ECNG 2013

Lecture
SETS
Preliminaries
Definition
A set is a collection of distinct well defined objects
The objects in a set are called the elements of the set. If a is an element of the
set M we write
a M . We write a M if a is not in M

Examples
The set of all natural numbers, N, is given by N = {0, 1, 2, 3, , }
(a)
{x : x R, x 2}
(b)
{ y: y solves (y + 1)(y 3) = 0}
(c)
{x R : 2 x 2} or {x : x ( 2, 2]}
(d)
(e)

{ a : a Z and b Z }
b

The following notation would be used to define the following sets:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

N is the set of all natural numbers. i.e N = { 0, 1, 2, 3, .. }

Z is the set of all integers i.e Z = { , -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,
.}
Q is the set of all rational numbers

i.e Q {x : x a : a Z , b Z }
b

R is the set of real numbers

Definitions
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

A set A is a subset of a set B and is written as A B if every element of A

is also an element of B.
A set that contains no elements is called the empty set and is symbolized
as or
If A is a set, then the power set of A, P ( A) { X : X A} . The power set of
A is the set of all the subsets of A.
Given a set A with elements from the universe U, the complement of A,
(written as A' or A c ) is the set that contains those elements of the
universal et U that are not in A.

Set Operations
Definitions Given two sets A and B with elements from a universal set U
The intersection of A and B (written as A B ) is the set that contains
elements common to both A and B i.e A B {x U : x A and x B}
The union of A and B (written as A B ) is the set that contains those
(b)
elements in either set A or B. i.e A B {x U : x A or x B}
The difference of A and B (written as A B) is the set that contains those
(c)
elements in A which are not in B. i.e A B A B c
Example : Let U = N , A = {1, 3} , B = {2, 3, 6 } and C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
Then A B = {1} and A C =
The Cartesian product of A and B (written as A X B) is the set of all ordered
(d)
pairs (a,b) where a is an element of A and b is an element of B. i.e
A X B {( a, b) : a A and b B}
Example : Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {x, y} Then A X B = { (1, x), (1, y),
(2, x), (2, y), (3, x), (3, y) }
(a)

Further important Properties

A B B A
Commutative Property for
(a)
A B B A
Commutative Property for
(b)

(
A B) C A ( B C )
Associative property for
(c)
( A B) C A ( B C )
Associative property for
(d)
A ( B C ) ( A B) ( A C )
Distributive property for over
(e)
A ( B C ) ( A B) ( A C )
Distributive property for over
(f)
A U A
A A
Identity
(g)
A Ac U A Ac
Negation
(h)
Idempotent
A A A
(i)
( A B) c A c B c and ( A B) c A c B c
De Morgans Laws
(j)
A ( A B ) A and A ( A B ) A
Absorption
(k)

Proving set identities

To show that one set is a subset of another, we establish that every element of the
first set must also be an element of the second set.

Example
Prove that for all sets A and B, A B A
Proof
Let x A B where x is any arbitrary element in A B
x A and x B by definition of intersection
Therefore A B A

Definition
Two sets A and B are equal (written as A = B) if A B and
Example
Prove that for all sets A, B and C
A ( B C ) ( A B) ( A C ) (De Morgans law)

Proof
Let x A ( B C )
x A or x ( B C )
Case 1 : If x A
Then x ( A B ) and x ( A C )
Hence x ( A B ) ( A C )
Case 2 : If x ( B C )
Then x B and x C
Hence x ( A B ) and x ( A C )
so that x ( A B ) ( A C )
In both cases x ( A B ) ( A C )
Therefore A ( B C ) ( A B ) ( A C )

Conversely,

(1)

B A

Suppose x ( A B ) ( A C )
x ( A B ) and x ( A C )
Consider the cases x A and x A separately
Case 1 : If x A then x A ( B C )
Case 2 : If x A then x B and x C
x (B C)
x A (B C)
In both cases x A ( B C )
Hence ( A B ) ( A C ) A ( B C )

( 2)

It follows from (1) and (2) that A ( B C ) ( A B) ( A C ) .