Manufacturing Processes Assignment : Dr Arun K Lal

Shaping Processes:
1. Injection Moulding: The shape which is produced is controlled by what is
called a mold. The injection molding machine has two basic parts; the
injection unit, which melts the plastic and then injects or moves it into the
mold, and the clamping unit, which holds the mold. Injection molding is the
most common plastic manufacturing process. It is used to produce high
volumes of parts.
Advantages: Complex geometry and fine features are easily produced,
because very high pressures are possible and cycle times are relatively
low, and many parts can be made from a single mold, making extremely
high volumes (millions per year) possible.
Disadvantages: The parts are thin-walled (walls greater than 0.125" are
not common) and thermoplastic materials are used in this process
(thermoplastics can be remelted, as opposed to thermosets)
Types:
a. Die Casting: Die casting is a metal casting process that is
characterized by forcing molten metal under high pressure into
a mold cavity. The mold cavity is created using two hardened tool
steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly
to an injection mold during the process.
i. Acurad: Acurad was a die casting process developed by
General Motors in the late 1950s and 1960s. The name is
an acronym for accurate, reliable, and dense. It was
developed to combine a stable fill and directional
solidification with the fast cycle times of the traditional die
casting process.
ii. Pore-free: When no porosity is allowed in a cast part then
the pore-free casting process is used. It is identical to the
standard process except oxygen is injected into the die
before each shot to purge any air from the mold cavity.
iii. Heated-manifold direct-injection die casting: also known
as direct-injection die casting or runnerless die casting, is a
zinc die casting process where molten zinc is forced through
a heated manifold and then through heated mini-nozzles,
which lead into the molding cavity. This process has the
advantages of lower cost per part, through the reduction of
scrap.
iv. Semi-solid die casting: This uses metal that is heated
between its liquidus and either solidus or eutectic
temperature, so that it is in its "mushy region". This allows for
more complex parts and thinner walls.
Advantages:
Reduces or eliminates secondary machining operations.
Rapid production rates.
Casting tensile strength as high as 415 megapascals (60 ksi).
b. Metal Injection Moulding: Metal injection molding (MIM) is
a metalworking process by which finely-powdered metal is mixed
with a measured amount of binder material to comprise a

"feedstock" capable of being handled by plastic processing

equipment through a process known as injection mold-forming.
The window of economic advantage in metal injection molded parts
lies in complexity and volume for small-size parts. MIM materials are
comparable to metal formed by competing methods, and final
products are used in a broad range of industrial, commercial,
medical, dental, firearms, aerospace, and automotive applications
c. Thin Wall Injection Moulding: Thin wall injection molding is a
specialized form of conventional injection molding that focuses on
mass-producing plastic parts that are thin and light so that material
cost savings can be made and cycle times can be as short as
possible. Shorter cycle times means higher productivity and lower
costs per part. For example, plastic manufacturer Sabichas a
polypropylene food contact grade plastic which is specifically
designed for thin wall margarine containers and lids. Another plastic
manufacturer, Bayer, makes a blend of Polycarbonate (PC)
and Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) specifically designed to
make thin wall mobile housings.
d. Injection Moulding of Liquid Silicone Rubber: Typical
applications for liquid silicone rubber are products that require high
precision such as seals, sealing membranes, electric connectors,
multi-pin connectors, infant products where smooth surfaces are
desired, such as bottle nipples, medical applications as well as
kitchen goods such as baking pans, spatulas, etc. Often, silicone
rubber is overmolded onto other parts made of different plastics.
For example, a silicone button face might be overmolded onto
an Nylon 6,6 housing.
2. Rotational Moulding: Rotational molding is a manufacturing process used
to produce hollow plastic parts in one piece. This process is utilized by
industrial, medical, agricultural and toy companies among others. Rotational
molding is a low cost plastic molding process which offers affordable tooling
and quick turnaround time. In the rotational molding process, heat is used to
melt and fuse a plastic resin in a closed mold. Unlike most other plastic
processes, no pressure is involved. The three-stage process includes loading
the resin in the mold, heating and fusion of the resin and cooling and
unloading the mold.
Advantages:
a. Excellent solution for producing hollow plastic parts, including
complex and varied shapes.
b. Economical startup tooling costs as compared to injection or blow
molding.
c. Produces parts with uniform wall thickness and no thinning in the
extremities of the mold.
d. May be used to mold thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics
3. Thermoforming: This method is often used for sample and prototype parts.
in-gauge thermoforming is primarily the manufacture of disposable cups,
containers, lids, trays, blisters, clamshells, and other products for the food,
medical, and general retail industries. Thick-gauge thermoforming includes
parts as diverse as vehicle door and dash panels, refrigerator liners, utility
vehicle beds, and plastic pallets .

4. Lamination: Examples of laminate materials include melamine adhesive

countertop surfacing and plywood. Decorative laminates are produced with
decorative papers with a layer of overlay on top of the decorative paper, set
before pressing them with thermoprocessing into high-pressure decorative
laminates. Vehicle windshields are commonly made by laminating a tough
plastic film between two layers of glass. This is to prevent shards of glass
detaching from the windshield in case it breaks. Plywood is a common
example of a laminate using the same material in each layer. Glued and
laminated dimensioned timber is used in the construction industry to make
wooden beams.
Laminate film is generally categorized into these five categories:
a. Standard thermal laminating films
b. Low-temperature thermal laminating films
c. Heat set (or heat-assisted) laminating films
d. Pressure-sensitive films
e. Liquid laminate

5. Blow Molding: In the United States soft drink industry, the number of plastic
containers went from zero in 1977 to ten billion pieces in 1999. Today, even a
greater number of products are blown and it is expected to keep increasing.
Examples of parts made by the EBM process include most polyethylene
hollow products, milk bottles, shampoo bottles, automotive ducting,
watering cans and hollow industrial parts such as drums. Advantages of
blow molding include: low tool and die cost; fast production rates; ability to
mold complex part; Handles can be incorporated in the design.
6. Shrink Wrapping: The most commonly used shrink wrap is polyolefin. It is
available in a variety of thicknesses, clarities, strengths and shrink ratios.
Other shrink films include PVC, Polyethylene, Polypropylene, and several
other compositions. Shrink wrap can be used to wrap buildings. It can wrap
roofs after hurricanes, earthquakes, tornadoes and other disasters. Shrink
wrap can be used for environmental containments to facilitate safe removal
of asbestos, lead and other hazards. Software on carriers such as CDs or
DVDs are often sold in boxes that are packaged in shrink wrap. The licenses of
such software are typically put inside the boxes, making it impossible to read
them before purchasing. This has raised questions about the validity of such
shrink wrap licenses.
7. Centrifugal Casting: Typical materials that can be cast with this process
are iron, steel, stainless steels, glass, and alloys
of aluminum, copper and nickel. Two materials can be cast together by
introducing a second material during the process. Typical parts made by this
process are pipes, flywheels, cylinder liners and other parts that are axisymmetric. It is notably used to castcylinder liners and sleeve valves for
piston engines, parts which could not be reliably manufactured otherwise.

