Redclaw Crayfish Aquaculture

Redclaw Crayfish
Aquaculture
Edited by CM Jones
ii
C.M. Jones (editor)
Recommended Practices for Redclaw Crayfish

Aquaculture based on Research and
Development Activities, 1988 through 2000.
Northern Fisheries Centre,
Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries
Cairns Q 4870, Australia
clive.jones@dpi.qld.gov.au
iii
PREFACE
Interest in the aquaculture of redclaw crayfish has continued to be strong since initial
assessments of this species were made in the late 1980's, through both Industry trials
and Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries research. Considerable Industry
development has occurred since that time, although with limited success. Unlike the
development of most other Australian aquaculture industries for which existing
technologies established elsewhere have been transferred, redclaw aquaculture has
developed independently. This is primarily because existing crayfish aquaculture
technologies are not suitable for redclaw. In virtually every aspect of the production
technology for redclaw, there have been no established procedures or standards. It is
the development and definition of these procedures and standards which constituted
the broad goal of redclaw research activities at the Freshwater Fisheries and
Aquaculture Centre, Walkamin, through to 2000.
This work has been financially supported by the Fisheries Research and Development
Corporation (FRDC), the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
(ACIAR), and Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries who have
all contributed to the research program. An integral part of this program is the transfer
of information and technology to industry. This has been achieved through a variety
of means, the most direct being the presentation of seminars. This publication
represents background notes for these seminars as they were presented through the
late 1990s.
I would like to acknowledge all those who made contributions which led to the
preparation of this publication. Jo Grady (DPI&F Walkamin) and Greg Love (crayfish
farmer) provided presentations at the seminar. Thanks also to Peter Long, Millin
Curtis, Ian Ross, Colin Bendall, Andrew Hinton and Maurice Downing (all of the
DPI&F&F) who provided information and /or assistance with the preparation of the
notes.
Clive Jones
iv
CONTENTS
PREFACE ............................................................................................................................................... III
CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................ IV
FIGURES ................................................................................................................................................ VI
TABLES.................................................................................................................................................. VI
A SITE ASSESSMENT FOR SUITABILITY OF FARMING REDCLAW ............................................ 1
Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 1
Location and Services.......................................................................................................................... 1
Climate and Water Quality.................................................................................................................. 1
Soil Types............................................................................................................................................. 2
Alternative Crops................................................................................................................................. 3
Water Resources Comment.................................................................................................................. 3
Charleville Redclaw Farm................................................................................................................... 3
Local Issues ......................................................................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION TO REDCLAW ......................................................................................................... 6
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 6
Historical Perspective ......................................................................................................................... 6
Biological Characteristics ................................................................................................................... 7
Feeding Characteristics....................................................................................................................... 8
Growth Rate......................................................................................................................................... 8
Reproduction ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Life Cycle............................................................................................................................................. 9
Disease and Parasites ....................................................................................................................... 10
Farming Technology.......................................................................................................................... 10
Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 10
SITE REQUIREMENTS ........................................................................................................................ 12
Site Requirements .............................................................................................................................. 12
Site Suitability Criteria ...................................................................................................................... 12
POND AND CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING ISSUES .................................................................. 15
Water Supply...................................................................................................................................... 15
Construction Materials...................................................................................................................... 15
Pond Design ...................................................................................................................................... 15
Pond Details ...................................................................................................................................... 16
Lining Materials ................................................................................................................................ 16
Basic steps in Pond Construction ...................................................................................................... 17
PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES FOR REDCLAW ............................................................................... 18
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 18
Farm Layout Considerations............................................................................................................. 19
Juvenile Supply .................................................................................................................................. 19
Stock Management............................................................................................................................. 21
Harvesting ......................................................................................................................................... 22
Feeding .............................................................................................................................................. 22
Pond Management............................................................................................................................. 23
Outcome............................................................................................................................................. 24
FARM MANAGEMENT ....................................................................................................................... 26
1. Your Objective ............................................................................................................................... 26
2. Recognising the Processes............................................................................................................. 26
3. Developing the Strategy................................................................................................................. 26
4. Allocating Resources ..................................................................................................................... 28
5. Setting Timetables.......................................................................................................................... 28
6. Identifying Assessment Criteria and Standards............................................................................. 29
7. Assessing Performance.................................................................................................................. 29
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 30
WATER QUALITY ............................................................................................................................... 31
Pond Preparation .............................................................................................................................. 31
Managing plankton............................................................................................................................ 34
v
Pond dynamics................................................................................................................................... 35
Record Keeping ................................................................................................................................. 38
REDCLAW ECONOMICS .................................................................................................................... 39
Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 39
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 40
Results................................................................................................................................................ 40
Sensitivity analysis............................................................................................................................. 48
Provision of Initial Stock ................................................................................................................... 50
INDUSTRY OVERVIEW (1994) .......................................................................................................... 54
REDCLAW MARKETING ................................................................................................................... 56
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 56
Overseas Markets .............................................................................................................................. 56
Domestic Market................................................................................................................................ 58
Product Issues.................................................................................................................................... 58
Pricing & Its Implications ................................................................................................................. 60
Promotion .......................................................................................................................................... 60
Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 60
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FIGURES
FIGURE 1. DIAGRAM OF REDCLAW LIFE CYCLE.......................................................................................... 9
FIGURE 2. LAYOUT OF A HYPOTHETICAL REDCLAW FARM CONSISTING OF FORTY 1,000M2 PRODUCTION
PONDS. ........................................................................................................................................... 19
FIGURE 3. ESTIMATING AGRICULTURAL LIME APPLICATION RATE. (MODIFIED FROM BOYD, 1990). ........ 33
FIGURE 4. TYPICAL CHANGES IN PLANKTON DENSITY AFTER POND FILLING IN WELL MANAGED PONDS. . 34
FIGURE 5. TYPICAL WATER TEMPERATURES OVER 24 HOURS IN A REDCLAW POND IN NORTH
QUEENSLAND DURING SUMMER..................................................................................................... 35
FIGURE 6. TYPICAL PH LEVELS OVER 24 HOURS IN A REDCLAW POND IN NORTH QUEENSLAND. LEVELS
ARE GIVEN FOR LOW ALKALINITY (<20PPM) AND HIGH ALKALINITY (>50PPM) WATER.................. 36
FIGURE 7. TYPICAL DISSOLVED OXYGEN LEVELS OVER 24 HOURS IN A REDCLAW POND IN NORTH
QUEENSLAND. ............................................................................................................................... 37
FIGURE 8. ACCUMULATIVE CASH FLOW OVER TIME FOR A MODEL REDCLAW FARM WITH 53 X 750M2
PONDS. ........................................................................................................................................... 51
FIGURE 9. PERCENTAGE BREAKDOWN ON OVERHEADS FOR MODEL REDCLAW FARM WITH 53 X 750M2
PONDS. ........................................................................................................................................... 52
FIGURE 10. PRICE AND RETURN TO CAPITAL AND MANAGEMENT FOR A MODEL REDCLAW FARM WITH 53 X
750M2 PONDS. ................................................................................................................................ 52
FIGURE 11. TOTAL POND AREA VERSUS RETURN TO CAPITAL AND MANAGEMENT FOR A MODEL REDCLAW
2
FARM WITH 53 X 750M PONDS. ..................................................................................................... 53
TABLES
TABLE 1. ESTIMATED WATER TEMPERATURES FOR AQUACULTURE PONDS AT CUNNAMULLA. .................. 2
TABLE 2. PREFERRED RANGE OF SELECTED WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF SOURCE WATER, FOR
REDCLAW AQUACULTURE. ............................................................................................................. 13
TABLE 3. WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS, THEIR PREFERRED RANGE AND MEASUREMENT FOR REDCLAW
AQUACULTURE............................................................................................................................... 24
TABLE 4. LIMING AND NON-LIMING COMPOUNDS USED FOR AQUACULTURE PONDS. ............................... 31
TABLE 5. ESTIMATED FEED COSTS FOR A MODEL REDCLAW FARM WITH 53 X 750M2 PONDS................... 41
TABLE 6. ALLOCATION AND COSTS OF HIRED LABOUR FOR REDCLAW FARMS OF VARYING SIZE.............. 42
TABLE 7. TOTAL CAPITAL COSTS FOR A MODEL REDCLAW FARM WITH 53 X 750M2 PONDS...................... 43
TABLE 8. DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW FOR MODEL REDCLAW FARM WITH 53 X 750M2 PONDS WITH POND
LINERS. .......................................................................................................................................... 45
TABLE 9. DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW FOR MODEL REDCLAW FARM WITH 53 X 750M2 PONDS WITHOUT POND
LINERS. .......................................................................................................................................... 46
TABLE 10. SUMMARY OF ECONOMIC ANALYSIS FOR A MODEL REDCLAW FARM WITH 53 X 750M2 PONDS,
USING A FARM-GATE PRICE OF $10.00/KG. ..................................................................................... 47
TABLE 11. VARIATIONS IN FARM-GATE PRICE ON RETURN TO MANAGEMENT FOR A MODEL REDCLAW
2
TABLE 12. VARIATIONS IN REDCLAW YIELDS ON RETURN TO MANAGEMENT FOR A MODEL REDCLAW
2
TABLE 13. COST OF PRODUCTION AND RETURN TO MANAGEMENT FOR REDCLAW AQUACULTURE WITH
VARIOUS TOTAL POND AREA. ......................................................................................................... 50
TABLE 14. COST AND POND ALLOCATION FOR STOCKING A MODEL REDCLAW FARM WITH 53 X 750M2
PONDS. ........................................................................................................................................... 51
REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE
A SITE ASSESSMENT FOR SUITABILITY OF FARMING

REDCLAW
Peter Long
Summary
In July 1994, a preliminary assessment of redclaw production in South-West
Queensland was undertaken.
Information was gathered on environmental conditions, soil characteristics, local
services available, land-holder interest, government agency comments, Paroo Shire
support and existing redclaw production experiences. Five interested land-holders
were interviewed at length, which provided a fruitful exchange of ideas and concepts.
The Paroo Shire Council representatives certainly provided a positive hearing and one
producer of 18 months experience (Charleville) provided some insights into his local
production experiences.
Location and Services
Cunnamulla (population 1700) is located some 807km from Brisbane and 197km
from Charleville (population 3500), the closest major town. The community is
serviced by aircraft twice a week, rail twice a week and bus three times a week.
The office of the Paroo Shire is headquartered in Cunnamulla and ongoing support for
the project has been provided by both Suzette Beresford, Shire Chief Executive
Officer and Paroo Shire Chairman, Darby Land.
Cunnamulla is located on the Warrego River (Murray-Darling Catchment). The
Cunnamulla Weir, adjacent to the town was completed in 1992 and provides an
annual yield of in excess of 3000Ml with a 92% reliability factor.
Climate and Water Quality
The annual rainfall of the district ranges from 300 to 350mm (November-March) and
Cunnamulla's altitude is 189 metres. The net evaporation rate (Cunnamulla Post
Office) is 2.55m a year. Mean maximum daily temperatures range from 18.9C in
July to 35.6C in January with minimums of 5.5C in July to 25.4C in January.
Using the pond temperature model (Australian Fisheries, November 1990), based on
ponds at Walkamin Research Station, the following pond water temperatures could be
predicted at Cunnamulla.
Table 1. Estimated water temperatures for aquaculture ponds at Cunnamulla.

Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Pond temp. (C)

31.5
29.5
26.8
20.6
14.3
11.3
10.2
13.1
17.0
22.0
25.5
27.5
Max. Pond Bottom Temp.

