, when 1A of current passes
through it at the potential difference of 1V.
P = VI
1 Watt = 1 Volt
1 Ampere
29 Electrical Energy
P= E
t

E Electrical Energy
t time

\
E=P
t

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SI unit of electrical energy = Ws or J

Commercial unit of electrical energy = KWh or One unit
E=P
t
\
KWh = 1KW
h
= 1000W
3600 s
5
= 36
10 Ws
= 3.6
106J
(SI unit Ws = J)
\
1
KWh = 3.6
106J
One horse power = 746W

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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.

Define the SI unit of (one mark each)

(a)

Current

(b)

Potential Difference

(c)

Resistance

(d)

Electric Power

(e)

Electric Energy (Commercial)

2.

What is the conventional direction of flow of current?

3.

Define the term resistivity?

4.

On what factors does the resistance of a conductor depend?

5.

How is the voltmeter and ammeter connected in the electric circuit.

6.

Heating effect of current carrying conductor is due to

(Ans : loss of kmectic energy of electron)

7.

Why the filament of bulb has high melting point?

8.

How does use of a fuse wire protect electrical appliance?

9.

What is the relationship between power, current and potential difference

(Ans : P = VI)

10.

How many joules are there in 1KWh?

Short Answer (2-3 marks) type Questions

1.

Draw a schematic diagram of a circuit consisting of a battery of six cell of

1.5V each, three resistor each of 3W
in series and a plug key.

2.

State Ohms law. Draw the graph between V&I?

3.

What is joules Heating effect of current, derive its expression?

4.

A wire of length L and R is stretched so that its lengths doubled and the area
of cross section is halved. How will its
(i)

Resistance change

(ii)

Resistivity change.

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5.

An electrical appliance of power 2KW works at potential difference of 220V.

Does it require fuse of 5A, give reason?

6.

Calculate the total effective resistance between points A and B

1W

(i)

1W
1W

1W
A

1W

1W

1W
3W

3W

(ii)
A

B
3W

3W

2W

(iii)
2W

2W 2W

2W
B

Long Answer (5 Marks) type Questions

1.

On what factor the resistance of conductor depends give its mathematical

expression. Give the SI unit of resistivity?
Calculate the resistivity of a metal of length 2m at 20C having the resistance
of 20W
and diameter 0.3mm?

2.

In a circuit below, calculate

4W

2W
6W

6W

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3.

(1)

Calculate total effective resistance

(2)

The total current through the circuit.

(3)

Potential difference across 4W

and 2W
.

Three resistance of 2W
, 3W
and 5W
are connected in the electric circuit.
Calculate the
(1)

Maximum effective resistance

(2)

Minimum effective resistance

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CHAPTER 13

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT
In this chapter, we will study the effects of electric current :
1.

Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851)

Oersted showed that electricity and magnetism are related to each other. His
research later used in radio, television etc.
The unit of magnetic field strength is name Oersted in his honour.

2.

Oersted Experiment
R

X
XY is conductor (Cu wire)
through which current is passed
Y

On passing the current through the copper wire XY in the circuit, the compass
needle which is placed near the conductor gets deflected. If we reverse the
direction of current, the compass needle deflect in reverse direction. If we
stop the flow of current, the needle comes at rest.
Hence, it conclude that electricity and magnetism are linked to each other. It
shows that whenever the current will flow through the conductor, then
magnetic field around. it will developer
3.

Magnetic Field It is the region surrounding a magnet, in which force of

magnet can be detected. It is a vector quantity, having both direction &
magnitude.

4.

Compass needle It is a small bar magnet, whose north end is pointing

towards north pole and south end is pointing towards south pole of earth.

5.

Magnetic field lines

When a bar magnet is placed on a card board and iron fillings are sprinkled,
they will arrange themselves in a pattern as shown below.
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The lines along which the iron filling align themselves represent magnetic
field lines.
Hence, magnetic field line is a path along which a hypothetical free north pole
tend to move towards south pole.
6.

Characteristics of Magnetic field lines :

(1) The direction of magnetic field lines outside the magnet is always from
north pole to south pole of bar magnet and are indicated by an arrow.
Inside the magnetic, the direction of field lines is from its south pole to north
pole
Thus magnetic field lines are closed curve
(2) The strength of magnetic field is expressed by the closeness of magnetic
field lines. Closer the lines, more will be the strength and farther the lines, less
will be the magnetic field strength.
(3) No two field lines will intersect each other.
If they intersects, then at point of intersection the compass needle will show
two direction of magnetic field which is not possible.
Tangent at the
point of intersection
shows two direction.

7.

Magnetic field due to Current Carrying Conductor

N

S
Cu wire

N
y

Cu wire

(a)

(b)

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The above electric circuit in which a copper is placed paralled to a compass

needle, shows the deflection in needle gets reversed, when the direction of
current reversed. Hence electricity and magnetism are related to each other.
8.