Features of centrifugal casting:

a. Castings can be made in almost any length, thickness and diameter.
b. Different wall thicknesses can be produced from the same size
mold.
c. Resistant to atmospheric corrosion, a typical situation with pipes.
d. Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process.
e. Size limits are up to 6 m (20 feet) diameter and 15 m (50 feet)
length.
f. Wall thickness range from 2.5 mm to 125 mm (0.1 - 5.0 in).
8. Continuous Casting: "continuous casting" has evolved to achieve improved
yield, quality, productivity and cost efficiency. It allows lower-cost production
of metal sections with better quality, due to the inherently lower costs of
continuous, standardised production of a product, as well as providing
increased control over the process through automation. This process is used
most frequently to cast steel (in terms of tonnage
cast). Aluminium and copper are also continuously cast.
9. Investment Casting: There are a variety of materials that can be used for
the investment casting process, including stainless steel alloys, brass,
aluminum, and carbon steel. The material is poured into a ceramic cavity
designed to create an exact duplicate of the desired part. Investment casting
can reduce the need for secondary machining by providing castings to shape.
The process is generally used for small castings, but has been used to
produce complete aircraft door frames, steel castings of up to 300 kg
(660 lbs) and aluminium castings of up to 30 kg (66 lbs). It can produce
complicated shapes that would be difficult or impossible with die casting, yet
like that process, it requires little surface finishing and only minor machining.
Many intricate forms with undercuts can be cast. A very smooth surface is
obtained with no parting line.
10.Sand Casting: Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via sand casting
process. In addition to the sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is
mixed or occurs with the sand. Sand casting is extensively used, for cast iron
and steel parts of medium and large size where surface smoothness and
dimensional precision are the main concerns. Sand casting is also used to
make large parts in material like bronze, brass, aluminum, etc. Also used for
casting sculptures which can have a certain amount of rough surface finish.
11.Shell Molding: As compared to sand casting, this process has better
dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and lower labor
requirements. It is used for small to medium parts that require high precision.
in shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell created from applying a
sand-resin mixture around a patternShell mold casting allows the use of both
ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly using cast iron, carbon steel,
alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys. Typical parts
are small-to-medium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear
housings, cylinder heads, connecting rods, and lever arms.

12.Spray Forming: The gas atomised spray forming (GASF) process typically
has a molten alloy flow rate of 120 kg/min-1, although twin atomizer
systems can achieve metal flow rates of up to 80 kg/min. Special steel billets
of 1 tonne or more have been produced by spray forming on a commercial
basis, together with Ni super-alloy ring blanks of up to 500 kg and Al alloy
extrusion billets of up to 400 kg. it is a flexible process and can be used to
manufacture a wide range of materials, some of which are difficult to produce
by other methods, e.g. Al-5wt% Li alloys or Al-SiC, Al-Al2O3 metal matrix
composites(MMCs). One of the major attractions of spray forming is the
potential economic benefit to be gained from reducing the number of process
steps between melt and finished product.
13.Resin Casting: It is primarily used for small-scale production like industrial
prototypes and dentistry. It can be done by amateur hobbyists with little initial
investment, and is used in the production of collectible toys, models and
figures, as well as small-scale jewelry production. The synthetic resin for such
processes is a monomer for making a plastic thermosetting polymer. During
the setting process, the liquid monomer polymerizes into the polymer,
thereby hardening into a solid. Resin casting is used to produce collectible
and customized toys and figures like designer toys, garage kits and balljointed dolls, as well as scale models, either individual parts or entire models
of objects like trains, aircraft or ships.
14.Vacuum Molding: A heat-softened thin sheet (0.003 to 0.008 in (0.076 to
0.203 mm)) of plastic film is draped over the pattern and a vacuum is drawn
(200 to 400 mmHg (27 to 53 kPa)). The V-process is known for not requiring a
draft because the plastic film has a certain degree of lubricity and it expands
slightly when the vacuum is drawn in the flask. The process has high
dimensional accuracy, with a tolerance of 0.010 in for the first inch and
0.002 in/in thereafter. Other advantages include no moisture related
defects, no cost for binders, excellent sand permeability, and no toxic fumes
from burning the binders. Finally, the pattern does not wear out because the
sand does not touch it.
15.Permanent Mold Casting/Slush Casting: In the process the material is
poured into the mold and allowed to cool until a shell of material forms in the
mold. The remaining liquid is then poured out to leave a hollow shell. The
resulting casting has good surface detail but the wall thickness can vary. The
process is usually used to cast ornamental products, such
as candlesticks, lamp bases, and statuary, from low-melting-point materials.
[2] A similar technique is used to make hollow chocolate figures
for Easter and Christmas. It uses less material than solid casting, and results
in a lighter and less expensive product.
16.Forging: Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it
is performed: cold forging (a type of cold working), warm forging, or hot
forging (a type of hot working). For the latter two, the metal is heated, usually
in a forge. Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to
hundreds of metric tons. Forging has been done by smiths for millennia; the
traditional products were kitchenware, hardware, hand tools, edged weapons,
and jewellery. Smaller power hammers, 500 lb (230 kg) or less reciprocating
weight, and hydraulic presses are common in art smithies as well. Some
steam hammers remain in use, but they became obsolete with the availability
of the other, more convenient, power sources. Some metals may be forged

cold, but iron and steel are almost always hot forged. Alloys that are
amenable to precipitation hardening, such as most aluminium alloys
and titanium, can be hot forged, followed by hardening .
Types of forging:
a. Drop Forging: The dies are usually flat in shape, but some have a
specially shaped surface for specialized operations. For example, a
die may have a round, concave, or convex surface or be a tool to
form holes or be a cut-off tool. Open-die forgings can be worked into
shapes which include discs, hubs, blocks, shafts (including step
shafts or with flanges), sleeves, cylinders, flats, hexes, rounds,
plate, and some custom shapes. Open-die forging may also orient
the grain to increase strength in the required direction
b. Press Forging: The amount of time the dies are in contact with
the workpiece is measured in seconds (as compared to the
milliseconds of drop-hammer forges). The press forging operation
can be done either cold or hot. The main advantage of press
forging, as compared to drop-hammer forging, is its ability to
deform the complete workpiece. Another advantage to the process
includes the knowledge of the new part's strain rate. We specifically
know what kind of strain can be put on the part, because the
compression rate of the press forging operation is controlled. The
operation can be used to create any size part because there is no
limit to the size of the press forging machine.
c. Upset Forging: Upset forging increases the diameter of the
workpiece by compressing its length based on number of pieces
produced, this is the most widely used forging process. A few
examples of common parts produced using the upset forging
process are engine valves, couplings, bolts, screws, and other
fasteners. The initial workpiece is usually wire or rod, but some
machines can accept bars up to 25 cm (9.8 in) in diameter and a
capacity of over 1000 tons
d. Automatic Hot Forging: The automatic hot forging process
involves feeding mill-length steel bars (typically 7 m (23 ft) long)
into one end of the machine at room temperature and hot forged
products emerge from the other end. This all occurs rapidly; small
parts can be made at a rate of 180 parts per minute (ppm) and
larger can be made at a rate of 90 ppm. Examples of parts made by
this process are: wheel hub unit bearings, transmission gears,
tapered roller bearing races, stainless steel coupling flanges, and
neck rings for LP gas cylinders.
e. Roll Forging: Roll forging is performed using two cylindrical or
semi-cylindrical rolls, each containing one or more shaped
grooves.The advantage of this process is there is no flash and it
imparts a favorable grain structure into the workpiece Examples of
products produced using this method include axles, tapered levers
and leaf springs.
f. Net-shape and near-net-shape Forging: It was developed to
minimize cost and waste associated with post-forging operations.
Therefore, the final product from a precision forging needs little or
no final machining. Cost savings are gained from the use of less