(C)
34.5
32.5
28.8
24.6
19.3
16.3
15.2
17.1
21.0
25.5
29.5
30.5
As quoted previously, 2600Ml is available for allocation from the Cunnamulla Weir.
Water Resources are at present finalising allocations. Several land holders adjacent to
the weir hold 30-100Ml annual allocations, some of which is used to irrigate pasture
crops. The bulk of the water allocation is in one parcel, and will be used to irrigate
either cotton or table grape production, depending on the successful applicant. The
Council has requested an E.I.A., if cotton production is to proceed, and there is a
degree of unease with this crop's production in the district. Water Resources have
withheld 300Ml of allocation for future Council use and additions to present
allocations of small licence holders.
Both artesian and sub-artesian waters are available in the region, the quality of which
varies. The majority of South-West Queensland sits over the Great Artesian Basin
(G.A.B.), this water supply has traditionally provided stock and domestic supplies
throughout the region.
Three conductivity reports sighted ranged from 700 to 4000 uS/cm with a pH in the
range of 7.8 to 8.5. In general most artesian water around Cunnamulla is regarded as
drinkable and of good quality, (unscientific, but some measure of quality is reflected).
Volumes from bores were quoted up to 1.3Ml per day and the water pressure does not
vary.
Soil Types
A preliminary assessment of the soil types divides the district into 3 "simple"
categories - black (heavy clays), red (light clays) and river loams. Drawing on the
property dam construction experience, there appears to be few problems with black
and red soils, but comments about the river loams would suggest potential difficulties.
Sand and gravel run through the soil profile in some of the flood plain areas.
Alternative Crops
South-West Queensland by and large is considered to have a depressed rural income
due, to a greater part, to depressed wool prices. Both the state and Commonwealth
Governments are supporting a "Mulga Land Strategy" to underpin the region with
income support, property rationalisation and investigations of alternative production
systems. As discussed previously, cotton and table grape production are serious
candidates along with garlic and native plant production. The first three require
irrigation, and would, in the case of Cunnamulla, be limited by water allocations from
the weir. Artesian water is unsuitable for sustained irrigation usage. There was also a
suggestion of limited expansion of pasture crop production, again based on the weir
water allocations.
Water Resources Comment
Mr Lachlan Hanley, Water Resources Engineer, Charleville, was consulted and
provided the following observations. There are three water sources in this region surface (Cunnamulla Weir), sub-artesian and artesian (G.A.B.) As previously
discussed the allocation of water from the weir is at present in the final stages of
negotiation and is committed, with flood harvesting of the Warrego committed for at
least 2 years. Possible flood harvesting requires off-stream storage and can be
unreliable in this region. The present weir allocations have a 92% reliability.
Water of the G.A.B. flows at different rates depending on the bore and vary in quality
through the region. (A Water Resources survey of G.A.B. water quality of the
Warrego region is available). Bores presently provide for domestic and stock
purposes. If the water was to be used for aquaculture a permit would need to be
applied for along with a $55.00 application charge. Water usage from the G.A.B. is
becoming increasingly sensitive, a bore capping program is under way and
Government support for pipe replacement of bore drains is under way. There is a
national program to reduce usage of these waters. Historically a lot of artesian water
has run to waste, down bore drains. Lachlan advised to apply for a reasonable G.B.A.
allocation for aquaculture as allocations are made with the "bigger picture" of the
whole basin in mind.
Sub-artesian water is available in areas and is not subject to the same process of
approval, a decision can be made at the district office based on the local water table
and demand levels.
Charleville Redclaw Farm
Mr Roy Bignell is at present experimenting with seven ponds on the outskirts of
Charleville. He is using both artesian and sub-artesian waters. The sub-artesian water
has a conductivity of 3000-4000 with the artesian water around 1000-1200. He has
developed the technique of blending the waters. Reasonable "blooms" were observed
in several on the ponds and he claimed the crayfish, first stocked in February 1993
were doing very well and reproducing at a good rate.
No pond bottom drains were installed and I would suggest he had some pond bottom
problems. Crayfish were observed with tail blisters and tail sections missing in some
ponds. Chook pellets were used and small juveniles were noted at the time of visit.
This redclaw farm illustrated to me the possibility of redclaw production in G.A.B.
waters. Pond management may need to be modified to produce good blooms and thus
provide a good pond environment.
Local Issues
The Cunnamulla district is within the "channel country" and as such is relatively flat,
floods spread out from the major streams/Warrego and Paroo Rivers and cover large
tracts of country. Both from economic loss and permit requirement considerations, all
ponds need to be above flood height. This issue would need to be addressed in any
presentation.
Future marketing opportunities will be limited by the lack of seafood marketing
licence holders in the South-West. This could be overcome if a number of producers
established and agreed to cooperate in marketing their crayfish, with possibilities of a
unique South-West Queensland identity for such a product being marketed through a
single market (and licence) group. The possibility of a good local market was raised
by several people, with a regular flow of tourists, but this market would only take
small quantities in my opinion.
Artesian water has a temperature of 45-55C at the bore head, and it was suggested
that this quality could be used to warm ponds in winter. It was explained that flowthrough ponds don't provide the optimum conditions in crayfish ponds, but
considerations could be given to heat exchange methods (e.g. piping in ponds). The
cost may be questionable, but the warm water is available and an experiment may be
worthwhile.
It is reported that the local crayfish population is well distributed and in good
numbers. It should be highlighted to intending producers that the local yabbies and
redclaw don't mix and ponds will need to be kept free of this species if successful
production levels are to be achieved. Fencing and netting of ponds also needs to be
highlighted, as there was some what of a local sceptical reaction to the suggested
destruction by predators, both land-based and birds.
In the short time on the ground, and Graham's comments a local "industry" of 4-6
producers with upwards of 20 ponds may be possible in the next 2 years. The ponds
will be based on both surface and bore water and as well as normal redclaw
production skills. Bore water pond management may require a slightly different
approach.
Cunnamulla is a long way from the coast and some planning needs to be undertaken
to service an "established" redclaw industry in the South-West. The Department has a
real role and this needs to be addressed. I believe Agribusiness (both QDPI&F and
DPI&FE) could and should be involved in the marketing stage of the industry of it
gets off the ground. A "volume" of redclaw from a unique location could be well
suited to a niche marketing exercise.
A third stage of any industry development would be the visiting and exposure of
potential producers to established redclaw enterprises. This could take the form of a
visit to a region of several redclaw enterprises to allow exposure to different
production methods and farm sizes, the QDPI&F could facilitate such a trip in
arranging existing producer contacts. Several interested producers have already
visited one or more enterprises.
Another impression that needs to be addressed is that it is a low-cost industry to
establish, again the typical approach of many about redclaw - dig a hole - throw them
in - and harvest at the end of twelve months. The message about costs and system
management needs to be highlighted and reinforced at the proposed seminar.
However, a couple of individuals impressed me with the seriousness of their
approach.
The issue of aquaculture permits would need to be covered and some suggestion of
where to turn to for assistance and for explanations, again QDPI&F.
INTRODUCTION TO REDCLAW
Clive Jones
Introduction
Freshwater crayfish are relatively common throughout the world, and several species
in the northern hemisphere are utilised for food by way of either wild fisheries or
farming. In the southern hemisphere, there is a single family of freshwater crayfish,
which in Australia represents over 100 species. Most Australians have some
recollection of catching yabbies in the local creek, however, commercial exploitation
of our native crayfish has been quite limited and interest in farming crayfish has
arisen in only the past 10 to 15 years.
The most dramatic introduction to Australia's crayfish is by way of the giant
Tasmanian crayfish (Astacopsis gouldi) which can reach in excess of 4 kilograms,
although such specimens are likely to be very old. Two other relatively familiar
species are the Marron from Western Australia and the true Yabbie from several
states in southern and central Australia. The yabbie, Cherax destructor, is the species
local to the Southwest of Queensland. Considerable quantities of yabbies are taken
from the wild each year, much of which is sold into fish markets in NSW and
Victoria. Farming of both these species is undertaken in various parts of southern
Australia, although total production is relatively small, particularly for marron.
Redclaw (Cherax quadricarinatus), is a warmwater species distributed throughout the
river systems of northern Queensland and the Northern Territory flowing to the Gulf
of Carpentaria. It also occurs in southern parts of New Guinea.
Within this distribution, redclaw inhabits turbid, slow-moving waters usually in claylined billabongs with over-hanging vegetation. Because of the remote distribution,
there was very little interest in redclaw until the early 1980's. Recreational fishing was
limited to isolated areas adjacent to towns and of very little significance. Interest from
an aquaculture perspective has only arisen in recent years.
Historical Perspective
Farming of freshwater crayfish in Queensland began as a carry-over from marron
(Cherax tenuimanus) farming in Western Australia. Despite the involvement of many
farmers over a considerable period, marron farming had achieved little commercial
success. Enterprising farmers from south-east Queensland felt that marron would
perform better in the sub-tropical climate of Queensland. Juvenile marron were
shipped across in 1979, and over several years, a small industry began to emerge
primarily producing juveniles, but in some instances involving several growout
ponds. In 1986, the short-lived success was suddenly terminated as higher than
average summer temperatures killed off the bulk of marron held.
Just prior to the demise of marron in Queensland, several farmers had begun trials
with redclaw which, being a native of the State, they though would be better suited to
the south-east Queensland climate. In an effort to protect their capital investment, all
the surviving marron farmers switched to redclaw. In 1987, the Queensland
Department of Primary Industries Fisheries Branch proposed a two-year research
program to assess the aquaculture potential of redclaw. This research was conducted
at the Fisheries Research Station at Walkamin, adjacent to natural redclaw
populations. The results of this work indicated that redclaw was indeed an ideal
candidate for aquaculture.
With the losses incurred by the Queensland marron farmers, and the general
scepticism concerning aquaculture, development of the redclaw farming industry has
been slow. Nevertheless, those involved are optimistic primarily because this species
possesses so many advantageous characteristics in regard to its biology, the farming
technology required and its marketing. That optimism is now translating into
considerable production and substantial industry growth.
Biological Characteristics
The considerable biological advantages of this species are primarily attributable to its
natural habitat which necessitates broad tolerance of physical extremes. The still
waters of a billabong in north-western Queensland will often display characteristics
which many freshwater species would find lethal. Redclaw thrives in this
environment.
Specific experimentation of growth in relation to temperature indicated tolerance to a
broad range of temperatures. Optimal growth was achieved over the range 23 to 31C
and lethal levels were estimated to be 10 and 35C. By way of comparison, the
temperature/growth relationship of the giant freshwater prawn (or Mitchell River
Prawn), Macrobrachium rosenbergii, indicated a much narrower tolerance to
temperature. The range over which redclaw will grow well represents temperatures
which prevail throughout much of Queensland.
Similar experimentation of salinity tolerance indicated that redclaw will tolerate
reasonably high salinities (up to 12 parts per thousand) for extended periods. This
tolerance has two advantages. Firstly, farming in brackish water may be feasible, and
secondly the physiological impact of saline treatment brings about a significant
improvement in flavour.
Redclaw also display an extraordinary tolerance of low dissolved oxygen
concentrations. Naturally, as with all aquatic species, production is optimal when
dissolved oxygen is close to 100% saturation. However, when dissolved oxygen falls,
redclaw remain active and healthy at concentrations as low as 1 ppm (parts per
million). The physiological mechanism involved is similar to that which operates in
vertebrates, and will sustain the animal for some hours, until oxygen levels are
increased.
Although this characteristic should not preclude good pond management practices, it
is comforting to know that if oxygen levels do drop suddenly, redclaw are likely to
survive. Under similar circumstances, most fish and other crustaceans would suffer
mass mortalities.
Although specific assessment of redclaw's tolerance to other physical parameters has

not been made, it is clear from general experience amongst farmers and researchers,
that this species is broadly physiologically robust and will tolerate extremes that many
other species would find lethal.
Feeding Characteristics
The feeding characteristics of redclaw are also advantageous. Under natural
circumstances redclaw have a broad diet ranging from the simplest organic materials
associated with decaying plant and animal material, the detritus, through to fresh
animal and plant material, when available. The microbial organisms associated with
decaying organic material, primarily fungi and bacteria, are highly nutritious.
Consequently, simple organic materials added to a normal earthen pond environment
where natural microbial populations are present can provide adequate nutrition. To
provide optimal nutrition, a specific feed formulation is necessary. The development
of such a feed for redclaw is one of the primary research activities at present.
Growth Rate
Growth of crayfish is dependant on a process known as moulting. This involves a
sequence of stages including; shedding of the external shell; swelling of the body with
water while the new shell hardens; expelling the water; tissue growth until the new
shell is full; and so the process continues. Newly hatched crayfish moult every few
days, but the frequency slowly diminishes to once every few months in large crayfish.
Newly moulted crayfish which are soft are particularly vulnerable to predation by
other crayfish. For this reason, ample shelter, particularly for juveniles, is essential.
Growth of redclaw is dependant on the prevailing physical conditions (primarily
temperature) and the type of nutrition. In addition, there is considerable variability in
growth rate between individuals. In general terms however, redclaw will achieve a
size of between 50 and 100 grams within twelve months. Although a maximum size in
excess of 400 grams is possible, growth rate slows appreciably after the first 12 to 18
months and commercial production of crayfish larger than 150 grams is currently not
commercially viable.
Increasing growth rate and the uniformity of growth are also primary objectives of
research. Significant gains are likely to be achieved through nutritional research and
selective breeding programs.
Reproduction
The reproductive characteristics of redclaw are well suited to aquaculture. Both males
and females mature at 6 to 9 months of age and will mate and spawn continuously
while suitable temperature conditions prevail. In north Queensland, egg-bearing
females are found year round although there is a considerable decline in reproductive
activity from May through July. For the other nine months, females may have
successive broods.
After mating, the fertilised eggs are carried beneath the tail of the female who
carefully maintains and nurtures them during the incubation. Incubatory period is also
temperature dependent, and may range from 6 to 10 weeks. The number of eggs
carried is dependant on the size of the female and will vary from around 300 to 1,000
per brood.
Life Cycle
The Redclaw life cycle is very simple. From a farming perspective, the technology
involved in accommodating and managing this life cycle can therefore also be simple.
Figure 1 below provides a summary of this cycle. After mating the fertilised eggs are
carefully nurtured for about 6 to 10 weeks at which time they hatch to produce a small
crayfish (about 12mm long) of adult-form, i.e. there is no free-living larval stage.
Figure 1. Diagram of redclaw life cycle.
adults may grow
to over 400g
in 4-5 years
MATING
MATURE ADULTS
rapid growth
6-12 months
simple food
incubation
6 to 10 weeks
HATCHLINGS
adult form
0.02g
300-1000/fem
rapid growth
3 months
JUVENILES
5 to 15g
50 -100/female
The hatchlings grow rapidly when provided with an adequate diet (preferably
zooplankton) and within 3 months will achieve a size of 5 to 15 grams. They are now
past their most vulnerable stage and will feed on detritus and grow to an average of
approximately 70 grams (ranging from 50 to 100g) over the next 6 to 12 months.
During this period they mature and continue the cycle.
10
Disease and Parasites

Several potentially serious disease causing organisms have been identified in redclaw
including a couple of viruses, which could potentially cause major mortalities. This
has been the case with prawn aquaculture, where viruses have caused severe losses
and the demise of large industries. It is clear that the influence of the disease causing
organisms is directly related to crayfish condition. That is, stress-free crayfish, held in
good water quality conditions are unlikely to be affected by disease. Maintenance of
optimal conditions is therefore crucial.
The only other significant health issues are in regard to organisms fouling the shell.
There are a variety of species which will attach themselves to the outer shell or inside
the gill chambers, but most will not cause direct damage. Those occurring most
commonly include species of flat-worms (Temnocephalans), eggs of water bugs and
various protozoans. They can be controlled through pond management or if need be
with a saline bath.
Farming Technology
The biological characteristics of redclaw provide technical advantages in regard to its
cultivation, particularly when considered in comparison with aquaculture of other
species. A significant advantage is conferred simply because the species is physically
robust. It can be handled out of water with little adverse affect and without a
requirement for specialised handling procedures as are often necessary for fish
species. This is particularly advantageous for sampling and moving crayfish around
the farm.
Redclaw breed so readily in normal pond conditions, there is no requirement for
specialised hatcheries with environmental control and intensive management. The
larval phase of the crayfish is entirely contained in the egg, precluding the
requirement for sophisticated larval rearing facilities as are required for prawns and
other species. The entire breeding, hatching and nursery phases can be managed
within an earthern pond system. This permits large scale juvenile production with a
minimum of capital expenditure and minimum of technical expertise.
A specific and highly advantageous characteristic of redclaw in regard to harvesting is
its response to water current. Like many freshwater species, redclaw respond to
moving water by migrating upstream. This response is particularly strong and has
been harnessed by the development of flow traps. These traps are of various designs,
but all work on the principle of attracting crayfish into a trap by way of a water
current.
Summary
It is clear that redclaw is an ideal aquaculture species. It will achieve substantial size,
is attractive in colour and form, has a good flesh recovery rate and compares well in
flavour and texture with the most sought after crustaceans.
11
Its physiological tolerance to extremes of environment is great, particularly in regard

