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Good introductions will do all four of those. Most undergraduate papers in lower-division classes
tend to be no longer than 8-10 pages, so the introduction should not normally exceed two paragraphs or
a full page. Lets start, however, with a short paper and thus a shorter introduction. The shortest possible
introduction would read something like,
This is a problem. Its an important or interesting problem. Heres how I think we
can solve/explain/understand it. Heres how Im going to convince you/explain it.
You can substitute quandary, anomaly, or unexplained or seemingly inexplicable phenomenon for
problem if you like. With that established, lets walk through what belongs in each part.
This is a problem. Heres something I (or a theory) cant explain, or that scholars should, in your
opinion, be concerned about. At this point you should be stating, clearly, the topic of the paper. If you
can, you might put a spin on it that will lead you into phrasing a sentence in the next part as a question.
Its an important or interesting problem. Yes, you can write on cyclical movement trends for the
price of beets in Swaziland if you wantprovided that you can tell me why I should care about it. This
is the so what? question. No matter the topic, its important to relate it to either a theory or reading that
it appears to support (or refute), or some other thing that will convince your reader that it matters. Make
your topic relevant to the class.
Heres how I think we can solve/explain/understand it. Political scientists write to make
arguments as well as convey information. This sentence serves, approximately, as a thesis statement. It
tells me whats holding your paper together other than this is what the assignment told me to do.
Whats your take on this question or problem that youve brought up? What makes this paper different
or distinguishes it from others? In essence, what argument are you going to make in this paper?
Heres how Im going to convince you/explain it. This part of the introduction is probably the
most important to the success of your argument. I often refer to it as a road map or a structure
sentence. How will you proceed to discuss this topic? Use the logic of your argument to organize your
paper. A wise professor I once had said, Essays are not mystery stories. I shouldnt be guessing whats
going to happen next. A roadmap or structure paragraph or sentence prepares your reader for the
logical manner in which you intend to go about supporting your argument.
Activity 1.
Using the introduction to this section, identify the four parts of an introduction.
One major problem that beginning writers face with introductions (and the first sentences of new
paragraphs) is an urge to make sweeping generalizations. From the founding of Rome to the present
day, mankind has always known the horror of war. The present war in Iraq will prove to be no less
horrific Unfortunately, your paper is not about the founding of Rome, the present day, or the horror
of war. Your paper is about Bushs public diplomacy towards Iraq. Stay on topic, and stay focused.
Likewise, avoid opening your paper with anyone elses words but your own. Fight the urge to use the
common high school technique of opening with a quotation, or even worse, citing the dictionary.
Websters defines cooperation as. is a sure way to sour the readers stomach from the start, as are
long digressions on the history of your thinking on the paper topic (When considering the nature of
politics, one must first examine the cultural preconceptions of).
Students saw: What roles do power, preferences, and perceptions play in international bargaining? Use a historical example
to illustrate your argument.
Instructor looking for: What roles do power, preferences, and perceptions play in international bargaining? Use a historical
example to illustrate your argument.
These exam essays were all full of theses about how of power, preferences, and perceptions interacted in
an example. Some of those arguments were quite good. Unfortunately, that wasnt the question. When
instructors grade, they look for specific elements, ideas, or items that they felt were required for a solid
answer to the question that was asked. Even if you have a wonderful essay, if you dont have those
things the professor felt you needed to answer the question asked on the exam, you get a low grade. If
you arent sure youre thinking about the right question, or want to try your argument out on someone
first, go talk to the instructor. Office hours can be very lonely if no one comes to visit. (In an exam,
raise your hand!)
Once youve figured out what the question is, consider angles to approach it. What constraints
are there on the format? Is this a compare-contrast paper, or some other specific format or structure?
How much space do you have to make your argument? Are there specific sub-questions the instructor
asks you to address? Do any of the readings address this question or closely related questions? These
questions prepare you to create a thesis that is both well-developed as well as feasible for the paper
length.
Then its time to brainstorm. Sometimes youll have an idea for an argument right off. For most
of us, this is a rarity. These immediate theses are sometimes an intuitive leap between readings or
random facts, or sometimes they are reactions to statements from instructors or readings or things in the
news. If you are not lucky enough to have a thesis spring fully developed from your subconscious, join
the club. Here are some approaches to developing a thesis:
Flip through your notes or the course texts, looking for references to key words from the
assignment. See which ones occur together, and what else occurs frequently around them. How
do those words fit together?
Write key words or important terms on index cards, then rearrange the cards until you can tell a
story that connects them.
Similarly, try making an idea web. Put the central concept in the center of a sheet of paper.
Around it, write major words that are closely related to it, and connect them to the coreand to
each other if appropriate. Think of other things that could be spoked off your mid-level words,
and look for connections across and around the entire web.
Make a table. Put key words at the top of the columns, then brainstorm related words and
concepts into the column space below. Look for patterns, interesting connections, or other
concepts related to the assignment.
Do preliminary research. Collect some data (information), then look for patterns in it.
Consider the course readings youve had on this topic or related ones. Do you agree with them?
Do they agree with each other? Do the arguments they present seem to apply well to other cases
or examples you know? (Yes or no responses to the last question can generate excellent papers.)