material, and thus less scrap, the overall decrease in energy used,
and the reduction or elimination of machining.
g. Induction Forging
h. Multi-directional Forging
i. Forging of Aluminium: High-strength aluminium alloys have the
tensile strength of medium strong steel alloys while providing
significant weight advantages. Therefore, aluminium forged parts
are mainly used in aerospace, automotive industry and many other
fields of engineering especially in those fields, where highest safety
standards against failure by abuse, by shock or vibratory stresses
are needed.
i. Aluminium forging is performed at a temperature range
between 350 and 550 C
ii. Forging temperatures above 550 C are too close to the
solidus temperature of the alloys and lead in conjunction with
varying effective strains to unfavorable workpiece surfaces
and potentially to a partial melting as well as fold formation.
[25]
iii. Forging temperatures below 350 C reduce formability by
increasing the yield stress, which can lead to unfilled dies,
cracking at the workpiece surface and increased die forces
17.Incremental Sheet Forming: Generally, the sheet is formed by a round
tipped tool, typically 5 to 20mm in diameter. The tool, which can be attached
to a CNC machine, a robot arm or similar, indents into the sheet by about
1 mm and follows a contour for the desired part. Because the process can be
controlled entirely by CNC processes no die is required as is in
traditional sheet metal forming. The elimination of the die in the
manufacturing process reduces the cost per piece and increases turnaround
time for low production runs because the need to manufacture a die is
eliminated. However, for high production run the time and cost to produce a
die is absorbed by the higher per piece speed and lower per piece cost. In
contrast, there is a loss of accuracy with the ISF process. Ford Motor
Company has recently released Ford Freeform Fabrication Technology, a twopoint incremental sheet forming technique being implemented in the rapid
prototyping of automotive parts.
18.Rolling: The Great Exhibition in 1851 a plate 20 feet long, 3 feet wide, and
7/16 of inch thick, weighed 1,125 pounds was exhibited by the Consett Iron
Company.
a. Cold Rolling: Cold rolling occurs with the metal below its
recrystallization temperature (usually at room temperature), which
increases the strength via strain hardening up to 20%. Commonly
cold-rolled products include sheets, strips, bars, and rods; these
products are usually smaller than the same products that are hot
rolled. Cold-rolled sheets and strips come in various conditions: fullhard, half-hard, quarter-hard, and skin-rolled. Typical uses for coldrolled steel include metal furniture, desks, filing cabinets, tables,
chairs, motorcycle exhaust pipes, computer cabinets and hardware,
home appliances and components, shelving, lighting fixtures
b. Hot Rolling: Hot rolling is a metalworking process that occurs
above the recrystallization temperature of the material. To maintain
a safety factor a finishing temperature is defined above the

recrystallization temperature; this is usually 50 to 100 C (90 to

180 F) above the recrystallization temperature. Hot rolling is used
mainly to produce sheet metal or simple cross sections, such as rail
tracks. Other typical uses for hot rolled metal includes truck frames,
automotive wheels, pipe and tubular, water heaters, agriculture
equipment, strappings, stampings, compressor shells, railcar
components, wheel rims, metal buildings, railroad hopper cars,
doors, shelving, discs, guard rails, automotive clutch plates.
c. Sheet Metal Rolling: The final product is either sheet or plate,
with the former being less than 6 mm (0.24 in) thick and the latter
greater than. As the foil sheets come through the rollers, they are
trimmed and slotted with circular or razor-like knives. Trimming
refers to the edges of the foil, while slitting involves cutting it into
several sheets.
d. Shape Rolling: Structural shapes that can be made with this metal
forming process include: I-beams, H-beams, T-beams, Ubeams, angle iron, channels, bar stock, and railroad rails. Structural
shapes that can be made with this metal forming process include: Ibeams, H-beams, T-beams, U-beams, angle iron, channels, bar
stock, and railroad rails.
e. Ring Rolling: Ring rolling is a specialized type of hot rolling
that increases the diameter of a ring. Diameters can be as large as
8 m (26 ft) and face heights as tall as 2 m (79 in). Common
applications include rockets, turbines, airplanes, pipes, and pressure
vessels.
f. Transverse Rolling:
Transverse rolling is used for working gear teeth and other parts, an
d rotary rolling is used in themanufacture of seamless rolled tubes,
balls, axles, and other solids of revolution.
g. Cryorolling Rolling: In cryo-rolling we dipped the material in liquid
nitrogen (-190*c) and hold it for a 30 minute or one hour (depends
on our requirement) and then doing a rolling process between two
rollers. By cryo-rolling we can achieve a ultra-fine grain structure
which improves a strength and ductility compared to cold rolling
process and handling of the material is easy in cryo-rolling
compared to hot rolling process
h. Orbital Rolling
i. Thread Rolling: Thread rolling is the preferred method for
producing strong, smooth, precise, and uniform external thread
forms. Thread rolling is different from other types of threading
processes like cutting, grinding, and chasing .
19.Extrusion: The extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold.
Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete,
play dough, and foodstuffs. The products of extrusion are generally called
"extrudates". With the advent of industrial manufacturing, extrusion found
application in food processing of instant foods and snacks, along with its
already known uses in plastics and metal fabrication. The anti-cancer
drug Doxorubicin in liposome delivery system is formulated by extrusion, for
example.
Materials Used:

a. Copper (1100 to 1825 F (600 to 1000 C)) pipe, wire, rods, bars,
tubes, and welding electrodes. Often more than 100 ksi (690 MPa) is
required to extrude copper.
b. Lead and tin (maximum 575 F (300 C)) pipes, wire, tubes, and
cable sheathing. Molten lead may also be used in place of billets on
vertical extrusion presses.
c. Magnesium (575 to 1100 F (300 to 600 C)) aircraft parts and
nuclear industry parts. Magnesium is about as extrudable as
aluminum.
d. Zinc (400 to 650 F (200 to 350 C)) rods, bar, tubes, hardware
components, fitting, and handrails.
e. Steel (1825 to 2375 F (1000 to 1300 C)) rods and tracks.
Usually plain carbon steel is extruded, but alloy steel and stainless
steel can also be extruded.
f. Plastic
g. Ceramic
20.
Impact Extrusion: Example of products made:
a. Metal toothpaste tube nozzle
b. aluminium bottle
c. CO2 cartridge
d. aluminum baseball bat
e. Apple Mac Pro 2013 Shell
21.
Pressing
a. Embossing: Following characteristics are expected:
i. The ability to form ductile metals.
ii. Use in medium to high production runs.
iii. The ability to maintain the same metal thickness before and
after embossing.
iv. The ability to produce unlimited patterns, depending on the
roll dies.
v. The ability to reproduce product with no variation.
b. Blanking: Materials that can be fine blanked
include aluminium, brass, copper, and carbon, alloy, and stainless
steels. Currently parts as thick as 19 mm (0.75 in) can be cut using
fine blanking.[8] Tolerances between 0.00030.002 in (0.0076
0.0508 mm) are possible based on material thickness & tensile
strength, and part layout.
c. Drawing
d. Deep Drawing: Commercial applications of this metal shaping
process often involve complex geometries with straight sides and
radii. Often components are partially deep draw in order to create a
series of diameters throughout the component (as in the image of
the deep draw line). It common use to consider this process as a
cost saving alternative to turned parts which require much more
raw material.
22.Bending: Typical products that are made like this are boxes such
as electrical enclosures and rectangular ductwork. Material sheet thickness
varies from 0.79 to 12.7 mm (0.03 to 0.5 in) in with length from 150 mm
(6 in) to 6 m (20 ft). Ductile materials are best suited for the pressing like
aluminum, mild steel and new plastic materials. Bending is a cost effective
process when used for low to medium quantities. Hemming is the process in

which the edge is rolled flush to itself, while a seam joins the edges of two
materials.
23.Shearing: The processes of straight shearing is done on sheet metal, coils,
and plates. It uses a guillotine shear Low alloy steel is used in low production
of materials that range up to 0.64 cm (1/4 in) thick. High-carbon, high
chromium steel is used in high production of materials that also range up to
0.64 cm (1/4 in) in thickness. Surface finishes typically occur within the 250
to 1000 microinches range, but can range from 125 to 2000 microinches. A
secondary operation is required if one wants better surfaces than this.
24.Coining: Coining is used to manufacture parts for all industries and is
commonly used when high relief or very fine features are required. For
example, it is used to produce coins, medals, badges, buttons, precisionenergy springs and precision parts with small or polished surface features. .
Coining typically requires higher tonnage presses than stamping, because the
workpiece is plastically deformed and not actually cut, as in some other forms
of stamping. The coining process is preferred when there is a high tonnage.
In soldering of electronic components, bumps are formed on bonding pads to
enhance adhesion, which are further flattened by the coining process.
25.Swaging: Swaging is usually a cold working process; however, it is
sometimes done as a hot working process. In Printed Circuit Board assembly
individual connector pins are sometimes pressed/swaged into place using
an arbor press. Heat swaging is a similar process to heat staking, but it
involves rolling or reforming a wall (typically a perimeter) of a plastic part to
retain another part or component. The most common use of swaging is to
attach fittings to pipes or cables. In internal ballistics, swaging describes the
process of the bullet entering the barrel and being squeezed to conform to
the rifling.
26.Metal Spinning: Spinning can be performed by hand or by a CNC lathe.
Metal spinning does not involve removal of material, as in conventional wood
or metal turning, but forming (moulding) of sheet material over an existing
shape. Commercial applications include rocket nose cones ,cookware, gas
cylinders, brass instrument bells, and public waste receptacles. Virtually
any ductile metal may be formed, from aluminum or stainless steel, to highstrength, high-temperature alloys.
27.Peening: It tends to expand the surface of the cold metal, thereby
inducing compressive stresses or relieving tensile stresses already present.
Peening can also encourage strain hardening of the surface metal. The first
patent for shot peening was also taken out in Germany in 1934, but was
never commercially implemented. Independently in 1930, a few engineers
at Buick noticed that "shot blasting" (as it was originally termed) made
springs resistant to fatigue.
28.Decambering: This is the metalworking process of removing camber, or
horizontal bend, from strip shaped materials. The material may be finite
length sections or continuous coils. Decambering resembles flattening or
levelling processes, but deforms the material edge (left or right) instead of
the face (up or down) of the strip.
29.Curling: Curling can be performed to eliminate sharp edges and increase
the moment of inertia near the curled end. Other parts are curled to perform
their primary function, such as door hinges.

FINISHING PROCESSES:

30.Milling: Milling can be done with a wide range of machine tools. The original
class of machine tools for milling was the milling machine (often called a mill).
Computers and CNC machine tools continue to develop rapidly. The personal
computer revolution has a great impact on this development. By the late
1980s small machine shops had desktop computers and CNC machine tools.
Soon after, hobbyists, artists, and designers began obtaining CNC mills and
lathes
31.Annealing: In annealing, atoms migrate in the crystal lattice and the number
of dislocations decreases, leading to the change in ductility and hardness. In
the cases of copper, steel, silver, and brass, this process is performed by
heating the material (generally until glowing) for a while and then slowly
letting it cool to room temperature in still air. Copper, silver and brass can be
cooled slowly in air, or quickly by quenching in water, unlike ferrous metals,
such as steel, which must be cooled slowly to anneal.
a. Normalisation: It is used on steels of less than 0.4% carbon to
transform austenite into ferrite, pearlite and sorbite. It involves
heating the steel to 20-50 Kelvin above its upper critical point. It is
soaked for a short period at that temperature and then allowed to
cool in air.
b. Process Annealing: The temperature range for process annealing
ranges from 260 C (500 F) to 760 C (1400 F), depending on the
alloy in question.
32.Pickling: is a metal surface treatment used to remove impurities, such as
stains, inorganic
contaminants, rust or scale from ferrous metals, copper, precious
metals and aluminum alloys. A solution called pickle liquor, which
contains strong acids, is used to remove the surface impurities. Carbon steels,
with an alloy content less than or equal to 6%, are often pickled in
hydrochloric or sulfuric acid. Steels with an alloy content greater than 6%
must be pickled in two steps and other acids are used, such
as phosphoric, nitric and hydrofluoric acid. Rust- and acid-resistant chromiumnickel steels are pickled in a bath of hydrochloric and nitric acid.
Most copper alloys are pickled in dilute sulfuric acid, but brass is pickled in
concentrated sulfuric and nitric acid mixed with sodium chloride and soot.
33.Passivate: Passivation involves a shielding outer-layer of base material,
which can be applied as a micro-coating, or oxidation which occurs
spontaneously in nature. As a technique, passivation is the use of a light coat
of a protective material, such as metal oxide, to create a shell
against corrosion. Passivation can occur only in certain conditions, and is used
in microelectronics to enhance silicon.
34.Coating: A coating is a covering that is applied to the surface of an object,
usually referred to as the substrate. The purpose of applying the coating may
be decorative, functional, or both. The coating itself may be an all-over
coating, completely covering the substrate, or it may only cover parts of the
substrate. Paints and lacquers are coatings that mostly have dual uses of
protecting the substrate and being decorative, although some artists paints
are only for decoration, and the paint on large industrial pipes is presumably
only for the function of preventing corrosion.
35.
Turning: Turning can be done manually, in a traditional form of lathe,
which frequently requires continuous supervision by the operator, or by using
an automated lathe which does not. Turning can be done on the external