to temperature, dissolved oxygen and salinity. Growth is rapid and sufficient to
achieve a commercially acceptable size within twelve months. Feeding requirements
are such that a relatively cheap diet will enable significant production in the order of
1.5 to 3 tonnes per hectare. The species is relatively non-aggressive and will perform
well at densities of 5 to 10 per square metre. It displays behavioural characteristics
which lend themselves to efficient harvesting practices.
Redclaw can be induced to spawn with relative ease. Handling of broodstock and
incubation of eggs requires no specialised facilities. The larval stage is entirely
contained in the egg which is carefully nurtured by the maternal parent. The
reproductive capacity of the species is relatively high. Juvenile crayfish, although
fragile, are resilient and respond well to intensive pond production with appropriate
food and shelter.
Throughout all stages of the production cycle, crayfish can be handled easily and with
a minimum of specialised procedures and facilities. At this stage, disease and health
are not major issues.
The physical (including climatic) requirements for cultivation of redclaw are broad
and reasonably non-restrictive. The geographic potential for the species is therefore
significant, and extends throughout tropical regions where sufficient water is
available.
12
SITE REQUIREMENTS
Millin Curtis
Site Requirements
The potential of redclaw for aquaculture can only be achieved by providing the right
conditions for good growth and reproduction. Redclaw may survive under poor
conditions, but will not grow rapidly enough to sustain the commercial viability of an
operation.
In reaching a decision of where and how to establish a farm, it is important to
consider all the factors, maximising favourable characteristics and minimising any
negative aspects. There is no such thing as the perfect site for freshwater crayfish
farming.
Site suitability is usually judged on the basis of satisfying given criteria.
Site Suitability Criteria
Climate
Temperature is the most important factor in maximising the growth potential of
redclaw. The site should maximise the period each year when pond temperatures
remain between 23 to 31C. Mortalities may occur if pond temperatures remain below
10C or above 35C for extended periods. Some sub-tropical regions may present
suitable conditions for most of the year, but as per Table 1, low winter and high
summer temperatures may cause some problems. Management strategies which
alleviate these extremes may need to be devised. Besides growth, successful
reproduction also requires sustained periods of warm temperatures.
Water Availability
An abundant supply of good quality water, which can be sourced from a surface
flowing stream, an irrigation channel or from underground is essential for
aquaculture. The supply of water must be guaranteed, even during the most severe
drought.
The quality of the water is just as important as the quantity. Chemical laboratories can
test samples to determine if the sources of an appropriate quality for aquaculture. The
water supply must be free from chemicals such as heavy metals, oils, pesticides,
herbicides, chlorine, methane, hydrogen sulphide, high iron content, and extremes of
pH. High turbidity, caused by suspended silt or clay colloids, should be avoided as it
may inhibit natural pond production and possibly cause stress through deposition on
gills by reducing the ability of the crayfish to respire. Additions of a liming agent and
fertilisers would be routine practice in pond management.
13
Caution should be exercised when the utilisation of surface water is proposed as

present and previous land management practice involving pesticide application is
undesirable. Similarly, upstream discharge of industrial effluents or contamination by
dead livestock would be incompatible with crayfish farming.
Bore water, and sometimes artesian water, can be excellent sources for aquaculture.
Underground supplies are free of pathogens, predators, pollution and have a relatively
constant temperature year round.
The quality of underground water must always be checked as it can be deficient in
oxygen, or contain excessive levels of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide or iron.
Generally, these limitations can be overcome by storing the water in a reservoir and
aerating vigorously prior to use.
Table 2. Preferred range of selected water quality parameters of source water,
for redclaw aquaculture.
Parameter
Acceptable range
Temperature
23 to 31C
Dissolved oxygen
> 5.0 mg/l
pH
6.5 to 8.5
Total alkalinity
> 50 mg/l as CaCO3

< 500 mg/l
Total hardness
> 50 mg/l as CaCO3

< 500 mg/l
Ammonia
< 0.05 mg/l total NH3
Nitrite
< 0.05 mg/l
Turbidity
Nil
Iron
< 0.1 mg/l
Hydrogen sulphide
< 0.002 mg/l
Comments
Growth will be optimised
within this range
Waters should be well

buffered.
Toxicity increases with

rising pH and temperature
Soil Type
In order to hold water, ponds must be constructed from soils containing a high
proportion of clay. If clay soil predominates across a site then ponds can be
constructed with a minimum of earthmoving. If clay soil is only present in pockets, it
may not be cost effective to construct ponds because of the expense of earthmoving.
14
Soil surveys are advisable to determine if there are sand or gravel layers that could
interfere with pond construction or limit water retention.
Soil samples should be taken from any potential sites for pesticide residue analysis as
previous agricultural activity may have involved application of persistent pesticides
which are incompatible with crayfish farming.
Topography
The land should be gently sloping to enable gravity flow of water, minimise pumping
costs and facilitate simplicity of pond construction. The land should not be susceptible
to flooding.
Miscellaneous
Other aspects of site requirements which should be considered include:
Proximity to necessary infrastructure such as workforce, technical expertise,

electricity, supplies (hardware, mechanical, feed, fertiliser), processing
Ability to secure the site against predators and poachers
Desirability of the area as a place to live
Future developments which may impact on crayfish farming
Proximity to both domestic and international markets
15
POND AND CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING ISSUES

Clive Jones, Ian Ross and Colin Bendall
Water Supply
As discussed under Site Requirements, the water supply is one of the most important
requirements for a successful aquaculture project. The source must be guaranteed of
supplying sufficient volume during the most severe drought conditions. Points to
consider include:
Is sufficient volume on-hand to provide pond fill (e.g. for a pond surface area of
1000m2 volume required is approximately 1.2 Ml).
The water supply must be sufficiently reliable to provide year round
replenishment of evaporation and seepage losses. For example, the volume for
evaporation losses for a 1000m2 pond is approximately 2.5 Ml for the Cunnamulla
district.
Is water of suitable quality? See recommendations elsewhere.
Does pond effluent need to be stored as part of discharge permit?
Can water be recycled to reduce volume of water required?
Construction Materials
Materials on site need to be investigated to determine their suitability for pond
construction. Clay soils provide the lowest permeability and therefore little or no
seepage losses. Sandy clay soils may be suitable for pond construction providing steps
are taken to minimise seepage. Sands, silts and structured clays are all quite
permeable and therefore require the installation of clay or synthetic liners.
Pond Design
The layout of the ponds is generally determined by the topography. Factors to be
considered include:
On sloping sites ponds are constructed as hillside storages i.e. banks on three
sides.
On flat sites ponds are constructed as excavated tanks i.e. banks on four sides.
Flat sites are not desirable due to the difficulty in fully draining ponds for
effective harvesting and drying.
Sloping sites provide better pond drainage opportunities by using gravity.
Slopes of around 2 to 5% (1:5m to 1:2m) provide the best storage to excavation
ratio, i.e.the least amount of earthworks to provide the storage required.
Surface drainage may be required to exclude runoff from surrounding areas.
It is important to consider all aspects of the project before commencing pond
construction so that best use of topography and existing facilities can be achieved.
16
Pond Details
Ponds are usually rectangular in shape.

Surface area can vary from approximately 700 to 2000m2, with the average
around 1000m2, i.e. 50m x 20m at water level.
Batters 2.5:1 outside, 2:5:1 inside, for dozer construction.
Batters 2.5:1 outside, 3.5:1 inside, short end, for scraper construction in clay.
If lining is required, 3:1 inside, 2.5:1 outside.
Min Base dimension - 30m x 6m for scraper construction. Smaller bases can be
achieved with dozer construction.
Min Crest width of 2.5m for construction equipment safety on crest.
Base of pond should slope to drainage outlet to allow full drainage of pond.
Recommended depth of 1.2m (shallow end) to 1.8m (deep end).
Inlet pipe around 100mm for fast filling and topping up.
Outlet pipe 200mm diameter (minimum) for effective drain harvest.
Inlet and outlet pipes at opposite ends of pond.
Concrete or loose rock pads are required at inlet and outlet to prevent erosion.
Galvanised steel sheet "Water Rat" wall to be placed around pond - 600mm high.
Predator proof netting supported above ponds by timber posts and steel cable.
Lining Materials
Clay Soils
Strip topsoil and stock pile for placement on constructed embankment.

Construct embankment using suitable clay material with correct moisture content.
Compacted central clay core and cutoff will prevent loss of water through
seepage.
Use thin layers (200mm Max) to be compacted by sheeps foot roller.
Outlet pipe to be installed using baffles around pipe to prevent seepage.
Clay Lining
Is suitable clay material available on site or is cartage from elsewhere required.

If cartage is required - placement and compaction with moisture control may
result in greater cost than synthetic liner e.g. Clay Liner - Walkamin area $7.50/
m3 or $2500 for 1000m2 pond.
Batters 3:1 to 3.5:1 inside to allow spreading and compaction of lining material.
300mm minimum liner thickness.
Minor seepage will still occur with clay lining.
Synthetic lining
Many types and thicknesses available.

Materials - Polythene/P.V.C/HDPE.
Mechanical strength (resistance to puncture and tearing) increases with type and
thickness of material.
Materials come in rolls 1.4 to 8m in width
17
Joining of strips is by hot welding or adhesive tapes.

Priced from $1.10 to $4.00 per square metre depending on material.
Surface to be lined should be free from rocks and sticks.
Sand bedding may be required if soil surface too rough or stony or higher grade of
lining material should be used.
Liner is anchored in excavated trench, approximately 300mm deep at edge of
crest.
HDPE type materials require deeper trench to be located up to 0.5m from edge of
crest to resist expansion / contraction forces.
300mm minimum lining of top soil over liner required to protect liner from U.V.
and to provide a natural environment for crayfish.
Subsurface drainage may be required to prevent soil water pressure from lifting
liner.
Basic steps in Pond Construction

Clear the site area of vegetation, including stumps and roots.
Strip the pond and surrounding bank area of topsoil and stockpile it for later use.
Excavate the core trench in the middle of the proposed surrounding embankments
at least 3 metres wide and at least 0.3 metres deep into impermeable clay beneath
the bank.
Excavate and install the outlet pipes under the proposed embankments ensuring to
carefully compact the backfill clay around the pipes and baffles.
Refill the core trench with layers of compacted clay originating from the excavated
pond, ensuring each successive layer is no more than 0.2 metres thick.
Preferably site construction plant should include a scraper, sheepsfoot roller and
water truck..
Continue construction of the clay core and outer embankment zones until the
design crest height is reached.
Excavate ponds to designed depth and shape, then compact base and sides of pond
with sheepsfoot roller.
Spread a minimum topsoil cover of 100 millimetres over total pond and
surrounding embankment area.
Quickly establish a dense ground cover of suitable holding grass i.e. kikuyu,
couch, pangola, African star etc. on crest and exposed batters of the ponds to
stabilise the soils and reduce erosion.
18
PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES FOR REDCLAW

Clive Jones
Introduction
There is a common misconception that farming of redclaw involves nothing much
more than throwing a few crayfish into a dam. Redclaw aquaculture is an intensive
farming activity requiring daily management of a range of processes. Consequently,
to achieve efficiency and maximise productivity, and therefore maximise success and
profit, the various processes should be streamlined and linked together. A systematic
approach must be taken. Naturally every farm is unique and every farmer has there
own way of doing things. The following concepts are therefore of a general nature
and would need to be modified and adapted to suit each individual farm.
It should be noted that there are many redclaw enthusiasts who have taken a quite
different approach to that outlined here. Their approach generally takes the form of
managing semi-natural populations of redclaw in ponds which are never (or
infrequently) drained. Crayfish are continually harvested by traps and natural
reproduction in the pond takes care of re-stocking. While this approach will produce
crayfish, it is not considered commercially viable as a dedicated farming activity.
For this discussion, I have also deliberately omitted any considerations of postharvest, marketing and business issues, not because they're not important, on the
contrary, they're so important and so numerous, that they justify separate
consideration.
The farming of redclaw can effectively be considered an amalgamation of the
following processes.
Supply of juveniles (farm production, purchased)

Stock management (broodstock, culling, health/disease, predators)
Harvesting (partial, total)
Feeding (what, when, how much, how often)
Pond management (pond preparation, water quality, environment)
Post-Harvest
Marketing
Application of good business principles (book-keeping, costs, income)
To illustrate the development and operation of a redclaw farm I will use a

hypothetical model farm. Naturally for the purposes of this introduction these notes
are quite general. More comprehensive and detailed considerations will be necessary
before embarking on a commercial operation.
I have assumed that a suitable site has been selected as discussed previously. The
model farm includes 40 by 1,000m2 growout ponds (i.e. a production capacity of 4
hectares), 15 by 1,000m2 juvenile production ponds and other facilities as marked in
the diagram.
19
Figure 2. Layout of a hypothetical redclaw farm consisting of forty 1,000m2

production ponds.
GROWOUT
PONDS
SUPPLY
DAM
SETTLING
DAM
JUVENILE PRODUCTION PONDS
The ponds, as discussed previously under 'Pond Construction', should be 1 to 2 metres

deep, with good slope from shallow to deep end, and a large bore drainage pipe at the
deepest point, running through the pond wall. Quick (approximately 24 hours) and
complete drainage is essential.
Farm Layout Considerations
positioning of ponds (optimising use of slope, minimising materials e.g. pipes,

