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Category Aerospace
MODULE 15
Sub Module 15.1
FUNDAMENTALS
15.1
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Category Aerospace
Contents
FUNDAMENTALS-------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION -------------------------------------------------- 3
APPLICATION OF NEWTON'S LAWS -------------------------------------------- 7
WORK---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
POWER -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
ENERGY ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
PRESSURE----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
HEAT ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
TEMPERATURE ---------------------------------------------------------------------10
INTRODUCTION TO GAS PHYSICS ----------------------------------------------11
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15.1 - ii
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FUNDAMENTALS
ACCELERATION
DYNAMICS
In physics, dynamics is the study of forces (why objects move).
When studying dynamics, vectors are used to describe forces.
MOTION
DISPLACEMENT
VELOCITY
Velocity is the rate of change of position. It is measured in
meters per second.
Absolute Velocity
Absolute velocity refers to the velocity of an object as compared
to a fixed object or surface.
SPEED
Speed is a measure of how fast an object is moving. Speed
involves only the length of the path traveled by an object and
the time taken to travel the path.
Units: Miles per Hour (MPH), Kilometers per Hour (KPH), Meters
per Second (mps).
Relative Velocity
MASS
Relative velocity refers to the velocity of an object as compared
to another moving object.
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WEIGHT
The weight of an object is the effect of gravity on it.
Units: Kgms2', Ibfts2
MOMENTUM
Momentum is defined as the product of the mass of a body and
its velocity. It is the property of a moving body, which determines
the length of time required to rest under the action of a constant
force.
Units: Kilogram Meters per Second
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Centrifugal force
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Centripetal force
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Reaction engines
A family of engines uses the principle of the Newton's third law to
create a force called thrust to move vehicles. These engines are
called reaction engines. Because, the force these engines generate is
a reaction to the expelling of hot gasses in the opposite direction.
This family of engines includes engines such as Ramjet, Pulsejet, Gas
Turbine Jet engine and Rocket engine, As shown in the figure.
PULSE JET
RAM JET
ROCKET ENGINE
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WORK
PRESSURE
Units: Pounds per square Inch (psi), Bar (B), Inches of Mercury
(InHg), Pascal (Pa)
Absolute pressure
POWER
Units: psia
Gauge pressure
Gauge
pressure
is
the
pressure
reading
that is obtained from a pressure gauge that is calibrated to
indicate zero at atmospheric pressure or ambient pressure.
ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work.
Units: Joule, Foot Pounds
Units: psig
Differential Pressure
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body because of its
motion.
Kinetic Energy = 1/2 x Mass x Square of Velocity, as shown in the
following figure.
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HEAT
Where:
C = Centigrade
TEMPERATURE
K = Kelvin
R = Rankine
F = Fahrenheit
Static Temperature
Units: Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit
Static temperature is a measure of the heat in a gas or liquid.
Temperature Scales Conversion
Total Temperature
The temperature scale normally used in thermodynamics is the
Kelvin scale. American engine manufacturers commonly use
degrees Fahrenheit when describing their engines. It will be
useful, therefore, to remember the conversions:
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BOYLES LAW
'The volume of a given mass of gas, whose temperature is
maintained constant, is inversely proportional to the gas
pressure.
PV/T=C
For a unit mass of air (11b.), the constant (C) of above equation
becomes a specific constant known as the Universal Gas
Constant (R).
CHARLES LAW
If the pressure of a given mass of a gas is maintained constant,
the volume of gas increases as its temperature is increased.
Volume (V)
= Constant (C)
Temperature (T)
If Mass and Pressure is kept constant.
For Training Purpose Only
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CHARLES'S LAW
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GAS DYNAMICS
Static Pressure
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SUBSONIC AIRFLOW
At low airspeeds, the study of aerodynamics is greatly simplified
by the fact that air may experience relatively small changes in
pressure with only negligible changes in density. The airflow is
termed incompressible since the air may undergo changes in
pressure without apparent changes in density. This is similar to
flow of liquid such as water.
CONTINUITY THEOREM
For fluids in steady motion an identical mass of fluid passes
each cross-section of a duct per second.
Density x Velocity x Area = Constant
DIVERGENT DUCT
A divergent duct is one which has an inlet area which is less
than the outlet area. This gives a decrease in velocity with an
increase in pressure and temperature, As shown in the figure.
pVA= C
Where p is density, V is velocity, A is area and C is a constant
CONVERGENT DUCT
A convergent duct is one that has an area at the inlet greater
than the area at the outlet. When air flows through such a duct
it incurs a velocity increase at the expense of the static pressure
and temperature, As shown in the following figure.