surface of the part as well as internally (boring). The starting material is

generally a workpiece generated by other processes such
as casting, forging, extrusion, or drawing.
a. Tapered Turning: a) from the compound slide b) from taper
turning attachment c) using a hydraulic copy attachment d) using a
C.N.C. lathe e) using a form tool f) by the offsetting of the tailstock this method more suited for shallow tapers.
b. Hard Turning: Hard turning is a turning done on materials with
a Rockwell C hardness greater than 45. It is typically performed
after the workpiece is heat treated. The process is intended to
replace or limit traditional grinding operations. It is used for gears,
injection pump components, hydraulic components, among other
applications.
c. Spherical Generation: The proper expression for making or
turning a shape is to generate as in to generate a form around a
fixed axis of revolution.
d. Facing: This can be performed by the operation of the cross-slide, if
one is fitted, as distinct from the longitudinal feed (turning). It is
frequently the first operation performed in the production of the
workpiece, and often the lasthence the phrase "ending up".
e. Parting: This process, also called parting off or cutoff, is used to
create deep grooves which will remove a completed or partcomplete component from its parent stock.
f. Grooving: Grooving can be performed on internal and external
surfaces, as well as on the face of the part (face grooving or
trepanning).
g. Boring: This work is suitable for castings that are too awkward to
mount in the face plate. A limited application but one that is
available to the skilled turner/machinist
h. Drilling: This process utilizes standard drill bits held stationary in
the tail stock or tool turret of the lathe. The process can be done by
separately available drilling machines.
i. Knurling: The cutting of a serrated pattern onto the surface of a
part to use as a hand grip using a special purpose knurling tool.
j. Reaming: It is done for making internal holes of very accurate
diameters. For example, a 6mm hole is made by drilling with
5.98 mm drill bit and then reamed to accurate dimensions.
k. Threading
l. Polygonal Turning
36.Countersinking: A common use is to allow the head of a countersunk bolt or
screw, when placed in the hole, to sit flush with or below the surface of the
surrounding material (by comparison, a counterbore makes a flat-bottomed
hole that might be used with a socket-head capscrew). A countersink may
also be used to remove the burr left from a drilling or tapping operation
thereby improving the finish of the product and removing any hazardous
sharp edges.
37.Tapping: The process of cutting or forming threads using a tap is
called tapping A tap cuts a thread on the inside surface of a hole, creating a
female surface which functions like a nut. Problems related for tap breakage:
a. Clogging with chips.
b. Misalignment between tap and hole.

c. Over- or under-feeding the tap, causing breakage in tension or

compression.
d. Use of improper and/or insufficient cutting lubricant.
38.Filing: Instead of having teeth cut into the file's working surface, diamond
files have small particles of industrial diamond embedded in their surface (or
into a softer material that is bonded to the underlying surface of the file). The
use of diamonds in this manner allows the file to be used effectively against
extremely hard materials, such as stone. Files have forward-facing cutting
teeth, and cut most effectively when pushed over the workpiece. Pulling a file
directly backwards on a workpiece will cause the teeth to bend, permanently
damaging the file (especially when an inexperienced user adopts a back-andforth "sawing" motion). Draw filing involves laying the file sideways on the
work, and carefully pushing or pulling it across the work. This catches the
teeth of the file sideways instead of head on, and a very fine shaving action is
produced.
39.Broaching: Broaching is used when precision machining is required,
especially for odd shapes. Commonly machined surfaces include circular and
non-circular holes, splines,keyways, and flat surfaces. Typical workpieces
include small to medium-sized castings, forgings, screw machine parts,
and stampings. Even though broaches can be expensive, broaching is usually
favored over other processes when used for high-quantity production runs.
40.Chamfer: Outside of aesthetics, chamfering is part of the process of handcrafting a parabolic glass telescope mirror. Before the surface of the disc can
be ground, the edges must first be chamfered to prevent chipping. In printed
circuit board (PCB) designing, a chamfer occurs when a right-angled edge is
eliminated from the tracks, to strengthen the places where a track meets
another at a right angle.
41.Abrasive Jet Machining: Common uses include cutting heat-sensitive,
brittle, thin, or hard materials. Specifically, it is used to cut intricate shapes or
form specific edge shapes. Material is removed by fine abrasive particles,
usually about 0.001 in (0.025 mm) in diameter, driven by a high velocity fluid
stream; common gases are air or inert gases. Pressures for the gas range
from 25 to 130 psig (170900 kPag) and speeds can be as high as 300 m/s.
The main advantages are its flexibility, low heat production, and ability to
machine hard and brittle materials. Its flexibility owes from its ability to use
hoses to transport the gas and abrasive to any part of the workpiece.
42.Water Jet Cutter: Waterjet cutting is often used during fabrication of
machine parts. It is the preferred method when the materials being cut are
sensitive to the high temperatures generated by other methods. Waterjet
cutting is used in various industries, including mining and aerospace, for
cutting, shaping, and reaming. An important benefit of the water jet is the
ability to cut material without interfering with its inherent structure, as there
is no heat-affected zone (HAZ). Minimizing the effects of heat allows metals to
be cut without harming or changing intrinsic properties. Water jet cutters are
also capable of producing intricate cuts in material. With specialized software
and 3-D machining heads, complex shapes can be produced.
Meatcutting using waterjet technology eliminates the risk of cross
contamination since there is no contact medium (namely, a blade) between
different animals in the slaughterhouse.