fencing, netting, allowing flexibility for expansion)
position of central facilities (minimise travel distances); tanks (for holding
harvested crayfish), feed storage, general storage, electricity supply, blower,
sorting/packing area, office, etc.)
supply and settling ponds
drainage (gravity drainage of all ponds is recommended)
netting (essential to prevent bird predation)
fencing (essential to prevent rat predation, and to prevent migration of crayfish)
aeration (essential to maintain dissolved oxygen levels and to provide pond
circulation)
Juvenile Supply
20
There are two options for obtaining a supply of juvenile crayfish; purchase them from
another grower, or produce them on the farm. Given the ease with which redclaw will
breed and rear offspring, production on the farm is the usual choice. This may change
in time when specialist juvenile production farms ('hatcheries') with superior genetic
stock are established.
Although a typical female of average size may lay and incubate between 300 and
1,000 eggs, there is considerable attrition before these offspring achieve a size of
between 2 and 20g when they are referred to as advanced juveniles, and are ready for
stocking to growout ponds. As a rule of thumb, each female is considered capable of
producing 50 advanced juveniles per brood.
Juvenile production ponds are usually of the same specification as growout ponds,
although they are managed a little differently, particularly in regard to provision of
suitable shelter and planktonic food. Our model farm ponds of 1,000m2 would
normally be stocked with around 100 mature females and between 25 and 100 males
(carefully selected as the best of the stock available). On the basis of 50 advanced
juveniles per female this pond would therefore produce 5,000 juveniles for stocking to
the growout ponds. This number is suitable for a complete stocking of one growout
pond at 5 crayfish per square metre, a standard stocking density.
Under North Queensland conditions, a juvenile production pond, stocked as specified,
would be ready for harvest in 4 months. Thus, the 15 juvenile production ponds,
producing 3 times per year can supply 45 batches (5,000 in each) of advanced
juveniles per year. This is sufficient, with some excess, for the 40 growout ponds.
This strategy will necessitate a juvenile pond harvest about once every week.
To maximise survival and growth of the juvenile redclaw, an abundance of shelter in
the ponds is essential. This is usually provided in the form of bundles of synthetic
mesh, tied onto a line with a weight at one end and a float at the other. Arranged in
this manner, these bundles extend from the pond floor up into the water column
providing many spaces and surfaces for the juveniles to utilise. In the 1,000m2 model
ponds, at least 200 mesh bundles are required.
Juvenile production ponds are carefully managed to provide an abundance of
planktonic organisms which the juvenile crayfish utilise as food. These planktonic
organisms are the microscopic creatures which live in the water, and include both
plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton). It is primarily the zooplankton
which are consumed by the juvenile crayfish. As they grow, they progressively
consume less plankton and more detrital food which occurs on the surface of the
shelter material and more particularly on the mud surface.
Maintaining high levels of plankton involves regular checking of water quality and
periodic fertilisation of the water.
Harvesting of the juveniles (about 4 months after stocking) can be achieved by a
number of methods. Individual mesh shelters can be removed and the juveniles
shaken out. However, the most effective method is to employ the flow trap, the design
and operation of which is explained elsewhere. With this method, the pond is
21
completely drained and all the crayfish are attracted into a trap. From here they can be
removed to the central tank facility and sorted, counted and then stocked to the
growout ponds. Generally speaking, there will be some excess juveniles. The best (i.e.
the largest and healthiest) should be selected for stocking, and the remainder removed
from the farm (sold to other farms or to the bait market) or destroyed. The juveniles to
be stocked to the growout pond should be transferred to the growout pond late in the
afternoon or early in the evening.
Stock Management
Stock management primarily concerns the growout stage. As mentioned above,
growout ponds are normally stocked with advanced juveniles at around 5/m2. For our
model ponds, this means 5,000 juveniles.
Shelter is again important. For the growout stage some mesh shelters may be used as
well as some of different specification. For our model farm we will use mesh shelters
and 'highrise' shelters made from agricultural drainage pipe. Each highrise shelter
consists of 150mm lengths of 50mm pipe clipped together in a stack 10 wide by 3
high. This will provide adequate shelter for at least 30 crayfish. One hundred mesh
shelters and 100 highrise will be used in each growout pond.
The growout phase would normally be in the order of 12 months. Some farmers
harvest more frequently to enable culling of runts and staging of crayfish into uniform
size groups for further growout. This can be beneficial, but is dependant to some
extent on total number of ponds and available labour. For the purposes of our model
farm we will work on the basis of 12 months growout per pond. Consequently, there
will be 40 growout pond harvests per year, or one approximately every 9 days.
In order to gauge crayfish size (for determining feeding rates) and health/condition (to
ensure pond management is optimal), regular sampling of each growout pond is
recommended. For this model farm we will stipulate 3 samples per year for each
growout pond, meaning a sample every 3 days. The sample can be taken by retrieving
a few of the shelters, or by baited traps. The captured crayfish should be weighed, and
the results used to adjust the feeding schedule. The condition of the crayfish can be
observed with particular attention paid to tail blistering, growths on the shell and
general vitality of the animals. Any problems should be addressed by a review of
water quality and appropriate adjustments.
The 12 month growout period is sufficient for the entire crop to achieve market size
(i.e. >50g). At harvest, the crayfish will initially be sorted into 3 groupings. The
fastest growers, i.e. the largest will be selected out as breeding stock. As indicated
above, about 100 females and up to 100 males will be required per juvenile
production pond. So, the best 100 females and males from the growout harvest will be
used for breeding. All crayfish down to 50g will be separated for market. These may
require further size and quality grading prior to leaving the farm. All crayfish under
50g are considered runts and unwanted juveniles. If they can be sold to other farms or
other markets, well and good. Otherwise they must be destroyed.
22
Another important facet of stock management is prevention or minimisation of

predators. This will primarily be achieved by the netting and fencing installed during
farm construction. However, on-going observation for indications of predator activity
is important. Both water rats and birds will leave tell-tale signs of their presence. Such
signs should prompt closer inspection of nets and fences for holes and gaps etc.. A
small number of predators can achieve significant damage over time. Eels are also a
major concern, but only in coastal areas.
Harvesting
As indicated above, the harvesting timetable involves 45 juvenile production ponds
per year and 40 growout ponds per year. On the basis of continuous year-round
production, there will be a harvest of both a juvenile and growout pond every week to
9 days.
For both juveniles and growout, the flow trap harvesting technique will be employed.
The design and operation of the flow trap is well explained in a video available from
the DPI&F&F (contact Clive Jones). It involves a trap which harnesses the redclaws
strong response to flowing water. It is very efficient and ensures crayfish remain in
optimal condition. The trapping occurs while the pond is being completely drained,
usually overnight.
Harvested crayfish (both juvenile and grown out) are taken from the trap in the pond
immediately to a tank holding facility. The post-harvest procedures of sorting,
grading, re-stocking, or packaging for transport are completed here. Crayfish from the
juvenile production ponds should be sorted quickly and released into a growout pond,
preferably on the same day. This will necessitate previous preparation of a growout
pond (see below).
Feeding
As indicated in the previous discussion of crayfish feeding habit, the food consumed
by post-juvenile and adult crayfish is primarily the decaying organic material on the
pond mud surface, referred to as the detritus. To maximise the availability and
nutritional quality of this food source, organic materials are added to the pond on a
regular basis. This is usually in the form of a pellet.
Nutritional research is proceeding towards developing optimal diets in pellet form. At
present, adequate diets are available from several feed manufacturers throughout the
State. Chicken pellets should be avoided. A specific crayfish pellet with a protein
content of around 20% is recommended.
The amount of feed provided to the pond is based on the biomass, that is, the total
weight of stock in the pond calculated from the number of crayfish and their average
size. At first stocking of growout ponds feed is provided at about 12% of biomass 3
times per week (equivalent to 5% per day). This equates to about 6kg of food for each
feed in the 1,000m2 ponds. As the crayfish grow a smaller percentage of the biomass
is fed, down to about 5% of biomass 3 times per week (equivalent to 2% per day).
Close to harvest, this would mean about 10kg of food at each feed. The schedule
23
prepared is a rough rule of thumb. Adjustments up or down must be made on the basis
of regular observation of ponds for uneaten food, and according to the size of the
crayfish as measured from regular sampling.
For our model farm feed will be purchased in bulk and stored in a small silo.
Approximately 48 tonnes of feed per year would be required. Fresh feed can be
purchased every month, requiring a silo capacity of 4 tonnes. Distribution of feed to
each pond (3 times per week) will be achieved with a small blower mounted on a 4wheel bike. Smaller farms would distribute the feed by hand from a bucket.
Feeding of juvenile production ponds is substantially different to growout ponds.
Planktonic food is required, and a more intensive management of the pond water is
therefore required. Appropriate pond preparation (discussed below) is critical,
followed by frequent assessment of plankton density (secchi disk readings) and
plankton type. The bloom of plankton is maintained through regular applications of
fertilisers, both organic and inorganic. Some application of pellet food to the pond is
also necessary to provide detrital food for the juvenile crayfish as they grow and
change their diet. As a rule of thumb about 2kg 3 times per week would be sufficient.
Pond Management
Management of the pond is primarily an issue of water quality management. Some
understanding of the chemical and biological dynamics of pond water is required. The
parameters which are generally measured and managed include pH, dissolved oxygen,
plankton density, water temperature, alkalinity, hardness, ammonia and nitrite. Table
3 below gives some further details of these parameters and their measurement.
Adjustment of the these parameters when they move outside the optimal range may
involve additions of various materials such as fertiliser or lime, or flushing of the
pond with new water. Dissolved oxygen levels are maintained by aeration. This can
be achieved using a variety of mechanical devices. Our preferred method for the
model farm is using airlift aerators. Briefly, this involves running low pressure air
from a mechanical blower to the ponds, injecting the air into the base of PVC pipes
which are held onto the pond floor with a weight. The air rises to the surface, thereby
holding the pipe up at the surface, and water is displaced out of the top. The action of
the airlift provides oxygenation of the water and circulation.
24
Table 3. Water quality parameters, their preferred range and measurement for
redclaw aquaculture.
Parameter
pH
Dissolved
Oxygen
Plankton
density
Temperature
Alkalinity
Hardness
Ammonia
Nitrite
Description
acid/alkaline
balance
Oxygen
dissolved in
the water
Abundance of
plankton
Maximum &
minimum
Buffering
capacity of
water
Concentration
of Ca and Mg
Toxic waste
product
Toxic byproduct
Optimal
Range
7.0 to 8.5
> 4.0ppm, or
> 80% satur.
Measuring
Device
pH meter, or
test kit
Dissolved
oxygen meter
Frequency of
Measurement
1 to 3 x/week
(am)
1 to 3 x/week
(am)
30 to 70cm
Secchi disk
1 to 3 x/week
Max. 31C
Min. 20C
>40ppm
Max/min
thermometer
Test kit, or lab
analysis
1 x/week
>40ppm
1 x/year
<1.0ppm
Test kit, or lab

analysis
Test kit
<1.0ppm
Test kit
as necessary
1 x/year
as necessary
Other aspects of pond management include pond preparation, checking of source

water and pond drying. Pond preparation mainly involves additions of lime, and
inorganic and organic fertilisers. A typical application for the model ponds may be
100kg of lime, 20kg DAP and 150kg of lucerne chaff. However, the application rates
will vary in relation to each ponds' soil characteristics. Once these materials are added
the pond is filled and then left for about a week prior to stocking with juveniles.
Depending on the source of the water used for the farm, annual or more frequent
assessment of the source waters' quality should be made, particularly for pesticide
residues and other potentially toxic materials (e.g. heavy metals). Such analysis would
be conducted by a laboratory.
Good pond management should include regular drying of the pond soil. For both the
juvenile production ponds and the growout ponds, one to two weeks of drying prior to
the next stocking is required.
Outcome
Given the strategies suggested here, a production rate of between 1,500 and 3,000kg
per hectare (i.e. 150 to 300 kg/pond) may be achieved. Newly constructed ponds tend
to have relatively low production, improving substantially over the first few seasons.
As research work generates better feed, and management practices, further gains
beyond 3,000kg/ha are likely.
25
It should be clear from these notes that redclaw farming is an intensive farming
activity which requires daily attention, a broad range of skills and knowledge and a
commitment to a range of principles. If this approach is adopted, the potential returns
can be very attractive (see Economics section).
Because of the skills and knowledge required, those interested in starting a redclaw
farming operation should obtain as much information as possible. Crayfish farming
Associations operating throughout the State will provide access to existing farmers
whose experience will assist those new to this enterprise.
26
FARM MANAGEMENT
Clive Jones
I have defined 7 steps to a systematic approach to redclaw farm management.
1. Your Objective
Firstly, if you're serious about a systems approach to farming, you need to have set
some overall Objective, a Mission Statement which sums up what you plan to
achieve.
This objective might be something like:
To create and operate a redclaw farm where facilities and operations are organised
to optimise efficiency and to maximise output of premium product and financial
return.
2. Recognising the Processes
Next, you need to recognise the various processes which collectively make-up
redclaw farming.
Supply of juveniles (farm production, purchased)

Stock management (broodstock, culling, health/disease, predators)
Harvesting (partial, total)
Feeding (what, when, how much, how often)
Pond management (pond preparation, water quality, environment)
Post-Harvest
Marketing
Application of good business principles (book-keeping, costs, cash flow, repairs &
maintenance)
3. Developing the Strategy

The third step is to develop a strategy of how you plan to carry out these processes.
For example your strategy for supplying juveniles to your farm may be to produce
100,000 x10g male only crayfish in your own dedicated juvenile production ponds
each year on a continuous basis. Strategies for all the processes should be defined.
i) Farm Layout (see Figure 2)
positioning of ponds (optimising use of slope, minimising materials e.g. pipes,

fencing, netting, allowing flexibility for expansion)
position of central facilities (minimise travel distances); tanks, feed storage,
general storage, electricity supply, blower, sorting/packing area, office, etc.)
supply and settling ponds
drainage
27
netting
fencing
aeration
ii) Juvenile Production
produced on farm
farm requires 200,000 advanced (5-20g) juveniles per year (based on stocking
densities given below)
farm requires 4,000 breeding females (+ appropriate number of males) to generate
juveniles (based on production of 50 advanced juveniles per female)
breeding ponds to be stocked at 100 females (25 to 100 males)(to generate 5,000
advanced juveniles)
juveniles to be sold only if excess available
iii) Stock Management
breeding and growout will be managed as separate processes

broodstock will be actively selected from each growout harvest (i.e. best 100
female and male)
everything under 15g at growout harvest will be destroyed/discarded
crayfish 15 to 50g sold to juvenile market (e.g. other farmers or overseas)
all crayfish 50g + to be sold to market, all year round
health and disease status will be monitored
predation proofing will be applied
iv) Harvesting
growout ponds to be harvested by total drainage and flow-trapping (once every

year)
breeding ponds to be harvested by total drainage and flow-trapping (every 3
months)
pond water directed to settling pond, re-used
v) Feeding
good quality pellets to be used (15-20% protein)

feed to be stored in bulk silo (4 tonne capacity)
feed purchased in bulk
requirement for 48 tonnes of feed per year (based on feed conversion ratio of 4,
and production rate of 3 tonnes per hectare)
vi) Pond Management
pond preparation to include liming (100kg/pond), DAP (20kg/pond), lucerne chaff