Right Hand Thumb Rule :

It is a convenient way of finding the direction of magnetic field associated
with current carrying conductor.
Hold the straight were carrying current in your right hand such that thumb
points towards the direction of current, then your folded fingers around the
conductor will show the direction of magnetic field.

Direction of magnetic
field lines.

This rule is also called Maxwells corkscrew rule.

9.

Magnetic Field due to Current through a Straight Conductor

+

Direction of
Current

on c
i
ecti
Dir agnet
m
f
o d
fiel

Direction can be
explained using
Right Hand Thumb
Rule
+

Pheostat

10. Magnetic Field due to Current through a circular Loop

+
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Every point on the wire carrying current give rise to the magnetic field,
appearing as a straight line at the centre of loop. By applying Right hand
Thumb rule, we can find the direction of magnetic field at every section of the
wire.
11. Solenoid A Coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped
closely in the shape of a cylinder is called solenoid.
12. Magnetic field due to a current in a solenoid

Using R.H. Thumb Rule, we can draw the pattern of magnetic field lives
around a current carrying solenod.
One end of the solenoid behaves as a magnetic north pole, white the other
end behave as the South Pole.
The filed lines inside the solenoid are in form of parallel straigh lines, that
implies that magnetic field inside the solenoid is same at all points i.e. Field is
uniform.
13. Electromagnet Strong magnetic field inside the solenoid can be used to
magnetise a magnetic material for example soft iron, when it is placed inside
the coil. The magnet so formed is called electromagnet.
14. Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836) suggested that the magnet also exert an
equal and opposite force on the current carrying conductor.
Iron Stand

Experiment
S

rod

Current Carrying
Aluminium rod should lie
between the two poles
of magnet

Horse shoe magnet

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We will observe that the rod will displace i.e. the rod will experience a force,
when it is placed in magnetic field, in a perpendicular direction to its length.

The direction of the exert force will be reversed if the direction of current
through the conductor is reversed.

If we change the direction of field by inter changing the two poles of the
magnet, again the direction of exert force will change.

Therefore the direction of exerted force depends on

(1) direction of current

(2) direction of magnetic field lines.
15. Left Hand Fleming Rule
M other

F ather

(Force)
Motion
T humb

Field

C hild
Current

Fore finger

Middle finger

Thrust (force)
Three of them perpendicular to each other.

According to this rule, stretch thumb,

forefinger and middle finger

of your left hand such that they are mutually perpendicular to each
other.
If fore finger represent direction of magnetic field & middle finger
represent direction of current, then thumb will point in the direction
motion or force acting on the conductor.

Functioning of electric motor is based on this rule. It convert electrical

energy into mechanical energy.

16. Michael Faraday Gave the law of Electro magnetic Induction

17. Galvanometer
It is an instrument that can detect the presence of a current
in a circuit. If pointer is at zero (the centre of scale) the there will be no flow of
current.
If the pointer deflect on either side right or left, this will show the direction of
current. Represented by
o

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18. Electro Magnetic Induction Can be explained by two experiments

(a) FIRST EXPERIMENT
SELF INDUCTION
N

S
G

In this experiment, when the north pole of bar magnet is brought closes to the
coil or away from the coil, we see momentary deflection in the needle of
galvanometer on either side of null point. First right and then left.
Similarly, if we keep the magnet stationary and coil is made to move towards
or away from the north pole of magnet. Again we will observe deflection in
the needle of galvanometer.
If both bar magnet and coil kept stationary, there will be no deflection in
galvanometer.
This experiment can also be done with the south pole of magnet, we will
observe the deflection in galvanometer, but it would be in opposite direction
to the previous case.

It concludes that motion of magnet with respect to coil or vice-versa,

changes the magnetic field. Due to this change in magnetic field lines,
potential difference is induced in the same coil, which set up an induced
current in the circuit.
(b) SECOND EXPERIMENT Mutual Induction
Primary Coil

Secondary Coil

Coil 1

G
Coil 2

In this experiment plug in the key that is connect coil with battery and observe
the deflection in galvanometer. Now plug out the key that is disconnect the
coil-1 from battery and observe the deflection in galvanometer, which will be
in reverse direction.
Hence, we conclude that potential difference is induced in secondary coil
(coil-2), whenever there is a change in current, in primary coil (coil-1) (by on
and off of key).

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This is because, whenever there is change in current in primary coil

Magnetic field associated with it also changes

Now, magnetic field lines around the secondary coil (coil-2) will change and
induces the electric current in it (observed by the deflectionof needle of
Galvanometer in secondary circuit)
This process, by which changing of strength of current in primary coil,
induces a current in secondary coil is called Electromagnetic Induction
The induced current is found to be highest when the direction of motion of coil
is at right angles to the magnetic field.
19. Flemings Right Hand Rule
(1)

(2)

M other
Motion
(movement of conductor)
Thumb

F ather
Field
(Magnetic)
Fore finger

(3)
C hild
Current
(Induced)
Middle finger

Three of them perpendicular to each other.