43.Photochemical Machining: The tooling is inexpensive and quickly

produced. This makes the process useful for prototyping and allows for easy
changes in mass production. It maintains dimensional tolerances and does
not create burrs or sharp edges. It can make a part in hours after receiving
the drawing. PCM can be used on virtually any commercially available metal
or alloy, of any hardness. It is limited to materials with a thickness of 0.0005
to 0.080 in (0.013 to 2.032 mm). Metals
include aluminium,brass, copper, inconel, manganese, nickel, silver, steel, sta
inless steel, zinc and titanium. Industrial applications include fine screens and
meshes, apertures and masks, battery grids, fuel
cell components, sensors, springs, pressure membranes, heat sinks, flexible
heating elements, RF and microwave circuits and components, semiconductor
leadframes.
44.Honing: Typical applications are the finishing of cylinders for internal
combustion engines, air bearing spindles and gears. There are many types of
hones but all consist of one or more abrasive stones that are held
under pressure against the surface they are working on.
a. Electro-chemical grinding: The wheels and workpiece are
electrically conductive. Electrochemical grinding is often used for
hard materials where conventional machining is difficult and time
consuming such as stainless steel and some exotic metals. For
materials with hardness greater than 65 HRC, ECG can have a
material removal rate 10 times that of conventional machining.
45.Surface Finishing: Finishing processes may be employed to: improve
appearance, adhesion or wettability, solderability, corrosion resistance,
tarnish resistance, chemical resistance, wear resistance, hardness,
modify electrical conductivity, remove burrs and other surface flaws, and
control the surface friction.
a. Blanching: is the whitening of metal, by various means, such as
soaking in acid or by coating with tin. This term is commonly used
in coinage, in which pieces are given a lustre and brilliance before
images are struck into the surface.
b. Burnishing: Burnishing processes are used in manufacturing to
improve the size, shape, surface finish, or surface hardness of a
workpiece. It is essentially a forming operation that occurs on a
small scale. The benefits of burnishing often include: Combats
fatigue failure, prevents corrosion and stress corrosion, textures
surfaces to eliminate visual defects, closes porosity, creates surface
compressive residual stress.
c. Case-hardening: For iron or steel with low carbon content, which
has poor to no hardenability of its own, the case-hardening process
involves infusing additional carbon into the case. Case-hardening is
usually done after the part has been formed into its final shape, but
can also be done to increase the hardening element content
of bars to be used in a pattern welding or similar process. Parts that
are subject to high pressures and sharp impacts are still commonly

case-hardened. Examples include firing pins and rifle bolt faces, or

engine camshafts. In these cases, the surfaces requiring the
hardness may be hardened selectively, leaving the bulk of the part
in its original tough state.
d. Ceramic Glaze: Glaze can serve to color, decorate or waterproof
an item. Glazing renders earthenware vessels suitable for holding
liquids, sealing the inherent porosity of terracotta. Glaze is also
used on stoneware and porcelain. In addition to their functional
aspect, glazes can form a variety of surface finishes, including
degrees of glossy or matte finish and color. Glazes may also
enhance the underlying design or texture either unmodified or
inscribed, carved or painted.
e. Cladding: The United States Mint uses cladding to
manufacture coins from different metals. This allows a cheaper
metal to be used as a filler. Most suited technique for graded
material application.
Corona Treatment: A linear array of electrodes is often used to
create a curtain of corona plasma. Materials such as plastics, cloth,
or paper may be passed through the corona plasma curtain in order
to change the surface energy of the material. All materials have an
inherent surface energy. Many plastics, such
as polyethylene and polypropylene, have chemically inert and
nonporous surfaces with low surface tensions causing them to be
non-receptive to bonding with printing inks, coatings,
and adhesives. Although results are invisible to the naked eye,
surface treating modifies surfaces to improve adhesion.
g. Electroplating: Electroplating changes the chemical, physical, and
mechanical properties of the workpiece. An example of a chemical
change is when nickel plating improves corrosion resistance. An
example of a physical change is a change in the outward
appearance. An example of a mechanical change is a change
in tensile strength or surface hardness which is a required attribute
in tooling industry. Electroplating is widely used in various industries
for coating metal objects with a thin layer of a different metal. The
layer of metal deposited has some desired property, which the
metal of the object lacks. For example, chromium plating is done on
many objects such as car parts, bath taps, kitchen gas burners,
wheel rims and many others for the fact that chromium is very
corrosion resistant, and thus prolongs the life of the parts.
h. Galvanization: At about 300 C zinc will diffuse into the substrate
to form a zinc alloy. The preparation of the goods can be carried out
by shot blasting. The process is also known as dry galvanizing,
because no liquids are involved, there will be no danger of hydrogen
embrittlement of the goods. The dull-grey crystal structure of the
zinc diffusion coating has a good adhesion to paint, powder
coatings, or rubber. It is a preferred method for coating small,
complex-shaped metals, and for smoothing rough surfaces on items
formed with powder metal. This is the most common use for
galvanizing, and hundreds of thousands of tonnes are galvanized
annually worldwide. In developed countries most larger cities have
f.

several galvanizing factories, and many items of steel manufacture

are galvanized for protection.
i. Gilding: The gilding of decorative ceramics has been undertaken
for centuries, with the permanence and brightness of gold appealing
to designers. Both porcelain andearthenware are commonly
decorated with gold, and in the late 1970s it was reported that 5
tonnes of gold were used annually for the decoration of these
products. After application the decorated ware is fired in kiln to fuse
the gold to the glaze and hence ensure its permanence. The most
important factors affecting coating quality are the composition of
applied gold, the state of the surface before application, the
thickness of the layer and the firing conditions.
j. Peening: is the process of working a metal's surface to improve its
material properties, usually by mechanical means, such as hammer
blows, by blasting with shot (shot peening), or blasts of light beams
with laser peening.
i. Shot Peening: Shot peening is often called for in aircraft
repairs to relieve tensile stresses built up in the grinding
process and replace them with beneficial compressive
stresses. Depending on the part geometry, part material,
shot material, shot quality, shot intensity, and shot coverage,
shot peening can increase fatigue life up to 1000%
ii. Laser Peening: One application is for metal shaping or
forming. By selectively laser shocking areas on the surface of
metal sheets or plates, or smaller items such as airfoils, the
associated compressive residual stresses cause the material
to flex in a controllable manner. In this way a particular shape
can be imparted to a component, or a distorted component
might be brought back into the desired shape. Thus, this
process is capable of bringing manufactured parts back into
design tolerance limits and form shaping thin section parts.
k. Thermal Spraying: This technique is mostly used to produce
coatings on structural materials. Such coatings provide protection
against high temperatures (for example thermal barrier
coatings for exhaust heat management),corrosion, erosion, wear;
they can also change the appearance, electrical or tribological
properties of the surface, replace worn material, etc. This
application is mainly used to modify the surface chemistry of
polymers.
l. Laser Ablation: The simplest application of laser ablation is to
remove material from a solid surface in a controlled fashion. Laser
machining and particularly laser drilling are examples; pulsed lasers
can drill extremely small, deep holes through very hard materials.
Very short laser pulses remove material so quickly that the
surrounding material absorbs very little heat, so laser drilling can be
done on delicate or heat-sensitive materials, including tooth
enamel (laser dentistry).
m. Polishing: n some materials (such as metals, glasses, black or
transparent stones) polishing is also able to reduce diffuse
reflection to minimal values. When an unpolished surface is
magnified thousands of times, it usually looks like mountains and