Longer papers: If you have a general topic youd like to address, look at literature reviews for
that topic. Short literature reviews can be found in related journal articles (scholarly research
reports), and sometimes journals publish longer, article-length literature reviews. These present
summaries of other authors arguments and approaches. You might find one you agree (or
disagree) with, or one that you think could be applied to your case or topic.
4, though, shows me that the student has more than a passing knowledge of the theorists and a more indepth understanding of what revolutionary theory involves. Theses 3 or 4 allow the student to add his or
her own interpretation to the arguments by placing them in specific contexts. This additional analysis
brings the paper up to the B+/A- range, or even the A range for exceptional essays.
Activity 2. Draft outlines for theses 2, 3, and 4 using the framework above. (Hint: You dont
need to know anything about either writer!)
More on Arguments
I encourage students to think outside the box when they look for arguments. Do you have
knowledge from another class that might be useful for this paper? Perhaps youve never studied the
Russian policymaking process before, but are there theories about the American policy process that you
might be able to try in the Russian context? Does this topic remind you of something else, or suggest a
comparison or contrast? I wrote a take-home midterm as a sophomore comparing the progress of
European integration to the plot of the movie Evita. (Dont ask.) While I dont think Id encourage you
to go that far, consider where youve heard these terms before, or what other course material might be
relevant.
Do not insult your readers intelligence. Be sure that your paper is arguing something rather than
just presenting facts. In other words, Tell me something I dont already know. If I can find your thesis
statement in the textbook or other readings, I have to wonder how much of the analysis is your own
original work. Reach out, think about it, and take a risk with your argument.
Probably most important with thesis development, and paper writing in general, is that you use
the instructor as a resource. Remember, this is the person who is grading the paper! Unless the
instructions specifically prohibit it, I recommend consulting with the instructor at least once on every
major paper you write. The instructor knows the course material. He or she can help you think through
the question, generate possible theses, consider possible counterarguments, or suggest references or
other sources you might want to consult. Instructors are particularly good at helping students take a
theme or topic of interest and turn it into an appropriate thesis. However, the instructor will not write
the paper for you. You should come to office hours or an appointment with some type of brainstorm,
idea list, rough outline, etc., which can serve as the basis for a productive discussion.
I cannot stress enough the importance of consulting with the instructor. Especially if you are
concerned your topic/thesis may not be appropriate, consultation is an invaluable step. If this is the first
time you have written a paper of this style, type, or field, you may want to ask the instructor about
conventions in this field. If you are new to the social sciences, this particularly applies to you. One of
my students in my first term teaching was an engineering major. The paper assignment was to
summarize and critique a scholarly article. This student wrote an excellent paperin the format of a lab
report. The thesis was at the end as a conclusion or finding, all the parts of the article were presented in
order (The author first discusses. He next considers), there was very little citation or critique, etc.
What would otherwise have been a B+ type of paper ended up in the C- range because conventions
(specified in advance on the rubric) were not followed and the paper generally did not fill the
assignment goals and requirements.
Conclusions
Whoever said, its not where you start, its where you finish? If you did it right, you finish at
the same place you started. You return to the puzzle, problem, or quandary you started with, the one that
formed the central question your paper tried to answer. But what else goes there?
Its easier to start with what doesnt go there. The conclusion is not the place for new
information. If you find yourself wanting or needing to put a citation in your conclusion, you should
reconsider if that information really goes there, or if it perhaps could do better somewhere else.
Likewise, editorializing is a bad plan, anywhere in the paper, unless you are specifically asked to do so.
Several good strategies exist for a conclusion. For short papers, I tend to prefer a strong
reiteration of the argument. Remind the reader about the kinds of evidence youve presented and how it
relates to your thesis. Does your thesis say anything about other closely related cases, or does it speak to
broader questions or arguments in the literature? Keep it short and to the point, sticking closely to your
initial argument.
For longer papers, or ones where I got to develop my own topic and argument, I often find that I
like to discuss implications or extensions of my argument. Can this argument say anything about any
other cases I didnt specifically discuss? Is it likely to do so, or is it a thesis fairly specific to the case(s)
under consideration? Can it help us predict any future occurrences, events, or behaviors? Are there
other applications of this argument, perhaps in a more generalized form? I also like to think about what
other kinds of evidence might exist for this argument (or similar ones). What would I need to look for to
show more convincingly that my argument is right (or wrong)?
When writing on a topic that was provided, depending on the thesis I used, I sometimes discuss
weaknesses in the argument or in the theory its based on, or suggest other questions that need to be
studied and answered. Are there any cases or theories that contradict the argument or evidence Ive
presented? Does the argument Ive made seem to apply to the real world?
Above all, be sure that your conclusion has made some effort to answer the biggest question of
all: SO WHAT? At the beginning of the paper, you made some type of statement about why this is an
important problem/question/quandary/etc., and you proposed a solution or way of thinking about the
problem. Does your solution/analytical device help? Can it explain this case/topic/controversy, and/or
other ones? Your reader should have some feeling that there was a point to the paper other than
fulfilling the assignment. The reader should have a sense that there was a specific, focused argument to
this paper, that the argument was supported by evidence, and that the argument says something about a
world broader than your specific paper topic.