Rule can be defined at
Stretch thumb , forefinger and middle finger of right hand, so that they
are perpendicular to each other. The forefinger indicates direction of magnetic
field, thumb shows the direction of motion of conductor, then the middle
finger will shows the direction of induced current.
Electrical generator is based on the principle of electro magnetic induction.
It convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Current

Alternate Current (AC)

Direct Current (DC)

(1) Changes the direction

periodically after equal
interval of time

Does not change its

direction with time it is
unidirectional

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Current
I
(A)

I
(A)

time
(s)

time
(s)
It has frequency
50Hz in India
60 Hz in America

It has frequency
OHz

21. Advantages of Alternate Current (AC) over Direct Current (DC)

Electric power can be transmitted to longer distances without much loss of
energy. Therefore cost of transmission is low.
In India the frequency of AC is 50Hz. It means after every 1/100 second it
changes its direction.
22. Domestic Electric Circuits :
In our homes, the electric power supplied is of potential difference V = 220V
and frequency 50Hz.
It consist of three wires :
(1) Wire with red insulation cover LIVE WIRE (POSITIVE)
Live wire is at high potential of 220V
(2) Wire with black insulation cover NEUTRAL WIRE (NEGATIVE)
Neutral wire is at zero potential
Therefore, the potential difference between the two is 220V.
(3) Wire with Green insulation cover EARTH WIRE
it is connected to a copper plate deep in the earth near house.
The metallic body of the appliances is connected with the earth wire as a
safety measure.
Function
Earth wire provide a low resistance to the current hence any leakage of
current to the metallic body of the appliances, keep its potential equal to
that of earth. That means zero potential and the user is saved from severe
electric shock.

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23.
Earth wire
Live wire

Distribution Box
containing main
switch & fuse
for
each
current

Ueutral wire
Electrical
Fuse board

Electricity
meter

Point to be noted in domestic circuit

(1) Each appliance has a seperate switch of ON/OFF
(2) In order to provide equal potential difference to each appliance, they should
be connected parallel to each other. So that they can be operated at any time.
One consist of current of 15A
for high power appliances

(3) We have two electric circuit in our home

Other circuit consist of current 5A
for low power appliances.

24. Short Circuiting

Due to fault in the appliances or damage in the insulation of two wires, the
circuit will offer zero or negligible resistance to the flow of current. Due to
low resistance, large amount of current will flow.
According to Joules law of heating effect (Ha
I2) heat is produced in live wire
and produces spark, damaging the device and wiring.
25. Overloading
Overloading can be caused by (1) Connecting too many appliances to a single
socket or (2) accidental rise in supply voltage if the total current drawn by the
appliances at a particular time exceeds the bearing capacity of that wire, it will
get heated up. This is known as overloading.
Fuse a safety device can prevent the circuit from overloading and short
circuiting.

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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.

What is the frequency of AC used in India?

2.

Name the point where the iron filling are collected more?

3.

Who discovered electro magnetic induction?

4.

Why does a compass needle get deflected when brought near the bar
magnet?

5.

If both the coil and the magnet are stationary, will there be deflection in
galvanometer?

6.

Why magnetic field lines do not intersect each other?

7.

What is the advantage of Alternate Current over Direct current?

8.

What do you understand by short circuiting?

9.

When the force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed in a

magnetic field is maximum?

10.

Write the factors affecting the magnetic field due to a straight conductor?

Short Answers (2 Marks)

1.

A charged particles enters at right angles into a uniform magnetic field. What
is the nature of charge particle, if it experiences a force in a direction pointing
vertically out of the page.
Magnetic field

Charge particle

2.

(use left hand flemings rule)

Name the Rule

(1)

Force experience by a current - carrying conductor placed in a

magnetic field.

(2)

Direction of magnetic field lines associated with a current carrying

conductor.

(3)

Direction of induced current in a coil due to its rotation in magnetic

field.

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3.

What is solenoid? Where the magnetic field is uniform in solenoid?

4.

Draw the pattern of magnetic field lines due to current carrying straight
conductor?
(5)

Name two safety measures commonly used in electric circuit and

appliances?

(6)

What is overloading?

Long Answer (5 Marks)

1.

Explain the phenomenon of Electro magnetic Induction with the help of an

activity. Write its one application.

2.

Draw the schematic diagram of domestic circuit. Write the colour and
function of Neutral wire, Live wire and Earth wire.

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CHAPTER 14

SOURCES OF ENERGY
?
Energy comes in different forms and one form can be converted to another.