valleys. By repeated abrasion, those "mountains" are worn down

until they are flat or just small "hills." The process of polishing
with abrasives starts with coarse ones and graduates to fine ones.
46.Hobbing: Compared to other gear forming processes it is relatively
inexpensive but still quite accurate, thus it is used for a broad range of parts
and quantities. It is the most widely used gear cutting process for creating
spur and helical gear and more gears are cut by hobbing than any other
process since it is relatively quick and inexpensive. Hobbing is used to
produce most throated worm wheels, but certain tooth profiles cannot be
hobbed. If any portion of the hob profile is perpendicular to the axis then it
will have no cutting clearance generated by the usual backing off process,
and it will not cut well.
47.Grinding: Grinding practice is a large and diverse area
of manufacturing and toolmaking. It can produce very fine finishes and very
accurate dimensions; yet in mass production contexts it can also rough out
large volumes of metal quite rapidly.
48.Gashing: is a machining process used to rough out coarse
pitched gears and sprockets. It is commonly used on worm
wheels before hobbing, but also used on internal and external spur
gears, bevel gears, helical gears, and gear racks. The process is performed
on gashers or universal milling machines, especially in the case of worm
wheels.
49.Bio Machining: Certain bacteria, such as Thiobacillus ferrooxidans and
Thiobacillus thiooxidans, which are also used in the mineral refinement
process of bioleaching, utilize the chemical energy from oxidation of iron or
copper to fix carbon dioxide from the air. A metal object, when placed in a
culture fluid containing these metal-metabolizing bacteria, will have material
removed from its surface over time. This process has been successfully used
to cut both pure iron and pure copper.
JOINING PROCESSES
50.Welding: Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials,
usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from
lower temperature metal-joining techniques such as brazing and soldering,
which do not melt the base metal.
a. Arc: is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create
an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt
the metals at the welding point.
i. Manual Metal: Because of the versatility of the process and
the simplicity of its equipment and operation, shielded metal
arc welding is one of the world's first and most popular
welding processes. The process is used primarily to
weld iron and steels (including stainless steel)
but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded
with this method.

ii. Shielded Metal: In recent years its use has declined as fluxcored arc welding has expanded in the construction industry
and gas metal arc welding has become more popular in
industrial environments. SMAW is often used to weld carbon
steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steel, cast iron,
and ductile iron. While less popular for nonferrous materials,
it can be used on nickel and copper and their alloys and, in
rare cases, on aluminium.
iii. Gas Metal: Along with the wire electrode, a shielding
gas feeds through the welding gun, which shields the process
from contaminants in the air. Originally developed for
welding aluminum and other non-ferrous materials in the
1940s, GMAW was soon applied to steels because it provided
faster welding time compared to other welding processes. is
used extensively by the sheet metal industry and, by
extension, the automobile industry. There, the method is
often used for arc spot welding, thereby
replacing riveting or resistance spot welding. It is also popular
for automated welding, in which robots handle the
workpieces and the welding gun to speed up the
manufacturing process.[
iv. Gas Tungsten: GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin
sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such
as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. The process
grants the operator greater control over the weld than
competing processes such as shielded metal arc
welding and gas metal arc welding, allowing for stronger,
higher quality welds. While the aerospace industry is one of
the primary users of gas tungsten arc welding, the process is
used in a number of other areas. Many industries use GTAW
for welding thin workpieces, especially nonferrous metals. It
is used extensively in the manufacture of space vehicles, and
is also frequently employed to weld small-diameter, thin-wall
tubing such as those used in the bicycle industry.
v. Submerged: SAW is normally operated in the automatic or
mechanized mode, however, semi-automatic (hand-held)
SAW guns with pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery are
available. The process is normally limited to the flat or
horizontal-fillet welding positions (although horizontal groove
position welds have been done with a special arrangement to
support the flux). Deposition rates approaching 45 kg/h
(100 lb/h) have been reported this compares to ~5 kg/h
(10 lb/h) (max) for shielded metal arc welding.
Although currents ranging from 300 to 2000 A are commonly
utilized, currents of up to 5000 A have also been used
(multiple arcs).
vi. Plasma Arc:
vii. Carbon Arc: In a carbon arc lamp, the electrodes are carbon
rods in free air. To ignite the lamp, the rods are touched
together, thus allowing a relatively low voltage to strike the
arc. If the points of the electrodes are touching (as in start-

up) the resistance falls, the current increases and the

increased pull from the solenoid draws the points apart. If the
arc starts to fail, the current drops and the points close up
again.
b. Oxy-Fuel Gas: As well, oxy-fuel has an advantage over electric
welding and cutting processes in situations where accessing
electricity (e.g., via an extension cord or portable generator) would
present difficulties; it is more self-contained, and, hence, often more
portable. In short, oxy-fuel equipment is quite versatile, not only
because it is preferred for some sorts of iron or steel welding but
also because it lends itself to brazing, braze-welding, metal heating
(for annealing or tempering, bending or forming), rust or scale
removal, the loosening of corroded nuts and bolts, and is a
ubiquitous means of cutting ferrous metals.
i. Oxy-Acetylene Gas
ii. Oxy-Hydrogen
c. Resistance Welding: In general, resistance welding methods are
efficient and cause little pollution, but their applications are limited
to relatively thin materials and the equipment cost can be high
(although in production situations the cost per weld may be low).
51.Butt Welding: Butt welding is a welding technique used to connect parts
which are nearly parallel and don't overlap. Usually, a butt-welding joint is
made by gradually heating up the two weld ends with a weld plate and then
joining them under a specific pressure. This process is very suitable for
prefabrication and producing special fittings. Afterward, the material is
usually ground down to a smooth finish and either sent on its way to the
processing machine, or sold as a completed product.
i. Shot Welding: Shot welding is a specific type of spot
welding used to join two pieces of metal together. This is
accomplished by clamping the two pieces together and then
passing a large electric current through them for a short
period of time. Assuming the right amount of current for the
right time, this will weld the two pieces of metal together.
ii. Spot Welding: Spot welding is typically used when welding
particular types of sheet metal, welded wire mesh or wire
mesh. Thicker stock is more difficult to spot weld because the
heat flows into the surrounding metal more easily. Perhaps
the most common application of spot welding is in
the automobile manufacturing industry, where it is used
almost universally to weld the sheet metal to form a
car. Another application is spot welding straps to nickel
cadmium or nickelmetal hydride cells to make batteries.
b. Projection Welding: Projection welding is a modification of spot
welding. In this process, the weld is localized by means of raised
sections, or projections, on one or both of the workpieces to be
joined. Projection welding is often used to weld studs, nuts, and
other screw machine parts to metal plate. It is also frequently used
to join crossed wires and bars. This is another high-production
process, and multiple projection welds can be arranged by suitable
designing and jigging.
c. Seam