(150kg/pond)
water quality will be measured in all ponds including pH, dissolved oxygen and
secchi (3x/wk), hardness and alkalinity (once/yr), ammonia and nitrite (as
necessary)
28
water quality of source water will be measured annually by full analysis, including
pesticides and heavy metals
the pond environment will be maintained by keeping pond depth at full, regular
additions of fertiliser, or flushing as determined by water quality
ponds will be dried for at least 2 weeks between crops
4. Allocating Resources
Your strategies should be realistic in regard to the resources you have on hand, e.g.
ponds, water supply, capacity to handle crayfish etc. Your resources must be allocated
in a way which makes optimal use of them. For example, it is not much use producing
200,000 juveniles if you have no facility to handle them or there are no ponds ready to
be stocked.
Ponds. Each breeding pond to be managed to produce juveniles for one growout
pond. Harvesting breeding ponds every 4 months (3x/yr). 15 breeding ponds will
service 40 growout ponds, with some excess. It is important to note here that even
though there are 55 ponds, only 40 (4ha) are for growout production, and
production rates are based on these.
Water. 5.5 hectares of water (including all ponds) at 1.5m average depth = 82,500
cubic metres = 82.5 Megalitres. Anticipate evaporative loss of 2.5 metres per year
(for South-West Qld.) = 137.5ML. Harvesting each growout pond once per year =
60ML. Harvesting each breeding pond 3 times per year = 67.5ML. Plus seepage
and other uses = 10ML. Water required 297.5ML for the first year, and 215ML/yr
for successive years. Factor water required into supply dam size, pump capacity
etc. Clearly, savings can be made by re-using water at harvest.
Air Blower, sufficient to run 6x100mm airlifts per pond, i.e. approximately
33,000l/min capacity
Habitats. Highrise and mesh bundles. Minimum of 100 of each per pond.
Flowtrap. One is sufficient. Possibly a second with different specifications for
juvenile harvesting.
Scoopnets
Crates, enough to handle at least one total harvest (300kg), at 10kg per crate = 30
crates.
Tanks, enough to hold at least one total harvest (300kg), at 10kg/m2 = 30m2. 6
tanks 2.5m diameter.
Feed, silo with 4 tonne capacity
Buckets, sufficient for feed distribution
Scales, for weighing harvested crayfish and feed quantities, maximum capacity
50kg
Balance, for weighing individual crayfish
Water quality equipment, pH meter, dissolved oxygen meter, secchi disk, reagent
test kits for hardness, alkalinity, ammonia, nitrite.
Store-room, for fertiliser, hay/chaff, lime, boxes, general equipment
5. Setting Timetables
Because there is a certain amount of predictability to growth rates of crayfish, or
preparation time for new ponds etc., it is both possible and extremely desirable to map
29
out activities in relation to time. For example, if the strategy is to provide 50 to 90g
crayfish to the market all year round, then a harvesting timetable which permits this is
essential.
Juvenile Production, all year round

Stock Management, sampling growout ponds 3x per year each, to check
health/condition and to gauge size (relate back to feeding rate)
Harvesting, each of 15 breeding ponds to be harvested 3 time per year, i.e.
approximately 1 every week; each of 40 growout ponds to be harvested once per
year, i.e. approximately every 9 days
Feeding, feed purchased in bulk every month to maintain freshness/quality. Feed
provided every day at dusk. Feed silo cleaned out once per year to prevent fungal
contamination
Pond Management, water quality measured twice per week (pH, DO, secchi).
Aeration provided midnight to 8am
6. Identifying Assessment Criteria and Standards

To ensure that all activities and processes are operating optimally, you need standards
against which to measure your performance. It should be possible to set some criteria
or value for most processes on the farm. An obvious example is water quality. You
should already be aware that dissolved oxygen should always be above 4 parts per
million, or that pH should be between 7.0 and 8.5. Similarly, standards should be set
on all processes.
Juvenile Production, minimum of 5,000 5 to 15g juveniles to be produced from

each breeding pond
Stock Management, Broodstock selected - lively, >120g (at 12 months age),
colour etc.; Growout stock health/condition - external growths, tail blistering,
disease symptoms; Growout production of 150 to 300 kg per pond
Harvesting, percentage of crayfish caught by flowtrap Vs percentage left behind
(95:5), number of mortalities, time taken to retrieve harvested crayfish
Feeding, quality of feed - fungal growth, odour, clumping, dust. Quantity of feed
per pond based on prepared schedule, adjusted relative to sampling results
Pond Management, water quality levels (pH 7.0-8.5, DO >4.0, secchi 50-70cm,
hardness/alkalinity 20-100ppm, ammonia/nitrite <1.0ppm), blue-green or other
algae
7. Assessing Performance
This is clearly the next step after identifying assessment criteria. It revolves around
good record keeping. Measuring and recording all processes so they can be compared
against the assessment criteria previously set. For example, the quantity of feed used
for a particular pond. If optimal feeding efficiency is desired, some measure of the
feed required to achieve a certain crop size is essential, if adjustments are to be made
in search of improvement.
Measuring of performance is all about feedback. Processes/parameters are measured
or observed in relation to the criteria and standards set. Where a discrepancy occurs,
30
some action should be taken. For example, pH is greater than 9.0, flush the pond.
Hardness is less than 20ppm, add lime. The flowtrap catches only 80% of the crop,
review the procedure.
Conclusion
This listing is reasonably comprehensive, but is by no means the whole story.
However, it should give you a start in developing your own systematic approach to
redclaw farming.
Some of you may have recognised that this Systems Approach is similar to the
concept of Total Quality Management (TQM), and that the setting of criteria and
standards to measure performance is effectively Quality Assurance (QA). It's true, just
different terminology.
The practices of TQM and QA are most commonly applied to the post-harvest and
market sectors. Whatever they may be called, the value of these philosophies for the
production chain is also clear. Many farmers may suggest that this Systems Approach
is too involved and impractical. It has to be something you as a farmer are committed
to and feel comfortable with. I accept that many of the aspects I have covered might
be observed rather than measured, and might be remembered rather than written
down. Nevertheless, the likelihood of achieving your objective, your mission, will be
vastly improved if a methodical, clearly defined systematic approach is applied.
31
WATER QUALITY
Millin Curtis
A basic understanding of some of the properties and dynamics of the pond water is
essential for maximising crop yield. Measurement of water quality does not replace
observation of the crayfish stock, but provides additional data to foster informed
decision making. The quality of water in ponds has a direct effect on crayfish health
and performance. If water quality deteriorates, crayfish become predisposed to
retarded growth, disease and migration. Proper management of the water commences
with pond preparation and continues throughout the life of the pond. Good pond
managers will be able to predict when water quality deterioration may occur and take
remedial action. Reacting to poor water conditions as they occur or after the fact is
not good practice.
Pond Preparation
Liming
Liming deals with problems associated with the acid - base relationship in soils or
water. Liming is not fertilising but may increase the response of fertilisation by
mobilising nutrients.
Table 4. Liming and non-liming compounds used for aquaculture ponds.
Formula
CaCO3
Compound
Common Names
Agricultural
limestone
Ca(OH)2
Calcium Hydroxide
Hydrated lime
Builders lime
Slaked lime
Caustic lime
CaO
Calcium Oxide
Quick lime
Unslaked lime
Burnt lime
CaMg(CO3)2 Calcium Carbonate /
Dolomite
Magnesium Carbonate Calmag
blend
CaSO4.2H2O Calcium Sulphate
Gypsum
Al2(SO4)3
Calcium Carbonate
Aluminium Sulphate
Alum
Neutralising Value
(%)
100
136
179
109
nil
nil
The neutralising value of agricultural lime depends upon the fineness of the particles.
Finer particles cause a stronger pH response. Agricultural lime has an arbitrary
neutralising value of 100, against which all other liming agents are compared.
32
Hydrated lime is caustic and care should be taken where there is potential for
exposure to the skin or eyes. It can be used to remove high carbon dioxide levels
commonly experienced after plankton crashes or in bore water. Quick lime is highly
caustic and can easily burn the skin, particularly if there is any perspiration. If applied
to water, this material will generate bubbles as it transforms to calcium hydroxide.
Detoxification of very acid pond bottoms is best achieved by applying quick lime to
moist mud. Dolomite is a calcium-magnesium carbonate blend. Besides effective
liming, this product provides magnesium in addition to calcium, necessary for shell
growth.
Gypsum is a good source of calcium but will not effect pH. Application of gypsum is
useful when the water is deficient in calcium (soft water) but has a high pH.
Outcomes of liming ponds include:
pH of the water is raised to acceptable levels for crayfish production

pH of the mud substrate is raised so that important nutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium are mobilised and produce plankton blooms
the alkalinity or buffering capacity of pond waters is increased, preventing large
daily swings in the pH value. Increased alkalinity has been attributed to significant
production increases in penaeid prawn culture. Many people incorrectly use the
term 'alkaline' to refer to non-acid waters, although alkaline waters commonly
have a higher pH
calcium (and magnesium) are provided as a nutrient source. These nutrients are
essential for shell growth
the decomposition process of organic matter is accelerated, providing a potential
food source more rapidly
pond bottoms are detoxified between growout cycles. A build up of uneaten feeds
and crayfish wastes on the pond bottom contributes to anaerobic conditions in the
substrate. Liming in conjunction with sun drying effectively conditions ponds for
re-use.
Lime requirements
The amount of lime required during pond preparation is complex and dependent upon
many factors. The two main factors are pH of the bottom mud (this can be quite
different from pond or source water pH) and soil type (Figure 3). Mud pH can be
determined by inserting a pH probe directly into a well mixed solution containing
equal parts of distilled (but not de-ionised) water and mud. The more acidic the mud,
the more lime it will require. Similarly, heavier soils will require more lime than
sandy soils. If the selected rate is adequate, total alkalinity and hardness will remain
above 20 mg/l CaCO3 after 3 or 4 weeks.
33
Figure 3. Estimating agricultural lime application rate. (modified from Boyd,

1990).
kg/ha
16000
14000
heavy loam
or clay
12000
10000
8000
sandy
loam
6000
sand
4000
2000
0
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
pH OF MUD
Fertilisers
Fertilisers can increase the productivity of a pond. The two types of fertilisers are :
Chemical: these are compounds that dissolve in water releasing nutrients

Organic: these are manures or agricultural by-products that slowly release
nutrients when decomposing
Phosphorus is the main limiting nutrient in most aquaculture systems. Lime should be
added to ponds well before phosphate based fertilisers to displace phosphates from
colloidal mud. Nitrogen is the second most limiting nutrient. Application of a
fertiliser that contains a good balance of both these nutrients will increase the
likelihood of establishing and maintaining a good plankton bloom. The appropriate
amount of fertiliser to add to each pond is largely dependent upon the available
nutrient content of the existing soil. Variation of conditions between and within farms
precludes any "recipe approach" to pond fertilising. Initial applications of around 200
kg/ha of DAP and various amounts of lucerne pellets, chaff and chicken manure hung
in sacks have been successfully used at Walkamin to promote plankton growth.
Fertilising should not be carried out when overcast weather inhibits phytoplankton
growth as nutrients will become bound in the bottom mud. Blooms take 9 to 14 days
to peak at about 35 to 60 cm secchi depth at Walkamin. Subsequent fertiliser
applications become necessary when blooms drop below about 70 cm.
34
Managing plankton
Ponds are fertilised to stimulate a phytoplankton bloom that provides an abundant
food source for zooplankton to feed on. Phytoplankton are the microscopic plants
(algae) inhabiting the water column that give the pond colour, provided there is no
interference from clay turbidity. A secchi disk may be used to measure plankton
density. There are many advantages of maintaining phytoplankton communities in
ponds. Like all plants, the phytoplankton photosynthesise to generate oxygen in the
presence of sunlight. Due to higher oxygen levels, ponds with healthy phytoplankton
blooms can support a greater biomass of crayfish than clear ponds. Phytoplankton can
raise the pH to levels more conducive to crayfish culture and the dark shading cover
that it provides may encourage foraging behaviour outside of regular feeding times.
Zooplankton are microscopic animals that can sometimes be seen moving around the
pond in cloud-like formations. Zooplankton numbers will rapidly increase until there
is no more available food. Re-fertilising the pond to provide nutrients for
phytoplankton before they become eaten out by zooplankton will cause an
equilibrium to occur between the two communities (Figure 4). Zooplankton may also
feed on the microbial communities associated with organic matter. Zooplankton is an
excellent source of cheap natural food that is nutritious for crayfish, especially
juveniles.
Figure 4. Typical changes in plankton density after pond filling in well managed
ponds.
fertilise
High
PLANKTON
DENSITY
phytoplankton
zooplankton
fertilise
Low
1
TIME (weeks)
Bacteria populations proliferate in the presence of organic matter. However, bacterial
breakdown of organic matter reduces oxygen levels substantially. Organic matter
additions should only be undertaken when oxygen levels can be maintained at
acceptable levels.
35
Pond dynamics
The changes to water quality conditions in a pond over a 24 hour period can be quite
dramatic. The following figures illustrate typical changes to the most important water
quality parameters - temperature (Figure 5), pH (Figure 6) and dissolved oxygen
(Figure 7).
Crayfish growth is largely dependent upon temperature. Redclaw have a broad
temperature range over which close to maximum growth occurs. A maxima-minima
thermometer can be used to measure the temperature range over any time period.
These cost about $30 and can be purchased from any scientific supplies. Temperature
(and all other water quality parameters) should be measured just above the pond
bottom, where crayfish predominantly occur.
Figure 5. Typical water temperatures over 24 hours in a redclaw pond in north
Queensland during summer.
Temperature (C)
30
28
LIGHT
DARK
26
24
22
20
dawn
noon
dusk
midnight
dawn
Morning temperatures in the pond steadily rise from just after daybreak reaching their
peak around dusk and then steadily decline throughout the night until dawn. Water
density is dependent upon temperature. Ponds become thermally stratified when the
water is not well mixed and the bottom is appreciably colder and denser than the top.
Installation of a series of air-lift pumps serviced by a blower is a cost effective
method of de-stratifying ponds.
pH may be quite low before dawn (Figure 6). On a sunny day, a steady increase will
occur after dawn as phytoplankton remove carbon dioxide from the water during
photosynthesis. The pH will remain high after sunset until the effects of plant and
36
animal respiration result in net carbon dioxide production, causing a steady decline in
pH until dawn.
Low pH levels can be treated by liming and dangerously high pH levels can be
reduced by flushing. The addition of organic matter can also reduce pH as acids are
released during decomposition. However, this may reduce oxygen to dangerously low
levels and may contribute to shell staining.
Figure 6. Typical pH levels over 24 hours in a redclaw pond in north
Queensland. Levels are given for low alkalinity (<20ppm) and high alkalinity
(>50ppm) water.
pH
Low Alkalinity
Moderate Alkalinity
dawn
noon
dusk
midnight
dawn
One of the dangers of high pH levels in ponds that have a large crayfish biomass and
high feeding rates, is ammonia toxicity. The major source of ammonia is from
crayfish excreta. Ammonia exists in two basic forms, unionised (NH3-highly toxic)
and ionised (NH4). As a general rule of thumb, ammonia toxicity increases tenfold
with every one unit rise in pH and doubles with every 10 degree Celsius rise in
temperature. Potential danger situations occur in the late afternoon or evening when
temperature and pH are elevated. This problem may be exacerbated in poorly buffered
ponds, where daily pH swings are greater. Documented studies indicate that ammonia
concentrations as low as 0.09 mg/l may reduce growth in freshwater crustaceans. An
average quality pH meter will cost around $200.
37
Figure 7. Typical dissolved oxygen levels over 24 hours in a redclaw pond in