For example if we drop a plate from a height, the potential energy of the plate
is converted mostly to sound energy when it hits the ground.
?
If we light a candle, the process is highly exothermic so that the chemical

energy of the wax is converted into heat energy and light energy on burning.
A Good Source of Energy would be one

which has high calorific value

be easily accessible

be easy to store and transport

be economical
SOURCES OF ENERGY

Conventional Source of Energy

Non-Conventional Source of Energy

Fossil Fuels
Eg. Coal & Petroleum

Thermal Power Plant

Hydro Power Plants

Bio-Mass
bio gas plant

Wind Energy

Solar Energy
Eg. Solar Cooker, Solar Cell Panel

Energy From the Sea

Eg. Tidal & wave energy, O.T.
Energy

Geothermal Energy

Nuclear Energy.

?
Amont the sources of energy, some of them get exhausted (Non-Renewable)

While some of them do not get exhausted, therefore called as Renewable

source of energy. Examples
1. Non Renewable source of energy
Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas
2. Renewable Source of energy
Air, Water, Solar radiation, Geothermal
Energy, ocean waves etc.

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CONVENTIONAL SOURCE OF ENERGY

1. Fossil Fuels : Fuels developed from the fossils. Eg. Coal & Petroleum.
?
Formed over million of years ago have only limited reserves
?
These are non-renewable source of energy
?
India has about 6% share in the world reserved coal, that may last 250 years
more at the present rate of consumption.
Disadvantages of Burning Fossil Fuels
?
released oxides of Carbon, Nitrogen, Sulphur (acidic in nature) cause Air
pollution & Acid rain & green-house effect.
Dynamo

Pressure
Cooker
Heat
(Fossil Fuel)

Bulb

Tennis Ball
fitted with metal plate

A Model of Thermo Electric Production.

?
This is our Turbine for generating electricity. Actually the steam/fluid impart

energy to rotor of turbine which can move shaft of the generator to produce
electricity. A very large amount of fossil fuels are burnt in Thermal Power
Plant to heat up water to produce steam.
?
Hydropower Plants Convert the Potential energy of falling water into

Electricity since there are few water-falls which could be used a source of
potential energy, hence this is the reason, a large number of DAMS are built
all over the world.
?
Around 25% of our countrys energy requirement is met by Hydro Power

Plants

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Dams are constructed to :

?
Prevent flooding of river, provide water for irrigation & to generate

hydroelectricity.
Disadvantages of construction of Big Dams
1.

Submerging/Loss of large variety of Flora fauna and human settlements &

roting of submerged vegetation release green house gas (CH4).

2.

They pose dangers of earthquakes, landslides etc.

3.

Biomass is Agricultural & animal wastes that can be used as a fuel. Eg. of
Biomass Firewood, cattle dung, sewage, dry leaves, stems & bagasse.

?
Normally biomass has low calorific value & produce lot of smoke when they

are burnt. Their efficiency as a good fuel has been increased tremendously
with the application of technology. For Eg. cowdung becomes efficient &
cheap good fuel in a Bio-gas plant.
?
Charcoal is better fuel than wood because it do not contain water & other

volatile material which are present in wood.

Wood

Limited
Supply of O2

Charcoal

Charcoal burns without smoke, flames & has high calorific value.
?
Bio-gas is an excellent fuel & contain 75% of Methane (CH4). It burns

without smoke, leaves no reciters like ash, with high heat capacity.
?
Biogas is produced by anerobic decomposition of the slurry (cowdung +

water mixture) by microbes. This process is applied in a Bio gas plant.

Gas Outlet
SLURRY
Manure

Digestel
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?
The Biogas is stored in the gas tank from which they are drawn through pipes

for use in a Bio-gas plant

?
Bio gas is used for lighting, cooking in the rural areas. While the slurry left

behind is used as excellent manure, rich in nitrogen and phosphorous

?
The large scale use of Bio-wastes & sewage material provide a safe and

efficient method of waste-disposal besides supplying energy and manure.

WIND ENERGY
?
Unequal heating of the landmass and water bodies by solar radiation

generates air movement & causes winds to blow. This kinetic energy of the
wind can be used to do work.
?
This energy is utilised to lift water from the well & to generate electricity in

the wind mill.

Actually the rotatory motion of the windmill is used to turn the rotor of the turbine
which then generate electricity through Dynamo.
The output of a single windmill is quite small so a number of windmills are erected
over a large area - called wind energy farm.
India Ranked Fifth in the world in harnessing wind energy for the production of
electricity. It is estimated that nearly 45,000 MW of electric power can be
generated if Indias wind potential is fully exploited.
?
The minimum wind speed for wind mill to serve as a source of energy is

20KMPH.
Advantages of Wind Energy
1.

Eco friendly

2.

Efficient source of renewable energy.

3.

No recurring expenses for production of electricity

Limitations of Wind Energy

1.

Wind energy farms need large area of land

2.