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BERNOULLIS THEOREM
Then,
P + pV2 = C 2
Potential
Energy
Total Energy
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SUPERSONIC AIRFLOW
Speed of sound
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And
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SUPERSONIC AIRFLOW
DIVERGENT DUCT
THROUGH
CONVERGENT-
Divergent duct
Velocity Increases
Pressure Decreases
Mach Number
The Mach number refers to the speed at which a body is
traveling in relation to the local speed of sound.
The speed of sound varies according to the temperature of the
air and therefore, we must add to the definition the fact that the
speed of sound must be that corresponding to the temperature
of the air in which the body is actually traveling.
MACH NO = V/a
Where,
V=actual speed
A=speed of sound
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THERMODYNAMICS
Thermal Efficiency
Propulsive Efficiency
EFFICIENCY
A number of Efficiencies are present in gas turbine engine
operation. However, all of them express the ratio of the work
obtained from the machine (or process), to the work or energy
put into each, in producing the desired result. Briefly stated,
efficiency is the output divided by the input, and each
component of the gas turbine such as the compressor, the
burners, the turbines and the exhaust nozzle, has its own
efficiency.
Mechanical Efficiency
Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the useful work output of a
machine to the work or energy input. This difference is due
chiefly to mechanical friction losses, but also includes gas and
other losses.
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Pe=
______
Work done __________
Work done + work wasted in exhaust
CYCLE EFFICIENCY
Briefly, cycle efficiency can be defined as the ratio of the amount
of useful work obtained from the gas turbine engines actual
cycle to the amount of work that would be obtained from the
same ideal cycle. The ideal work of a cycle would be obtained if
all component efficiencies - compressor efficiency, combustion
efficiency, mechanical efficiency, thermal efficiency, jet nozzle
efficiency, etc. were 100 per cent, but since none of the
components are perfect, the actual cycle efficiency is always
less than the ideal.
Pe =
2Va
Va + Vj
Where
Va is aircraft velocity
Vj is jet velocity
From the above equation we see that if, aircraft speed {Va) is
'0', the efficiency will be zero. If Va equals Vj efficiency will be
100%. But this will never happen as we notice that If Va equals
Vj there will be no acceleration of air through the engine which
means no momentum change i.e. no reaction force, and no
thrust produced. Therefore, the propulsive efficiency must
always be less than 100%.
ISO 9001:2008 Certified
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Adiabatic Expansion
When a gas expands, doing external work, in such a manner
that no heat is supplied or rejected during the expansion, the
expansion is called adiabatic. The adiabatic expansion may
take place in an engine cylinder, in which case no heat passes
through the cylinder walls and work is done on the piston as the
gas expands. The following three conditions must be satisfied in
this type of expansion:
(a) No heat is supplied or rejected during the expansion.
(b) Work of some nature, must be done by the gas in expanding.
(c) The expansion is assumed to be frictionless.
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CYCLE
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THRUST
Distribution of Thrust
The thrust developed within a gas turbine engine is, as
previously stated, the acceleration of a mass airflow within the
engine. The acceleration can be rearward as well as forward.
The total forward thrust is the gross thrust developed by the
engine but the forward thrust less the rearward thrust is the net
thrust developed. Since the rearward thrust can be over 60% of
the total this means that, with other losses, there is less than
40% left over to drive the aeroplane forwards.
The force of the thrust is felt against all the static and rotating
parts of the engine. The thrust felt against the rotating parts has
to be transferred to the static part and then passed to the
airframe to drive the aircraft forwards.
Not all of the thrust is felt in the same place; it is spread
variously along the engine so that some is developed at the
compressor and some at the combustion section, and so on.
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The turbines of pure jet engines are heavy because they are
dealing with the whole mass flow of air through the engine. Bypass engines are only using a proportion of the air through the
turbines which mean, in turn, that the HP compressor and the
combustor can now be made smaller and, therefore, lighter. In
order to obtain the same power at the turbine to drive the
compressors and the accessories, the turbine inlet temperature
is elevated and the pressure ratio is also increased. The core
engine is not only narrower but shorter and the use of modern
materials and improved gas flow characteristics makes for a
considerably lighter engine. The weight reduction on a typical
low by-pass engine over a pure jet of similar mass flow is
around 20%.
Curiously, the number of parts in a triple spool engine is less
than those in a twin spool. This is brought about by having
ISO 9001:2008 Certified
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AND
OPERATION
OF
THE
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BASIC CONSTRUCTION
TURBO-SHAFT ENGINE
The torque meter assembly which transmits the torque from the
engine to the gear box to the reduction section.
AND
OPERATION
OF
THE
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