north Queensland.
DO (mg/l)
LIGHT
dawn
noon
DARK
dusk
midnight
dawn
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is lowest in the morning and steadily rises to a peak in the
late afternoon - evening (Figure 7). Clearly, the potential danger period for crayfish is
during the night and very early morning.
Although redclaw are extremely hardy and can survive long periods at very low DO
concentrations, commercial growth rates cannot be achieved under these conditions.
DO levels should be maintained above 5 mg/l. Natural oxygen generation from wind
and phytoplankton is insufficient to sustain long term commercial production of a
large biomass of redclaw. Supplementary aeration should be provided. Supplying
oxygenated new water while discharging poorer quality bottom waters will provide
some relief to crayfish when DO levels drop.
DO meters are very expensive (at least $1500 for a reliable one) and require regular
maintenance. DO should be measured very early in the morning as this is when it is
lowest. A low oxygen situation may be indicated by crayfish rolling on their side in
shallow water exposing their gills to the air-water interface, crayfish emerging from
the water, or dead animals found in baited traps. Pond DO concentrations are most
often lowest on the bottom, where the crayfish live.
38
Conditions which commonly occur before a potential oxygen crash are hot, still,
cloudy days where there is little oxygen generation from phytoplankton or mixing of
the water column and elevated temperatures reduce the ability of the water body to
contain dissolved oxygen. Plankton die-off will also result in a reduction in available
oxygen as bacteria use large quantities of DO to decompose the dead plankton.
Additions of excess organic matter will cause the same result.
Record Keeping
Keeping accurate records of water quality measurements for each pond is an effective
way to rapidly increase understanding of pond dynamics. It also assists you to become
proficient at predicting deterioration of water quality by comparing with conditions
and outcomes previously recorded. Prevention is cheaper than cure.
39
REDCLAW ECONOMICS
Andrew Hinton and Clive Jones
This paper was prepared originally for a farm diversification project for Atherton
Tablelands farmers. The project named 'Choices', examined alternative crops for
Tobacco farmers. While specific reference is made to conditions prevailing in the
Mareeba-Dimbulah district, the economic analysis is applicable to redclaw
aquaculture throughout its existing range of operation in Australia. Costs are in
Australian dollars as at 1994.
Summary
At present the redclaw industry in Australia is undergoing rapid change as it expands
and is still at an infant stage. This analysis is based on data collected from existing
redclaw farms. Census data was used to help prepare profitability figures for model
redclaw farms that have 53 ponds with each pond measuring an area of 750m2 which
is equivalent to 4 hectares of pond area. According to existing farmers this size
operation is considered sufficient to support a family-based operation.
Two model redclaw farms are presented in this paper. Many farms from the MareebaDimbulah region have sandy soils and it is recommended that these farms use pond
lining. Farms with clay based ponds do not require lining since levels of water
seepage is usually low. Pond lining is expensive and for this reason two scenarios are
presented - a model farm with pond lining and one without pond lining.
To set up a redclaw farm with 53x750m2 ponds costs $376,012 including pond liners
and $217,078 without pond lining. These large up-front costs plus the uncertainty that
is associated with a new industry presents barriers for new entrants. The large
establishment costs may however be reduced through the use of existing land,
equipment and using alternative pond designs. If existing farms are able to use
existing capital equipment for redclaw farming then opportunity costs (value of next
most profitable use) rather than new values need to be incorporated. Capital costs for
items such as sheds, vehicles, electricity connection and workshop equipment would
also need to be adjusted.
Payback periods of between eight and twelve years are necessary using the model
redclaw farms. The longer payback period applies for farms requiring pond lining.
The costs of producing redclaw for the model farms were $9.30/kg and $7.87/kg with
and without pond lining respectively. Included in these costs was an allowance for
family labour and depreciation. At present the average price received is about
$10.00/kg. After allowing for growing and overhead costs there are low margins for
both model farms. A competitive advantage exists for farms that can produce redclaw
without lining ponds compared to those that need pond lining.
Variable costs for both model farms represented about $0.62/kg. Overhead costs were
$7.87/kg for farms without pond liners and $8.68/kg for farms with pond liners.
40
Economies of size are significant due to the large overheads involved. As total pond
areas increase the overhead costs per kilogram decrease. By expanding the operation
to six hectares reduces total production costs to $8.44/kg and $7.00/kg, representing
savings of $0.24/kg and $0.87/kg with and without pond liners respectively. Negative
returns to capital and management result if pond areas are less than 3.6 hectares for
farms required to line ponds compared to 2.6 hectares for remaining farms.
The model farms were unprofitable with reductions in farm-gate prices below
$9.40/kg or $7.90/kg with and without pond lining respectively. There exists a
competitive advantage of about $1.50/kg for farms with ponds located on clay based
soils that do not require pond lining compared to those that require lining.
Based on the 53x750m2 model pond farm with pond liners it is estimated that an
improvement in yield by 10% would double the return to management. For remaining
farms the return to management would improve by 50%. Farms that require pond
lining require a yield improvement of about 15% to obtain similar levels of returns to
management as remaining farms.
Introduction
Since the redclaw industry is at such an infant stage with few growers it is difficult to
derive a typical redclaw farm. Significant variations exist between farms with each
farm having unique soils, location, management and size. For this reason the
following analysis uses parameters, that according to several growers in the Far North
Queensland, are considered to be conservative and representative.
Three existing growers were consulted by DPI&F&F to help develop the following
economic analysis. All these grower's farms are located on the Queensland coast
south of Innisfail. Soils and water costs for the farms consulted are significantly
different from potential farms in the Mareeba-Dimbulah region. Farms on the coastal
region south of Innisfail have clay based soils and access to either creek or bore
water. The Mareeba-Dimbulah region has generally sandy soils with access to
irrigation channel supply. Such differences meant altering the capital and operating
costs.
Pond lining would be necessary if the farm ponds are located on sandy soils to
prevent excessive seepage. The capital cost of pond lining is high and places farms
with sandy soils in the Mareeba-Dimbulah district at a competitive disadvantage to
those on clay soils. Methods used to line ponds may vary depending on the pond site.
In the analysis that follows two scenarios are presented; a farm with pond lining and a
farm without pond lining. Both farms are 4 hectares in pond area (8 ha total farm area
required) considered to be sufficient to support a family-based operation by existing
growers on the north coast.
Results
The results of the analysis are presented as follows:
41
Cost of production and profitability for 53x750m2 pond model redclaw farms with
and without pond lining.
Sensitivity analysis to show what effect changes in prices received and yields
have on profitability for the 53x750m2 pond model farms.
Cost of production and profitability for varying pond areas for farms with and
without pond lining.
Costs of production and profitability

Costs presented in the analysis can be broken down into variable and overhead costs,
each are defined as follows:
Variable costs. Variable costs consist of the following:
Feed
Dolomite
Fertiliser
The following estimates are based on actual costs incurred by existing redclaw farms
on the coast with the exception for water charges which are adjusted for the MareebaDimbulah region.
Feed. The different feed conversion ratios and the variety of feeds available make this
estimate difficult to calculate. Feed costs may vary between $400/t and $800/t. For the
purpose of this analysis $430/t was used based on recommendations by DPI&F
technical officers. Table 5 summarises the feed cost calculation for the model farm in
a steady-state situation which is achieved by the end of year 3.
Dolomite and fertiliser. Fertiliser used in the ponds will assist in the development of a
rich microbial flora and fauna, adjusts the pH level and water hardness. The rate of
application, particularly for newly constructed ponds, is dependent on local
conditions. The rate used in this analysis is $200/ha dolomite and $100/ha fertiliser
(DAP, hay, liquid fertiliser) each year.
Table 5. Estimated feed costs for a model redclaw farm with 53 x 750m2 ponds.
Item
2.109
Production of redclaw (t/ha/yr)*
Total production of redclaw (t/yr)
8.44
Feed conversion ratio (feed
1.3:1
required:animal sold)
Feed consumed (t/yr)
10.97
Cost of feed @ $430/t ($/yr)
$4,717
*Calculated for total pond area (equivalent to 2.5t/ha growout pond)
Overhead costs. Overhead costs consist of the following (see Figure 8):
42
Allowance for owner's unpaid labour

Hired labour
Administration
Fuel and oil
Electricity
Water charges
Repairs and maintenance
Depreciation
Interest on capital invested
Allowance for owner's unpaid labour. This allowance is a reward to the owner for the
labour and management of the farm. The figure of $25,000 is used.
Hired labour. Permanent casual and permanent hired labour is required for various
farm sizes. Table 6 below shows the hired labour allocations assumed for various
farm size groupings. An additional amount of labour was allocated for the initial
construction of the farm.
Table 6. Allocation and costs of hired labour for redclaw farms of varying size.
Type of hired labour
None required
Permanent casual
Permanent casual
Permanent
Range of total pond area

(ha)
< 3.1
3.1 - 4.0
4.1-6.0
>6.0
Allowance ($)
4,000
15,000
25,000
Administration costs. Included in administration costs are rates, bank fees,

accountancy fees, telephone and licences. An estimate of $4,700 is used.
Fuel and oil. Fuel and oil are used to operate the farm tractor and utility. This
estimate will vary on management style, size of machinery and price of fuel. This
analysis assumes the price of diesel is 65 cents/litre and that 321 litres are used per
month. The overall cost of fuel per year is estimated to be $2,504.
Electricity. Electricity is used for operating pumps, driving the aeration units in the
ponds plus lighting and workshop equipment. An annual rate of $5,600 is used (based
on $1,400/ha).
Water charges. Water is assumed to be supplied from the irrigation channel and is
pumped to the farm. The cost of water supply is based on 20 ML/ha being used each
year at a cost of $30/ML. This amounts to a cost of $2,400/yr.
Repairs and maintenance. The cost of repairs and maintenance to farm machinery,
earthworks and buildings was based on farmer estimates. A value of $3,000 is used.
43
Depreciation and interest. Based on the discounted cash flow used in this analysis an
annual depreciation and interest cost was calculated from the replacement value of
farm assets. The depreciation and interest cost represents an annuity or payment of
equal instalments for capital in 1994 dollars. Table 7 lists the major capital costs for
establishing a redclaw farm. The total cost of establishment for year 0 is shown at the
bottom of the table.
The analysis assumes that all capital items need to be purchased at the start of the
project. If existing farms can use equipment already owned for redclaw farming then
opportunity costs rather than new values need to be incorporated. These opportunity
costs represent the values of the items based on their next most profitable alternative.
Table 7. Total capital costs for a model redclaw farm with 53 x 750m2 ponds.
Capital item
Earthworks1 (ponds and channels)
Pond lining2
Land3
Roads (access roads)
Shed (20ftx20ft)
Pond fencing (zincalume)
Piping (incl. trenches and fittings)
Bird netting (incl. posts)
Electricity (3 phase)
Holding tank (incl. plumbing)
Habitat
Blower/air lift pumps
Pond inlet filter
Bait trap
Scales
Bins/flow traps
Meters (pH,O2 etc.)
Workshop equipment
Tractor and slasher
Utility 4x4
Bearing females/juveniles4
Total including pond liners
Total excluding pond liners
New value
($)
80,000
158,933
8,000
3,000
8,000
12,020
8,000
11,000
8,000
3,333
5,333
3,600
400
417
500
1,000
2,100
1,000
10,000
20,000
31,375
Scrap
value
(%)
20
100
30
10
100
10
10
10
20
20
10
10
20
40
-
Years of purchase
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0,10
0
0
0,10
0,10
0,2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18
0
0,5,10,15
0,5,10,15
0,5,10,15
0,5,10,15
0
0,5,10,15
0
376,012
217,078
1 Based on a contract rate of $1,500 per 750m2 pond to depth of 1 m.

2 Pond lining for the model farm is based on one layer of PVC lining with sand, located on the farm, used as an underlay and
covering above the liner. To line the 750m2 pond to a depth of 1 metre costs about $3,000. This cost includes liner, labour and
sump construction.
3 Based on 8 hectares to yield 4 hectares of ponds. This makes provision for pond walls, drains, access roads and buildings. The
value of $1,000/ha is the opportunity cost (value) of the next most profitable alternative.
4 Bearing females and juveniles represent the initial stocking of the ponds. See the Appendix for stocking details.
Depreciation and interest are estimated to be $34,697 and $18,214 for farms with and
without pond lining, respectively.
Discounted cash flow analysis is used to determine the annual cost of production and
profitability of redclaw farming. A characteristic of redclaw farming is that the costs
44
and returns they give rise to are spread out over time. People are not indifferent with
respect to the timing of costs and benefits -usually they prefer to receive benefits as
early as possible and to pay for costs as late as possible. It is therefore important that
the valuation of costs and benefits takes explicit account of the time at which they
occur. Discounted cash flow analysis reduces a time stream of costs or benefits to an
equivalent amount of today's dollars. That single amount is known as the present vale
of the future stream of costs and benefits. The present value is calculated using the
method of compound interest and the rate by which the present value is computed is
known as the discount rate. Thus the discount rate is in effect an `exchange rate'
between values today and values in the future.
In the following analysis a project life of 20 years is used with a discount rate of 6%
(real rate) to calculate the net present value (NPV). The NPV of a project is the
difference between the present value of the benefits and the present value of the costs.
A project creating a positive NPV is generally considered acceptable.
Tables 8 and 9 illustrate the discounted cash flows for the model redclaw farms with
and without pond liners. Table 10 summarises all the costs on a per farm and per
kilogram basis for farms with and without pond liners.
45
Table 8. Discounted cash flow for model redclaw farm with 53 x 750m2 ponds with pond liners.
Farm size (ha)...............4.00
No. of ponds................. 53
Real discount rate.......... 6%
Project
benefits
Year Percentage
Yield
Revenue TOTAL
FEED LIME ELECT.
steady state (t/ha/yr) from
PROJECT
(%)
total area crop
BENEFITS
($)
($)
($)
($/yr)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
0.00%
45.00%
90.00%
100.00%
104.00%
108.00%
112.00%
116.00%
120.00%
124.00%
128.00%
129.45%
130.90%
132.35%
133.80%
135.25%
136.70%
138.15%
139.60%
141.05%
142.50%
Total(PV)
Farm av/yr
Av/pond/yr
Av/kg
0.000
0
0.949
37969
1.898
75938
2.109
84375
2.194
87750
2.278
91125
2.363
94500
2.447
97875
2.531 101250
2.616 104625
2.700 108000
2.731 109223
2.761 110447
2.792 111670
2.822 112894
2.853 114117
2.884 115341
2.914 116564
2.945 117788
2.975 119011
3.006 120234
109.84 1098431
9.58
95776
0.180
1796
10
SUMMARY TABLE (all NPV format)