Difficulty in getting regular wind speed of 15-20 KmPH.

3.

Initial cost of establishing wind energy farm is very high.

4.

High level of maintenance of blades of wind mill.

Non Conventional Sources of Energy

Solar Energy :
The energy imitted by the sun in form of heat and light is called solar energy.
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Solar Constant = 1.4kJ/s m

Outer edge of the earth receives solar energy equal to 1.4 kJ/sm which is known as
solar constant.
Solar energy devices :
A large number of devices that utilize solar energy directly like :
(i) Solar Cooker
(ii) Solar furnaces
(iii) Solar cells
(iv) Solar water heaters
Solar heating devices :
?
Use black painted surface because black surface absorbs more heat as

compared to white or other surface.

?
Use of glass plate because it allows shorter infrared radiations to pass through

it but doesnt allow the longer wavelength infrared radiations to through it,
that results in increase in temperature.
Solar Cooker :
Box type solar Cooker
?
It consists of a rectangular box which is made up of material such as plastic or

wood.
?
Box is covered with black sheet and its inner walls are painted black to

increase heat absorption.

?
Solar cookers are covered with glass plate and have mirros to focus the rays of

the sun and achieve a higher temperature.

PLANE MIRROR

INNER METALLIC
BOX
GLASS COVER
BLACK CONTAINER
WOODEN BOX
SOLAR COOKER (Box Type)

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Advantages :
1. Use energy which is available in plenty (Solar Energy)
2. Is pollution free.
3. More than one food can be cooked simultaneously
Disadvantages :
1. Cannot be used for frying or baking purpose.
2. Food cannot be cooked at night or on a cloudy day.
3. Direction of reflector of solar heating has to be changed from time to time to
keep it facing the sun
Solar Cells :
?
Solar cells are device that convert Solar energy into electricity.
?
Develops a voltage of 0.5 IV and can produce about 0.7W of electricity.
Advantages of Solar Cell
1. Require a little maintenance
2. Have no moving part.
3. No focussing device is required
4. Can be set up in remote areas.
5. Environment - friendly i.e. do not cause pollution.
Disadvantage of Solar Cells
1. It require high cost
2. Efficiency is low
3. Initial cost of installation is quite high.
Uses of Solar Cell
1. Used in calculators, watches etc.
2. Used in artificial satellites and space probes.
3. It is used in radio or wireless transmission system.
Solar Panel
A large number of Solar Cells connected to each other in an arrangement is called
solar panel.
Material used for making solar cells
?
Silicon
Silver is used for inter connection of cells.

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Energy from the Sea or Ocean

The energy from the sea is available in the following forms.
(i) Energy of sea waves
(ii) Tidal energy
(iii) Ocean Thermal Energy.
(i) Energy of Sea Waves
?
The waves are generated by the strong winds that blows across the sea.
?
The kinetic energy of this moving water rotates the turbine of a generator

Limitation
When strong winds stop blowing, the generator stops producing electricity
(iii) Tidal Energy
?
The tidal energy possessed by water during tides.
?
The tides are caused due to gravitational force of attraction exerted by the

moon on the water of the ocean.

?
This form of energy is harnessed by constructing a dam across a narrow

opening to the sea.

?
A turbine fixed at the opening of the dam converts tidal energy to electricity.

(iii) Ocean Thermal Energy

The power plants used to harness the ocean thermal energy is known as Ocean
Thermal Energy Conversion plant) (OTEC)
?
Temperature difference between surface water and water at the depth of 2km

should be 20C or more.

?
The warm surface water is used to boil ammonia (liquid)
?
The vapours of the liquid are used to run the turbine of generator.
?
The cold water (from deeper layers) is pumped up to condense the vapour into

liquid.
Geothermal Energy
1.

Energy stored as heat inside the earth

2.

The steam of underground water is taken out by sinking pipes through holes
drilled in the earths crust. The steam under high pressure is used to rotate the
turbines of the generator to produce electricity.

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Nuclear Energy
?
Nuclear energy is the energy which is stored in the nucleus of an atom.
?
Nuclear energy is of two types

(i) Nuclear fission

nucleus of a heavy atom (Uranium) when bombarded with
low energy neutron split (break down) into lighter nuclei and huge amount of
energy is released
(ii) Nuclear Fusion
When two lighter nucleic join up to form heavy nucleus
and tremendous amount of energy is released.
?
Nuclear fission process is utilized in nuclear reactors to produce electricity.
?
Major Nuclear power plants : Tarapur, Rana Pratap Sagar, Kalpakkam.

Advantages of Nuclear Energy :

1.

Large amount of energy is released.

2.

In nuclear power plant, the nuclear fuel is inserted once to get energy over a
long period of time.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy :

1.

High cost of installation.

2.

Environmental contamination may occur due to imporper nuclear waste

disposal.
Environmental Consequences

1.

