Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Cultural values play a role in determining what participants do in verbal interaction, what and
how face is projected and maintained, what avoidance strategies are utilised when face is
threatened, how ritual equilibrium is maintained and restored, etc (Kachru & Smith, 2008)
e.g. Kinship terms (Kachru & Smith, 2008) Older men among the Nuer people of Sudan
will address their younger counterparts as gatada, meaning my son, while younger men
address their male elders as gwa, meaning father (Evan-Pritchard, 1948)
Cultural values determine which parameters interact with each other, and which ones are
weighted more heavily in comparison with the others (Kachru & Smith, 2008)
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Set formula of greeting (Ferguson, 1976) e.g. Respected Professor, Dear Sir
Hedges are used in societies in order to reduce friction in that they leave the
way open for the respondent to disagree with the speaker and the speaker to
retreat (Lakoff, 1974)
For some languages, politeness must be encoded into every structure: there are obligatory
markers of status, defence, and humility. Other languages express politeness less overtly, or
differently: perhaps by smiling or in the stance, or distance kept between participants in an
encounter (Lakoff, 1974)
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It is appropriate to use direct imperatives with the politeness marker please (Kachru
& Smith, 2008)
In Western culture, generally speaking, individual face wants are attended to more
systematically than the demands of status or age or rank in interactions (Kachru &
Smith, 2008)
swayed more by words than ideas, and more by ideas than facts (Patai, 1973)
Get well soon = may there be upon you nothing but health, if Allah wills
Japanese culture: space, the relationship between reader and writer (Jenkins & Hinds,
1987)
Language expresses the way individuals situate themselves in a relationship to others, the
way they group themselves, the powers they claim for themselves and the powers they
stipulate to others (Lippi-Green, 1997)
Language used to indicate social allegiances; Us vs Them (Van Dijk, 1998), solidarity vs
distance, power asymmetry, etc.
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The notion that the right to initiate the reciprocal [solidary linguistic form] belongs to
the member having the better power-based claim (Brown & Gilman, 1960)
If the subordinate interlocutor violates this sociolinguistic rule, he will have had
overstepped some boundary (Brown & Gilman, 1960) ! initiation of solidarity fails
Stylistic variation occurs as speakers take into account whom they are talking to, and
alter their speech style accordingly i.e. concept of audience design (Bell, 1984) and
linguistic convergence (Giles & Powesland, 1975)
Students mandated to use maam, sir, etc to create respect for teachers, while
teachers still refer to students by their first names
Loaded language: words used in a semantically correct way, but with an intention of
reinforcing ones opinion of an individual/group
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Every language has the capacity to take the form that its users require (Bolinger,
1980)
Every spoken word or phrase convey meanings which are not present in the words:
anger, affection, inquiry, displeasure, reassurance, uncertainty, restraint,
haughtiness, submission, authority (Bolinger, 1980)
Used to show freedom from social constraints, draw attention, mock authority, etc.
Thai students in EL-speaking countries avoid fag (sheath), phrig (chili pepper)
Euphemistic language: a word which is substituted for a more conventional or familiar one
as a way of avoiding negative values (Fairclough, 1989)
THIS IS MERELY A COMPILATION OF QUOTES / SOME NOTEWORTHY DETAILS.
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Note that CDA is explicitly concerned with investigating how language is used to
construct and maintain power relationships in society
Conferred by social position, having the backing of an institution, lect used, etc.
Discourse plays a crucial role in manufacturing the consent of others (Herman &
Chomsky, 1988)
1. Interruptions
2. Enforcing explicitness forcing interlocutor out of ambiguity/silence
3. Controlling topic
4. Formulation rewording of what has been said/wording of what may be
assumed to follow from what has been said & what is implied by what has
been said ! used to check understanding, reach agreement, or to control
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Macro i.e. social inequality vs micro i.e. everyday racism (Essed, 1991)
Generalisations
Persuasively define the ethnic status quo as natural, just, inevitable or even as
democratic (van Dijk, 1996)
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News is not a reflection of reality, but a product shaped by political, economic and cultural
forces (Fowler, 1991)
Overwording: preoccupation with some aspect of reality which may indicate that it is a
focus of ideological struggle (Fairclough, 1989)
Passivation: obfuscation of agency and causality (Fairclough, 1989), also widens the divide
between the reader and event so that the former is less involved
Past simple tense signals that the past event is no longer important/relevant
THIS IS MERELY A COMPILATION OF QUOTES / SOME NOTEWORTHY DETAILS.
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Rhetoric: manage the comprehension processes of the recipient, and hence, indirectly the
structures of mental models (Van Dijk, 1998)
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Expressing a topic in a headline in news may powerfully influence how an event is defined
in terms of a preferred mental model (Van Dijk, 1991)
Sexism in English:
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Asymmetry e.g. the word man referring to both humankind in general and a male
Unmarked terms used for males e.g. lion vs marked terms used for females e.g.
lioness; derived from the meaning of the associated diminutive suffixes in terms
such as laundrette (a little laundry) and maisonette (a small house)
Sexism in Conversations:
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Dominance Theory: But that very language and the conditions for its use in turn structure a
patriarchal order (Spender, 1980)
The very semantics of the language reflect [womens] condition. We do not even have our
own names, but bear that of the father until we exchange it for that of the husband (Morgan,
1977)
Status vs support
Independence vs intimacy
Report vs Rapport
Advice vs understanding
Information vs feelings
Orders vs proposals
Conflict vs compromise
Age is an important cultural category: there is a strong tendency in English to place the
adjective expressing the most defining characteristic closest to the noun. (Peccei, 2004)
Under-5s and over-65s seem to have a disproportionately large number of specialised age
group labels, which specifically single them out as having a special status.
Under-5s are apprentice speakers and have limited vocabulary; over-65s are experienced
users but may have less acute hearing and require longer processing time to produce and
understand complex sentences. (Peccei, 2004)
Similarities between CDL and EDL (Coupland, Coupland & Giles, 1991)
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Underlying evaluations
When youre old, people treat you like youre invisible. (Winokur, 2001)
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