Total project benefits
less variable costs
equal gross margin
less overhead costs
equals Return to management
Internal rate of return
0
0
37969 4717
75938 4717
84375 4717
87750 4717
91125 4717
94500 4717
97875 4717
101250 4717
104625 4717
108000 4717
109223 4717
110447 4717
111670 4717
112894 4717
114117 4717
115341 4717
116564 4717
117788 4717
119011 4717
120234 4717
1098431 54099
95766 4717
1796
88
10
.49
0
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
9176
800
15
0.08
FERT. REPAIRS WATER

FAMILY HIRED
ADMIN. FUEL & TOTAL
& MAINT. CHARGES LABOUR LABOUR COSTS OIL
OPERATING
COSTS
($)
($)
($)
($)
($)
($)
($)
($)
0
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
64232
5600
105
0.58
$/farm/yr
95,766
5,917
89,850
83,165
6,685
7.70%
0
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
4588
400
8
0.04
0
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
34410
3000
56
0.31
$/kg
10.00
0.62
9.38
8.68
0.70
0
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
27528
2400
45
0.25
12500
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
299248
26090
489
2.72
2000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
47880
4174
78
0.44
0
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
53909
4700
88
0.49
0
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
28718
2504
47
0.26
14500
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
623786
54385
1020
5.68
TOTAL
CAPITAL
COSTS
($)
376012
0
360
0
777
15990
360
0
777
0
35923
417
360
0
777
15990
360
417
360
0
-58732
379973
34697
651
3.67
ANNUAL ACCUMUL.
CASH
CASH FLOW
FLOW
($)
($)
-390512
-15152
22457
31255
33853
22015
41020
44755
47353
51505
18956
55686
56967
58550
58997
45007
61860
63027
64307
65891
129846
IRR(%)=
7.70%
TOTAL COSTS/YR=
TOTAL COSTS/HA=
TOTAL COSTS/KG=
-390512
-405663
-383206
-351952
-318099
-296084
-255064
-210310
-162957
-111452
-92496
-36809
20157
78707
137704
182711
244571
307598
371905
437796
567642
89082
22270
9.30
46
Table 9. Discounted cash flow for model redclaw farm with 53 x 750m2 ponds without pond liners.
Farm size (ha)...............4.00
No. of ponds................. 53
Real discount rate.......... 6%
Project
benefits
Year Percentage
Yield
Revenue TOTAL
FEED LIME ELECT.
steady state (t/ha/yr) from
PROJECT
(%)
total area crop
BENEFITS
($)
($)
($)
($/yr)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
0.00%
45.00%
90.00%
100.00%
104.00%
108.00%
112.00%
116.00%
120.00%
124.00%
128.00%
129.45%
130.90%
132.35%
133.80%
135.25%
136.70%
138.15%
139.60%
141.05%
142.50%
Total(PV)
Farm av/yr
Av/pond/yr
Av/kg
0.000
0
0.949
37969
1.898
75938
2.109
84375
2.194
87750
2.278
91125
2.363
94500
2.447
97875
2.531 101250
2.616 104625
2.700 108000
2.731 109223
2.761 110447
2.792 111670
2.822 112894
2.853 114117
2.884 115341
2.914 116564
2.945 117788
2.975 119011
3.006 120234
109.84 1098431
9.58
95776
0.180
1796
10
SUMMARY TABLE (all NPV format)

Total project benefits
less variable costs
equal gross margin
less overhead costs
equals Return to management
Internal Rate of Return
0
0
37969 4717
75938 4717
84375 4717
87750 4717
91125 4717
94500 4717
97875 4717
101250 4717
104625 4717
108000 4717
109223 4717
110447 4717
111670 4717
112894 4717
114117 4717
115341 4717
116564 4717
117788 4717
119011 4717
120234 4717
1098431 54099
95766 4717
1796
88
10
.49
0
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
9176
800
15
0.08
FERT. REPAIRS WATER

FAMILY HIRED
ADMIN. FUEL & TOTAL
& MAINT. CHARGES LABOUR LABOUR COSTS OIL
OPERATING
COSTS
($)
($)
($)
($)
($)
($)
($)
($)
0
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
5600
64232
5600
105
0.58
$/farm/yr
95,766
5,917
89,850
69,417
20,432
13.24%
0
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
4588
400
8
0.04
0
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
34410
3000
56
0.31
$/kg
10.00
0.62
9.38
7.25
2.13
0
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
27528
2400
45
0.25
12500
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
25000
299248
26090
489
2.72
2000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
47880
4174
78
0.44
0
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
4700
53909
4700
88
0.49
0
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
2504
28718
2504
47
0.26
14500
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
53120
623786
54385
1020
5.68
TOTAL
CAPITAL
COSTS
($)
217078
0
360
0
777
15990
360
0
777
0
35923
417
360
0
777
15990
360
417
360
0
-58732
240287
20949
393
2.19
ANNUAL ACCUMUL.
CASH
CASH FLOW
FLOW
($)
($)
-231578
-15152
22457
31255
33853
22015
41020
44755
47353
51505
18956
55686
56967
58550
58997
45007
61860
63027
64307
65891
125846
IRR(%)=
13.24
TOTAL COSTS/YR=
TOTAL COSTS/HA=
TOTAL COSTS/KG=
-231578
-246730
-224273
-193018
-159165
-137151
-96131
-51376
-4023
47481
66438
122124
179091
237640
296637
341644
403504
466531
530838
596729
722575
75334
18833
7.87
47
Table 10. Summary of economic analysis for a model redclaw farm with 53 x
750m2 ponds, using a farm-gate price of $10.00/kg.
Item
1. Physical description
Number of ponds
Number of growout ponds
Area/pond (m2)
Total pond area (ha)
Total farm area (ha)
Production/growout pond (t/ha)
Total production of redclaw
(t/yr)
Feed conversion ratio
Feed consumed (t/yr)
Capital costs of establishment
($)
2. Financial description (NPV format)
(a) Gross income

(b) Variable costs
Feed
Dolomite
Fertiliser
Subtotal (b)
(c) Overhead costs
Repairs & maintenance
Fuel & oil
Electricity
Hired labour
Depreciation plus interest*
Allowance for owner's labour
Water charges
Administration costs
Subtotal (c)
Total costs (b+c)
(d) Return to management
[a-(b+c)]
With pond lining
Without pond lining
53
45
750
4.0
8.0
2.5
8.44
53
45
750
4.0
8.0
2.5
8.44
1.3:1
10.97
390,512
1.3:1
10.97
217,078
($/farm/yr)
($/kg)
($/farm/yr)
($/kg)
95,766
10.00
95,766
10.00
4,717
800
400
5,917
0.49
0.08
0.04
0.62
4,717
800
400
5,917
0.49
0.08
0.04
0.62
3,000
2,504
5,600
4,174
34,697
26,090
2,400
4,700
83,165
89,082
6,685
0.31
0.26
0.58
0.44
3.62
2.72
0.25
0.49
8.68
9.30
0.70
3,000
2,504
5,600
4,174
20,949
26,090
2,400
4,700
69,417
75,334
20,432
0.31
0.26
0.58
0.44
2.19
2.72
0.25
0.49
7.25
7.87
2.13
*Assuming a real rate of interest of 6%
Figure 8 shows the accumulative cash flows for the two scenarios. Where the line
crosses the horizontal axis represents the time required to achieve a positive
accumulative cash flow (payback period). The payback period is the time required to
recover the initial project outlay. A payback period of between twelve and eight years
are required for the model farms with and without pond liners, respectively.
48
It was assumed that steady-state production was not achieved until the end of the third
year and that yields from then onwards are increased gradually over time. Such
improvements are included in the analysis because a conservative yield is assumed at
the start of the analysis and yields are expected to improve as more research,
experience and information becomes available to farm operators. The yield achieved
at year 20 would place the growers in far north Queensland with comparable yields
achieved by southern Queensland redclaw farms.
Price is expected to remain constant for the twenty years. According to existing
growers, more growers coming into the industry would create little competition and
the extra demand created from a more widely accepted product is expected to keep
prices at the same level.
Sensitivity analysis
Variation in redclaw farm-gate price
Table 11 and Figure 10 in the Appendix show the effect that farm-gate price has on
the return to management for the model redclaw farms.
A margin of about $1.50/kg exists between the two model redclaw farms. The farm
without pond liners has a significant competitive advantage. Prices could reduce to
$7.90/kg and the farm without pond liners would still obtain a positive return to
management whereas $9.40 is required for farms with pond liners.
Table 11. Variations in farm-gate price on return to management for a model
redclaw farm with 53 x 750m2 ponds.
Farm-gate price
($/kg)
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
Return to management ($)

With pond
Without pond
liners
liners
64,144
77,892
54,568
68,315
44,991
58,739
35,414
49,162
25,838
39,586
16,261
30,009
6,685
20,432
-2,892
10,856
-12,469
1,279
-22,045
-8,297
49
Variation in redclaw yield

Table 12 shows the effect that yield has on the return to management for the model
redclaw farms. A conservative yield of 2.5t/ha growout pond is used as the control
(achieved in year 3).
Table 12. Variations in redclaw yields on return to management for a model
Increase in yield (%)

Control
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
40%
50%
Yield (t/ha growout

pond)
2.5
2.75
2.875
3
3.125
3.25
3.5
3.75
Return to management ($)

With pond
Without pond
liners
liners
6,685
20,432
15,790
29,537
20,342
34,090
24,895
38,642
29,447
43,195
33,999
47,747
43,104
56,852
52,209
65,957
A 10% improvement in yield would double the return to management for the model
redclaw farm with pond liners. The same yield improvement increases the return to
management about 50% for the model redclaw farm without pond liners. Another
interpretation could be that a yield improvement of 15% is needed above the control
level for the farm with pond lining so that the returns from the two scenarios are
similar.
Cost of production and profitability for varying pond areas
Economies of size are believed to be significant in redclaw farming. To test this
effect various pond areas were incorporated into the two redclaw farm models. Table
13 and Figure 11 shows how changing pond area causes significant economies of size.
Hired labour inputs vary between pond area (see Table 6) and for this reason the
reduction in costs of production per kilogram is not continuous as size increases. i.e.
The transition between areas 4 to 4.5 ha and 6.0 to 6.5 ha results in higher costs of
production per kilogram due to higher labour thresholds.
Costs of production reduce from $13.78/kg to $8.46/kg shifting from a 2 ha pond area
to 7 ha pond area for the model redclaw farm with pond liners. It appears that it is
unprofitable to farm redclaw with a pond area less than 3.6 hectares for this model
farm.
When pond lining is excluded the total costs reduce from $12.31/kg to $7.01/kg for 2
ha and 7 ha pond areas respectively. This model farm becomes unprofitable at pond
areas less than 2.6 hectares.
50
Table 13. Cost of production and return to management for redclaw

aquaculture with various total pond area.
Total pond
area (ha)
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
With pond liners

Cost of
Return to
production
management ($)
($/kg)
13.78
-17,704
11.69
-10,082
10.63
-4,401
10.09
-767
9.30
6,685
9.87
1,400
9.24
9,021
8.86
14,742
8.44
22,204
8.73
19,831
8.46
25,557
Without pond liners

Cost of
Return to
production
management ($)
($/kg)
12.31
-10,830
10.25
-1,490
9.16
5,910
8.64
11,262
7.87
20,432
8.41
16,866
7.80
26,206
7.41
33,645
7.00
42,825
7.29
42,171
7.01
49,615
Provision of Initial Stock

The ways and therefore the costs of initial stocking of the ponds can vary greatly
across farms. Each method will have different affects on redclaw yields for the first 3
to 5 years before steady state production levels are reached. For this analysis the cost
of stocking the ponds in the first year is based on a proportion of bearing females,
juveniles and advanced juveniles being purchased. This represents one way of
stocking the redclaw farm with 6-12 months before the first harvest and up to 3 years
before steady-state production levels are achieved. Table 14 provides a description of
the pond allocation and costs for the 53 pond model.
51
Table 14. Cost and pond allocation for stocking a model redclaw farm with 53 x
750m2 ponds.
Stock
purchased
No.of
ponds
Brooding
rate
(j/fem)
Stocking
rate for new
juveniles
(no./m2)
Stocking
rate
(no./m2)
No.
per
pond
Price
per
unit
($)
Bearing
females
Juveniles
Advanced
juveniles
Total
28
75
10
n/a
100
10
5
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
10
5
7500
3750
Total
cost per
farm ($)
2.50
Total
cost
per
pond
($)
250
0.25
0.30
1,875
1,125
18,750
5,625
43
7,000
31,375
Figure 8. Accumulative cash flow over time for a model redclaw farm with 53 x
750m2 ponds.
Accumulative cash flow ($'000)

1,000
500
-500
0
10
Year
15
20
52
Figure 9. Percentage breakdown on overheads for model redclaw farm with 53 x