Energy sources should be used judiciously otherwise it would disturb the

environment.

2.

Use of clean fuels like CNG (compressed natural gas) because burning of
fossil fuel causes green house effect.

3.

Assembly of devices like solar cell (otherwise renewable source of energy)

would have caused environmental damage.

How long will energy source last

the sources of energy can be divided into two catagories :
(i) Renewable sources of energy eg wind, sun, biogas
(ii) Non renewable sources of energy eg. Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas.
Continuous use of non renewable source of energy is a matter of concern because
ultimately the deposit of these sources will be completely finished on the other
hand renewable sources of energy will last forever eg sun as a source of energy will
be available for a very long period of time.
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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.
What is a good source of energy.
2.
Expand CNG and LPG
3.
What is the minimum wind velocity required to obtain useful energy with a
wind mill?
4.
Name the main constituent of biogas.
5.
Giv two examples of fossil fuels
6.
Name the device which directly converts solar energy into electric energy.
7.
What does OTEC stand for?
8.
What is nuclear energy?
9.
Which one out of these is renewable source of energy solar energy, coal,
petroleum, bio gas.
10. Which source of energy would you use to heat your food and why?
Short Answers (2 or 3Marks)
1.
State two disadvantages of using fossil fuels as a source of energy.
2.
Write two disadvantages of constructing high rising dams.
3.
Give (i) two limitations and (ii) two advantages of wind mill.
4.
Name any three forms of energy of the oceans which can be converted into
usable energy forms. Describes how it is done in each case.
5.
Explain the working of biogas plant with the help of labelled diagram
6.
Explain the principle on which the solar cooker works.
7.
Write the advantages and disadvantages of using a solar cooker.
8.
How does hydro electric power plant operate? Draw diagram
Long Answer Type Questions (5 Marks)
1.
(a) Why is the solar cooker box covered with plane glass plate?
(b) Why is nuclear fission reaction considered better.
(c) Use of wood as a domestic fuel is not considered as good. State two
reasons for it
2.
Distinguish between renewable and non renewable sources of energy?
Which one of them you consider as better? Why?

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CHAPTER 15

OUR ENVIRONMENT
?
Environment means everything which surrounds us. It may include living

(biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components. So, it may includes besides all
creatures, water & air also.
?
Environment affect the life and development of an organism in its natural

habitat & vice a versa.

?
Substances that are decomposed are called bio-degredable. Eg. organic

wastes while some substances like plastics, some chemicals (DDTs &
fertilizers) are inert and cant be decomposed, are called Non-biodegradable
?
Actually non-biodegradable persist in the environment for a long time or may

harm the various members of the eco system.

ECO SYSTEM & ITS COMPONENT
All the interacting organisms in an area together with non living components form
an ecosystem. So an ecosystem consists of both biotic (living creatures) and
abiotic components like temperature, rainfall, wind, soil etc.
Ecosystem
Man-made Ecosystem
Eg. Cropland, Aquarium etc.

Natural Ecosystem

Aquatic Ecosystem

Marine
Ecosystem
Eg. Sea, Oceans

Fresh water
Ecosystem
River, Lake,
Pond, pool

Terrestrial Ecosystem
land Ecosystem
Eg. Forest,
Desert, Grassland etc.

?
All living organisms are classified on the basis of the manner in which they

survive in the Ecosystem. These groups include

I

Producers All green plants, blue green algae can produce their food (Sugar
& starch) from in organic substance using light energy (Photosynthesis)

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II

Consumers Include organisms which depend on the producers either

directly or indirectly for their sustenance. In other word consumers consume
the food produced by producers.
CONSUMERS

Herbivores
Gross eaters

Carnivores
Flash Eaters

Eg. Cow, dear

Lion, Tiger

Parasite
Live & feed
on the host body
Plasmodium

Omnivores
Feed on both plant
and flesh.
Eg. Crow

III DECOMPOSERS Fungi & Bacterias which break down (decompose) the
dead plant, animals complex compounds into the simpler one. Thus
decomposers help in the replenishment of the natural resources.
Food chain refers to an arrangement of different biotic groups in a sequence of
enery transfer. These biotic groups are producer herbivores, carnivores.
For Eg.
T1
T2
T3
Grass
DearA
Lion
A 3-setp Food chain
?
In a food chain, these biotic components where transfer of energy takes place

is called a trophic level.

?
The green plants capture 1% of sunlight falls on their leaves.
?
The flow of energy is unidirectional in a food chain
?
There is gradual decrease in the amount of energy transfer from one trophic

level to next trophic level in a food chain

Secondary
Consumer
Primary
Consumer
Producer

Energy Flow

Tertiary
consumers
1kJ

10kJ

100kJ

1000 kJ
TROPHIC LEVEL
Energy

So only 10% of Energy is transferred to next trophic level while 90% of energy is
used by present trophic level in its life processes.