d. Upset Welding: The difference from flash welding is that the parts
are clamped in the welding machine and force is applied bringing
them tightly together. High-amperage current is then passed
through the joint, which heats the abutting surfaces. When they
have been heated to a suitable forging temperature an upsetting
force is applied and the current is stopped. The high temperature of
the work at the abutting surfaces plus the high pressure causes
coalescence to take place. After cooling, the force is released and
the weld is completed.
e. Friction Welding: The combination of fast joining times (on the
order of a few seconds), and direct heat input at the weld interface,
yields relatively small heat-affected zones. Another advantage is
that the motion tends to "clean" the surface between the materials
being welded, which means they can be joined with less
preparation. Other common uses for these sorts of bi-metal joins is
in the nuclear industry, where copper-steel joints are common in the
reactor cooling systems; and in the transport of cryogenic fluids,
where friction welding has been used to join aluminum alloys to
stainless steels and high-nickel-alloy materials for cryogenic-fluid
piping and containment vessels.
f. Laser Welding: The beam provides a concentrated heat source,
allowing for narrow, deep welds and high welding rates. The process
is frequently used in high volume applications, such as in the
automotive industry. It is based on keyhole or Penetration mode
welding.
g. Electron Beam Welding: Electron beam equipment must be
provided with an appropriate power supply for the beam generator.
The accelerating voltage may be chosen between 30 and 200 kV.
Usually it is about 60 or 150 kV, depending on various conditions.
With rising voltage the technical problems and the price of the
equipment rapidly increase, hence, whenever it is possible a lower
voltage of about 60 kV is to be chosen. The maximum power of the
high voltage supply depends on the maximum depth of weld
required.
h. Thermite Welding
i. Induction Welding: Induction welding is used for long production
runs and is a highly automated process, usually used for welding
the seams of pipes. It can be a very fast process, as a lot of power
can be transferred to a localised area, so the faying surfaces melt
very quickly and can be pressed together to form a
continuous rolling weld. Plastic can also be induction welded by
embedding the plastic with electrically conductive fibers like metals
or carbon fiber. Induced eddy currents resistively heat the
embedded fibers which lose their heat to the surrounding plastic by
conduction. Induction welding of carbon fiber reinforced plastics is
commonly used in the aerospace industry.

52.Brazing: Brazing differs from welding in that it does not involve melting the
work pieces and from soldering in using higher temperatures for a similar
process, while also requiring much more closely fitted parts than when
soldering.
a. Torch Brazing: Manual brazing is most commonly used on small
production volumes or in applications where the part size or
configuration makes other brazing methods impossible. The
advantage of this method is that it reduces the high labor and skill
requirement of manual brazing. The use of flux is also required for
this method as there is no protective atmosphere, and it is best
suited to small to medium production volumes.
b. Furnace Brazing: Furnace brazing is a semi-automatic process
used widely in industrial brazing operations due to its adaptability
to mass production and use of unskilled labor. There are many
advantages of furnace brazing over other heating methods that
make it ideal for mass production. One main advantage is the ease
with which it can produce large numbers of small parts that are
easily jigged or self-locating.
c. Silver Brazing: The braze alloy joins the materials and
compensates for the difference in their expansion rates. It also
provides a cushion between the hard carbide tip and the hard steel,
which softens impact and prevents tip loss and damagemuch as a
vehicle's suspension helps prevent damage to the tires and the
vehicle.
d. Braze Brazing: Another effect of braze welding is the elimination
of stored-up stresses that are often present in fusion welding. This is
extremely important in the repair of large castings. The
disadvantages are the loss of strength when subjected to high
temperatures and the inability to withstand high stresses.
e. Cast iron Brazing: Ductile cast iron pipe may be also "cadwelded,"
a process that connects joints by means of a small copper wire
fused into the iron when previously ground down to the bare metal,
parallel to the iron joints being formed as per hub pipe with
neoprene gasket seals.
f. Dip Brazing: Dip brazing is especially suited for
brazing aluminium because air is excluded, thus preventing the
formation of oxides.
g. Vacuum Brazing: Vacuum brazing is often conducted in a furnace;
this means that several joints can be made at once because the
whole workpiece reaches the brazing temperature. The heat is
transferred using radiation, as many other methods cannot be used
in a vacuum
53. Soldering: Soldering is used in plumbing, electronics, and metalwork
from flashing to jewelry. Soldering provides reasonably permanent but
reversible connections between copper pipes in plumbing systems as well as
joints in sheet metal objects such as food cans, roof flashing, rain gutters and
automobile radiators. Electronic soldering connects electrical
wiring and electronic components to printed circuit boards (PCBs).
a. Induction soldering: Some metals are easier to solder than
others. Copper, silver, and gold are easy. Iron, mild
steel and nickel are next in difficulty. Because of their thin, strong

oxide films, stainless steel and aluminium are even more difficult to
solder. Titanium, magnesium, cast irons, some highcarbon steels, ceramics, and graphite can be soldered but it
involves a process similar to joining carbides: they are first plated
with a suitable metallic element that induces interfacial bonding.
b. Silver Soldering: With silver soldering, small pieces of solder wire
are placed onto the metal prior to heating. A flux, often made of
boric acid and denatured alcohol, is used to keep the metal and
solder clean and to prevent the solder from moving before it melts.
c. Resistance Soldering: Resistance soldering equipment, unlike
conduction irons, can be used for difficult soldering and brazing
applications where significantly higher temperatures may be
required. This makes resistance comparable to flame soldering in
some situations. When the required temperature can be achieved
by either flame or resistance methods the resistance heat is more
localized because of direct contact, whereas the flame will spread
thus heating a potentially larger area.
54.Sintering: Sintering is part of the firing process used in the manufacture
of pottery and other ceramic objects. These objects are made from
substances such as glass, alumina, zirconia, silica, magnesia, lime,beryllium
oxide, and ferric oxide. Some ceramic raw materials have a lower affinity for
water and a lower plasticity index than clay, requiring organic additives in the
stages before sintering. Plastic materials are formed by sintering for
applications that require materials of specific porosity. Sintered plastic porous
components are used in filtration and to control fluid and gas flows. Sintered
plastics are used in applications requiring wicking properties, such as marking
pen nibs.
55.Interference Fit: For metal parts in particular, the friction that holds the
parts together is often greatly increased by compression of one part against
the other, which relies on the tensile and compressive strengths of the
materials the parts are made from. Typical examples of interference fits are
the press fitting of shafts into bearings or bearings into their housings and the
attachment of watertight connectors to cables. An interference fit also results
when pipe fittings are assembled and tightened. A press fit is also required to
mount wheels on an axle to make a wheel set.
56.Riveting: Before welding techniques and bolted joints were developed, metal
framed buildings and structures such as the Eiffel Tower, Shukhov Tower and
the Sydney Harbour Bridge were generally held together by riveting.
Also automobile chassiswere riveted. Riveting is still widely used in
applications where light weight and high strength are critical, such as in an
aircraft. Many sheet-metal alloys are preferably not welded as deformation
and modification of material properties can occur.
57.Clinching: Clinching is used primarily in
the automotive, appliance and electronic industries, where it often
replaces spot welding. Clinching does not require electricity or cooling of the
electrodes commonly associated with spot welding. Being a mechanical
joining process, clinching can be used to join materials showing no electrical
conductivity such as polymers. Clinching does not require a pre-cleaning of
the surfaces, which is needed before applying adhesives. Clinching is almost
an instant joining process (the required joining time is lower than a second)

while adhesive joining often requires a much longer time mainly owing to the
curing of the joint (up to many hours).