750m2 ponds.
Figure 10. Price and return to capital and management for a model redclaw
farm with 53 x 750m2 ponds.
Return to Capital & Management ($'000)
80
60
40
20
-20
-40
7
10
11
12
13
Farm-gate Price ($/kg)
14
15
16
53
Figure 11. Total pond area versus return to capital and management for a model
Return to Capital & Management ($'000)
40
20
-20
2
Total Pond area (ha)
54
INDUSTRY OVERVIEW (1994)

by Greg Love
Regional Activity
The redclaw aquaculture industry throughout the State is expanding very slowly. This,
I believe is due to a number of factors. Firstly, lack of a business plan available for
new farmers prevents many from making a start, primarily because their accountant or
bank manager cannot make an informed decision. The economic analysis included
with these notes will go a long way towards alleviating this problem.
There are also too many unknowns (variables) and a lack of set farm procedures. This
is a little daunting for some. I believe that the industry will expand when farming
techniques are improved and become more consistent. Again, access to the
information contained in the seminar notes will be of great benefit.
Production
Total production for the State for 1992/93 was 40 tonnes as per the annual farmer
survey. Actual production was probably considerably higher, somewhere in the area
of 70 to 80 tonnes. At an average farm-gate price of $14.50 per kg, the value of the
industry is in the order of one million dollars. However, given that there are at least
35 farmers producing, none of us are becoming millionaires.
Demand for Juveniles to China
At present there is a very strong demand for juveniles to China. Prices are reasonable
but numbers required are large. Inspection costs to get them out of the country are
taking the cream off this market. This needs to be addressed.
ACM
ACM (Australian Crayfish Marketing) a company owned by farmers was set up to aid
the marketing of redclaw - large crayfish, juveniles and associated technology. ACM
is working towards a compilation of a Business Plan. ACM can't do a lot until
production increases over and above that required for the Domestic Market. ACM has
made a lot of overseas contacts recently. Shares are still available at the original price
for farmers wishing to buy into the company.
Markets
At the moment, almost all product is sold on the domestic market but I feel this can be
expanded greatly with better marketing and packaging techniques. Direct contact with
chefs, better purging and holding facilities would be advantageous.
55
DPI&F Service
Information available from the DPI&F is adequate for beginning farmers and is
improving with time and research. There are many different farming techniques,
climates and situations and therefore it is difficult at this stage to develop cut & dried
procedures, even though the base of information is solid and accurate, it may
sometimes have to be adapted to your own particular situation. Industry expansion
will be greatly aided by development of better food and a suitable cheap habitat.
Other Issues
It would also be an advantage to be able to accurately determine the age of a crayfish.
This would help in the selective breeding process on most farms. It's this attention to
breeding that I believe has set farm bred stock well ahead of wild caught animals for
aquaculture purposes.
One of the good points for the industry is the operation of strong Crayfish Farmers
Associations. These Associations help farmers through dissemination of information.
They also help to overcome problems by allowing farmers to pre-empt problems
through discussion. This was brought home to me at a recent North Queensland
Aquaculture Consultative Committee (NQACC) meeting where barramundi Farmers
are facing severe marketing problems through excess barramundi for this size of
demand from the southern markets. They are now trying to start a Barramundi
Farmers Association. The prawn farmers have an Association and are having no
problems marketing large amounts of products at excellent prices. Our problem is not
enough product.
In finishing, I will say that there are bright prospects in this industry. However, I think
that with each answer there seems to be more questions. These will be solved more
readily if we are able to maintain a close working relationship between farmers,
enabling us to pool results and resources.
56
REDCLAW MARKETING
by Maurice Downing
Introduction
Commercial farming of redclaw crayfish is a relatively new industry and is faced
with a number of challenges such as small production volumes and a low level of
consumer awareness. Made up of 35 members, each with a $500 shareholding,
Australian Crayfish Farming (ACM) was formed in 1992 to address these and other
relevant issues.
ACM accounts for 98 per cent of redclaw production ACM and gives growers a
vehicle by which they can achieve more by collaborating than by acting individually.
While ACM has concentrated on developing export markets, in the short term it also
has a significant future role to play in co-ordinating the domestic marketing of
redclaw.
In the middle of 1993 ACM undertook a market visit to Asian countries. Data
gathered during this trip is being used as the basis for a business plan that is currently
in its final stages. This paper has drawn on this information plus existing literature
and interviews with wholesalers and restaurants to provide potential new farmers with
an overview of the marketing environment facing redclaw crayfish.
Overseas Markets
Europe
Freshwater crayfish enjoy a higher level of consumer acceptance in Europe than
anywhere else. Total consumption is approximately 10,000 tonnes per year. France
and Sweden are the largest markets, each accounting for between 3000 and 4000
tonnes annually. The next largest are Belgium and Germany with 200 tonnes each.
Prior to the mid 1980's Turkey was the major supplier of freshwater crayfish to
European markets. However, when the crayfish plague devastated this source a
shortfall of between 3000 and 5000 tonnes was created. The major player in meeting
this demand is North America.
Freshwater crayfish attract an import duty of between 15 and 18 percent on entering
most European countries which tends to make them an expensive item. In addition to
import duty some European countries will only allow entry to frozen or cooked
product due to their concerns regarding disease.
Asia
57
Information from the market visit to Asia by Australian Crayfish Marketing (ACM)
reveals that China is undertaking major expansion in the production of redclaw. A
number of large farms are being established, some with up to 2500 hectares of ponds.
While this has remarkable production potential and may initially be seen as a threat to
the Australian redclaw industry it may also be of assistance in that it will help raise
the level of awareness of redclaw in the marketplace. This may then open the way for
niche marketing by Australia producers because large volume suppliers traditionally
miss smaller market segments that may have particular needs different from the
majority of consumers. For example, those who place a higher value on food products
produced in clean environments.
It is important that we try to identify these niche markets as the Chinese are expected
to have significantly lower costs of production. They are already producing North
American species of freshwater crayfish and they can land the peeled tails in the USA
more cheaply that the American industry can produce their live animals.
In Hong Kong samples of redclaw were given to five star hotels and were judged to
be satisfactory. The Maine lobster coming in from the USA looms as the major
competitor for redclaw in this market. At around 400 grams it is significantly smaller
than traditional crayfish of 800 to 1000 grams. Most likely order size for redclaw was
expected to be 200 kilos per week.. The hotels insisted on dealing via an
importer/wholesaler as they were not interested in dealing with single product
suppliers, a similar situation to that in most markets.
In Japan animals of 120g or larger were the preferred size although there was a strong
preference for seafood rather than freshwater crustaceans.
By regulation only farmed animals can be exported from Australia. ACM has reported
that since returning from the trip it has had to reject five orders for weekly shipments
of 1 tonne because of the limited output of the industry. While prices quoted during
the trip were $17 per kilo it was also mentioned that the Australian industry should
work towards producing the product for around $6 per kilo (farm gate) to be
competitive in the long term..
USA
A 1991 report compiled by the Australian Bureau of Agricultural Economics
(ABARE) reported that the USA's production of freshwater crawfish was 50 000
tonnes, mainly from Louisiana. The vast majority of this output was consumed
domestically. However, this figure had risen to 140 000 in 1993 according to
information gained during ACM's recent overseas marketing trip. As mentioned
earlier a portion of this production is exported to Europe to meet the significant
shortfall in this market caused by the crayfish plague. With this volume of production
crawfish in the USA are able to be graded by size:
Size (cms)
6
7.5
8.75
58
Name
hotel
whale
big daddy
In Australia redclaw have only one common grade of 50 - 80 grams and are
significantly larger than their North American competitors. When production volumes
increase it may be possible to also develop various grade sizes. By doing so you are
able to offer customers a wider product range so that they are able to choose a
product that better meets their specific requirements.
Domestic Market
Three species of freshwater crayfish are commercially farmed in Australia. Detailed
below are the estimated production and value for each species for 1991.
Crayfish
Marron
Redclaw
Yabbie
Total
tonnes
10
46
97
153
$000
226
690
1253
2168
$/kg
22.6
15
12.9
In the catering industry redclaw also competes with saltwater prawns, scampi, and
the various species of saltwater crayfish.
Size is a major determinant of the prices received. Marron, at an average of 200g,
attracts the highest price followed by redclaw and the yabbie.
For the current year production of redclaw is expected to be 60 tonnes according to
industry sources. Approximately 70 percent is consumed domestically with the
balance being exported, mainly to Europe.
Product Issues
All redclaw sold fall into the one size category of 50-80g, unlike the situation in the
USA as mentioned earlier where there are three grades each with its individual brand
name. This is primarily due to the small industry size. Once larger volumes are
achieved product can be graded accordingly which opens the way for a broader
product range to be offered to customers thereby increasing the industry's ability to
satisfy their individual requirements.
Animals in the size range of 50 - 80g are preferred by restaurants as any larger
specimen would not enable them to put 3 or 4 on a plate. Being a freshwater animal
redclaw were reported as tending to have a more subtle taste than seafood.
59
Practically all redclaw are sold live. As a result packaging requirements are minimal.
However, product is allowed to be sold in a chilled or frozen state but no other
processing is currently permitted.
Two major prerequisites for successful marketing are consistent quality and supply.
For a relatively new product like redclaw it is imperative that only a consistently high
quality product is sold. Quality within the industry is determined by :
Thickness of the shell

Degree of vigour
Being free of parasites and discolouring
Thin shelled animals are preferred by the market, as are healthy animals with strong
vigour. Animals should be clean and free of parasites and/or stains.
Should a consumer be confronted by a substandard product the industry risks losing
future sales. This is vitally important for a new product such as redclaw because, as
with anything new, people are often hesitant to try it. If they enjoy it they are likely
to have it again which leads to increased sales and market growth. If they do not enjoy
it the first time they are unlikely to ever order it again , an opportunity lost.
Restaurants primarily present redclaw as an entree with two portions per plate.
When ordered as a main course the diner will typically receive a serving of four.
Once formulated, restaurant menus are set for six months at a time. For this reason
consistent supply is of prime importance to wholesalers and restaurants. Chefs are
reluctant to use an unreliable product that may embarrass them and possibly
disappoint a customer which will result in lost sales.
Distribution
There are three major elements in the distribution chain for redclaw; farmer to
wholesaler to restaurant. Product is typically handled in 10 kilo lots. Given the
animal's ability to survive out of water freezer vans are not required for short distance
deliveries.
No product is sold at the retail level although one wholesaler reported that they used
to sell them at their own shop for between $17 - $18 per kilo. However, the public
considered this a little too expensive, largely because they did not have a clear value
concept for the animal.
Marketing licences issued to farmers dictate that product can only be sold to "licensed
seafood marketers holding either a Processor Class A licence or a Commercial Buyer
Class A licence". Farmers can sell product themselves if they have the appropriate
licence.
While selling direct to restaurants may result in slightly higher returns the practice
can have a limiting effect on market growth. Effective and conscientious wholesalers
can play a major role in increasing the market penetration of a product, a feature that
60
is especially helpful to fledgling industries struggling to develop markets.

Wholesalers have the ability to cross-sell a new product while servicing a customer
from there existing product range.
Pricing & Its Implications
According to the most recent industry survey the average farm gate price for redclaw
is $14.50 per kilo, including both domestic and export sales.
Unlike other seafood products the price of redclaw is predominantly stable on
domestic markets. Wholesalers are currently paying $13 per kilo and selling them to
restaurants and hotels at between $15.60 and $16.50 per kilo. Although illegal, wild
caught redclaw can be bought for $8 per kilo.
Wholesalers typically need to achieve margins of at least 20 per cent to remain viable.
Restaurant are reported to need margins on around 400 per cent on the cost of inputs
to cover preparation and other overheads.
Because of the price paid for redclaw restaurateurs had to charge prices similar to
lobster and mudcrab. Essentially it is positioned as a "fine dining item". However,
diners did not place the same value on redclaw as they did for the other items with the
result that sales were restricted. It was considered that a slight reduction in price
would enable redclaw to be used in buffets that would induce more people to try them
which in turn helps to establish consumer acceptance and consequently build market
demand.
Wholesalers and chefs have tended to position redclaw lower than lobster but higher
than prawns. Interviewees also felt that the more relevant competitors for redclaw
were scampi and small champagne lobsters of 250-300 g. Some consumers were
reported as thinking redclaw were baby lobster.
Promotion
To date very little promotion of redclaw is done, characteristic of most fledgling
industries. However, before truly effective promotion can be undertaken something
that is different or unique about the product must be identified.. This attribute then
becomes the central theme of all promotional activities. In short you must give the
customer a reason for buying your product; you must attempt to "stand out from the
crowd".
Summary
Redclaw is a relatively new product and it is worthwhile to put this in perspective. In
marketing terms redclaw is at the early stages of its product life cycle. The following
characteristics are typical of such a situation:
1. Small production volume
2. Single product or limited product range
61
3. Low level of customer awareness

4. Struggling to establish a clear identity among competing products
5. Relatively few customers.
Popular opinion suggests the most critical issue facing the redclaw industry at this
stage is a lack of supply and therefore the inability to put significant volume onto the
market. However, I believe there is an equally critical, albeit more subtle, issue that
also needs attention
People had a difficult time deciding exactly where redclaw fitted compared to other
available products i.e. where it is positioned in the marketplace. Some said it was
closer to lobster, others said it was unique and did not have a close substitute and
herein lies the challenge.
While it is agreed that the Australian industry needs to boost production a lot of
thought also needs to be given to where redclaw is to be positioned in the minds of
consumers. Ultimately it is the consumer who decides how much value a product
represents for them and, therefore, how much they will pay for it relative to possible
substitutes such as prawns, lobster or Moreton bay bugs. If this issue is not addressed
then when the industry finally arrives at their desired destination in volume terms the
customers wont be there to meet them. Should this happen the industry may find itself
in the position of having to discount prices to attract customers. Rather, the industry
must endeavour to ensure that the customer has the same value concept of redclaw as
it does, that it is something they prize and are willing to pay a premium for.

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Redclaw Crayfish

C.M. Jones (editor)

Recommended Practices for Redclaw Crayfish

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

A SITE ASSESSMENT FOR SUITABILITY OF FARMING

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

Table 1. Estimated water temperatures for aquaculture ponds at Cunnamulla.

Pond temp. (C)

Max. Pond Bottom Temp.

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

Although specific assessment of redclaw's tolerance to other physical parameters has

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

Disease and Parasites

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

Its physiological tolerance to extremes of environment is great, particularly in regard

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

Caution should be exercised when the utilisation of surface water is proposed as

> 5.0 mg/l

> 50 mg/l as CaCO3

> 50 mg/l as CaCO3

< 0.05 mg/l total NH3

< 0.05 mg/l

< 0.1 mg/l

< 0.002 mg/l

Waters should be well

Toxicity increases with

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

Proximity to necessary infrastructure such as workforce, technical expertise,

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

POND AND CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING ISSUES

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

Ponds are usually rectangular in shape.

Strip topsoil and stock pile for placement on constructed embankment.

Is suitable clay material available on site or is cartage from elsewhere required.

Many types and thicknesses available.

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

Joining of strips is by hot welding or adhesive tapes.

Basic steps in Pond Construction

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES FOR REDCLAW

Supply of juveniles (farm production, purchased)

To illustrate the development and operation of a redclaw farm I will use a

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

Figure 2. Layout of a hypothetical redclaw farm consisting of forty 1,000m2

The ponds, as discussed previously under 'Pond Construction', should be 1 to 2 metres

positioning of ponds (optimising use of slope, minimising materials e.g. pipes,

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

Another important facet of stock management is prevention or minimisation of

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE

Test kit, or lab

Other aspects of pond management include pond preparation, checking of source

REDCLAW CRAYFISH AQUACULTURE