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?
While the conc. of harmful chemical increases with every next trophic level in

a food chain. It is called Bio-magnification For Eg.

Grass
(10 ppm)
DDT

Dear
(200 ppm)
DDT

Lion
(5000ppm)
DDT

?
Maximum concentration of such chemicals accumulated in human bodies.
?
Naturally the food chains are inter-connected with each other forming a web

like pattern, which is known as FOOD WEB.

?
The loss of energy at each step (trophic level) is very high, so very little

amount of energy remains after four trophic levels.

?
There are gnerally a big population at lower trophic levels of an ecosystem.

For Eg. the population of the producer is higher than the consumer carnivore
(lion) population.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
?
Changes in environment affect us and our activities change the environment

around us. This led to the slow degreadation of environment that arose many
environmental problems. Eg. depletion of the Ozone Layer and waste
disposal.
I

Depletion of Ozone Layer

?
Ozone (O3) layer is largely found in the stratosphere which is a part of our

atmosphere from 12 km 50km above sea level.

?
Ozone is a deadly poison at the ground level.
?
Ozone is formed as a result of a following photochemical reaction.

O2

hv
(1800A to 2000A)

O2 + O

O+O

(Splitting of
molecular oxygen)

O3 (Ozone)

?
Ozone layer is a protective blanket around earth which absorbs most of the

harmful U.V. (Ultraviolet) radiation of the Sun, thus protecting the living
beings of the earth from health hazards like skin cancer, cataract in eyes,
weaken immune system, destruction of plants etc.
?
The decline of Ozone layer thickness is Antartica was first discovered in 1985

and was termed as OZONE HOLE.

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Reason of Ozone Depletion :

Excessive use of CFCs (Chloro Flouro Carbon) a synthetic, inert chemical Eg.
Freon which are used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers, caused Ozone
depletion in the upper atmosphere. A single chlorine atom can destroys 1,00,000
Ozone molecules. U.N.E.P. (United Nation Envrionment Programme) did an
excellent job in forging an agreement to freeze CFC production at 1986 levels
(KYOTO Protocol) by all countries.
Garbage Disposal
Industrialization and rise in demand of consumer goods have created a major
problem in the form of wastes/garbage accumulation and its disposal especially in
urban area.
The different methods of solid wastes disposal commonly used around the world
are.
1.

Open dumping : A conventional method in which solid wastes dumped in

selected areas of a town. It actually cause pollution

2.

Land fillings : Wastes are dumped in low living area and are compacted by
rolling with bulldozers

3.

Composting : Organic wastes are filled into a compost pit (2m x 1m x 1m). It
is then covered with a thin layer of soil. After about three months the same
garbage filled inside the pit changes into organic manure.

4.

Recycling : The solid wastes is broken down into its constituent simpler
materials. These materials are then used to make new items. Even non-bio
degradable solid wastes like plastic, metal can be recycled.

Reuse : A very simple conventional technique of using an item again & again.
For Eg. paper can be reused for making envelops etc.

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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.

Define Biomagnification

2.

Expand the term CFC & U.N.E.P.

3.

Define Ozone hole

4.

Which of the following is/are Biodegradable plastic cups, cowdung,

Aluminium foil, cotton.

5.

Define food web

6.

Define Ecosystem

7.

Differentiate between Biodegradable and non biodegradable wastes.

8.

Use of Kulhads was not environment friendly idea. Why?

9.

Draw an Energy Pyramid showing different trophic level.

10.

What is the advantage of disposable paper cup use over plastic cups?

11.

How can we help in reducing the the problem of waste disposal? Give any
two methods.

12.

What is role of decomposer in Ecosystem.

13.

Give any two ways in which non biodegradable substance would affect the
environment.

14.

What are trophic levels? Give an example of a food chain and state the
different trophic levels in it.

15.

What will happen if we kill all the organisms in one trophic level?

16.

Study the food chain given below.

Grass
Grasshopper
Frog

II

Wheat
Rat
Snake
Hawk

Which of the two consumers frog/hawk will get more available energy and why?

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CHAPTER 16

MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
Resources provided to us by nature
Soil, air, water, forests
wildlife, coal and petroleum are used by man for his survival.

?
Natural Resources

?
Management of natural resources is needed for conservation of natural
resources.
?
There are national and international laws and Acts to protect the environment.
?
Ganga Action Plan : Multi Crore Project came in 1985 to improve the quality

of Ganga
?
Accordingly a survey was conducted and a data was collected of total

coliform ( a group of bacteria found in human intestine) between 1993-1994

which was as below
1993-94 Total Coliform (MPN/100ml)

Minimum found
in Rishikesh
600-650MPN/100ml

Minimum desired level

450MPN/100ml

Maximum found in Kannauj

1400MPN/100ml

?
MPN
Most probable number.
?
National Award for wildlife conservation In the memory Amrita Devi

Bishnoi who lost her life in the protection of Khejri trees in Rajasthan
alongwith 363 other people.
?
Chipko Andolan Movement originated in Garhwal in early 1970S that was

the result of a grassroot level effort to end the alienation of people from their
forest.
?
Protection of Sal forest in West Bengal in 1972.
?
Three Rs to save the environment

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Reduce means use less

Save the resource
by not wasting them

Recycle
Segregate the waste that
can be recycled and use to make
required things.

Reuse
use the things again
and gain.

?
Reuse is better than recycling as it saves energy.
?
Management of Natural Resources is necessary so that these may last for the

generations to come and are not exploited for short term gains. Also see the
damage they cause to the environment when they are used or mixed.
?
Forest and wild life conservation Forests are biodiversity hot spots

Biodiversity of an area is the number of species of different life forms like

bacteria, fungi, powering plants insects, birds etc.
?
Hotspot means an area full of biological diversity.

loss of diversity may lead to a loss of ecological stability/ecological

imbalance
Stake holders
A person having interest or concern for some thing called as stake holder.
Stakeholders : their dependence on forests
Local People
(dependent on
forests for their
survival)

Forest Department
(Govt. who owns
the land and controls
resources

Industrialists
(Who use various
forest products)

Wild life
enthusiasts
(who want to
conserve nature)

?
Sustainable management Management of forest resources Wisely to make it

available for future generations.

?
Water as a Resource
?
Water is a basic necessity for all terrestrial forms of life.
?
Regions of water scarcity are closely correlated to the regions of acute
poverty.
?
Failure to sustain water availability has resulted in loss of vegetation cover,
diversion for high water demanding crops and pollution from industries and
urban wastes and less rain.
?
Irrigation methods like dams, tanks and coals have been used in various part
of India.
?
Dams
?
Advantages of Dams Ensures of adequate water for irrigation.

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?
Generate electricity.
?
Continuous supply of water in regions.
?
Disadvantages :
?
No equitable distribution of water.
?
Large no. of people displaced without compensation.
?
Involves huge amount of Public money without giving proper benefits.
?
Causes deforestation and loss of biological diversity.
?
Water Harvesting Aim is to develop primary resources of land and water

and to produce secondary resources of plants and animals for use in a manner
which will not cause ecological imbalance.
?
Various ancient methods of water harvesting
?
Method
State
Khadin, tanks, nadis
Rajasthan
Bandharas, tals
Maharasthra
Bundhis
Madhya Pradesh and U.P.
Pyhes
Bihar
Kulhs
Himachal Pradesh
Ponds
Jammu Region
Eris (tanks)
Tamilnadu
Bawlis old method of water harvesting in Delhi and near by region.
?
These techniques are locale specific to ensure the mismanagement and
over-exploitation of these resources
?
Advantages of Khadin System :
Water does no evaporate
Recharge wells and moisture for vegetation.
does no provide breeding ground for mosquito
Ground water is protected from human and animal waste.
Coal and Petroleum
?
Generally called fossil fuel.
?
Formed from the disintegration of bio-mass millions of years ago.
?
They will get exhausted in the future no matter how carefully we use them.
?
Petroleum will last us for about 40 years and the coal resources will last for
another two hundred years.
?
These contain hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur.
?
Why to use fossil fuels judiciously?
By using public transport enstead of private one, by using C.F.L. tubes, by
using stairs instead of lift, by saving electricity as much as possible.

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EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
Very Short Answers (1 Mark)
1.
Why is it necessary to conserve our environment?
2.
Define sustainable development
3.
Name any two exhaustible resources
4.
What is the most conductive PH range for the life of fresh water plants?
5.
List two advantages of water harvesting.
6.
Why reuse is better than recycle?
7.
What are Dhadin? Where there found?
8.
List two steps you would take to conserve electricity in your house.
9.
Who are called stake holders?
10. Name some traditional water harvesting systems in India.
Short Answers (2 Marks)
1.
How mining is a cause of pollution?
2.
Make a list of four forests products that we use.
3.
How burning of fossil fuels is effecting our environment?
4.
Suggest two weasures for controlling CO2 levels in atmosphere.
5.
Why should we conserve forest and wild life?
(3 Marks)
1.
What are three main problems from dams?
2.
How can you reduce energy consumption at your level. Suggest at least three
points.
3.
Explain the maximum of Reduce, Recycle and Reuse in your own
words.
(5 Marks)
1.
What is the main objective of water harvesting techniques? Name & ancient
water harvesting structures used in India. Mention 3 causes for failure to
sustain water availability under ground?
2.
Discuss the damage caused to forest by the following activities:
(a) Building rest houses for 10% tourists in national parks.
(b) Grazing domestic animals on National Parks.
(c) Tourists throwing plastic bottles, covers and other litter in National
Parks.

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