Network Analysis

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NETWORK ANALYSIS
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AND SYNTHESIS (EEEtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopas
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CLASS NOTES
PREPARED BY
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ANAMIKA PATHAK
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NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)
SYLLABUS
Unit I:
Graph Theory:
Graph of a Network, definitions, tree, co tree , link, basic loop and basic cut set, Incidence
matrix, cut set matrix, Tie set matrix Duality, Loop and Nodal methods of analysis. (7)
Unit II:
Network Theorems (Applications to ac networks):
Super-position theorem, Thevenins theorem, Nortons theorem, maximum power transfer
theorem, Reciprocity theorem. Millmans theorem, compensation theorem, Tellegens theorem.
(8)
Unit III:
Network Functions:
Concept of Complex frequency , Transform Impedances Network functions of one port and two
port networks, concept of poles and zeros, properties of driving point and transfer functions, time
response and stability from pole zero plot. (8)
Unit IV:
Two Port Networks:
Characterization of LTI two port networks ZY, ABCD and h parameters, reciprocity and
symmetry. Inter-relationships between the parameters, inter-connections of two port networks,
Ladder and Lattice networks. T & Representation. (8)
Unit V:
(a) Network Synthesis:
Positive real function; definition and properties; properties of LC, RC and RL driving point
functions, synthesis of LC, RC and RL driving point immittance functions using Foster and
Cauer first and second forms.
(b) Filters:
Image parameters and characteristics impedance, passive and active filter fundamentals, low
pass, high pass, (constant K type) filters, and introduction to active filters. (9)
UNIT- I
GRAPH THEORY
Graph theory is the branch of mathematics dealing with graphs. In network analysis, graphs are
used extensively to represent a network being analyzed.
The graph of a network captures only certain aspects of a network; those aspects related to its
connectivity, or, in other words, its topology.
This can be a useful representation and generalization of a network because many network
equations are invariant across networks with the same topology.
This includes equations derived from Kirchhoff's laws and Tellegen's theorem.
Graph theory has been used in the network analysis of linear, passive networks almost from the
moment that Kirchhoff's laws were formulated.
This approach was later generalized to RLC circuits, replacing resistances with impedances. In
1892 Maxwell provided the dual of this analysis with node analysis.
Maxwell is also responsible for the topological theorem that the determinant of the nodeadmittance matrix is equal to the sum of all the tree admittance products. In 1900 Henri Poincare
introduced the idea of representing a graph by its incidence matrix, hence founding the field of
algebraic topology.
Comprehensive cataloguing of network graphs as they apply to electrical circuits began with
Percy McMahon in 1891 (with an engineer friendly article in The Electrician in 1892) who
limited his survey to series and parallel combinations.
McMahon called these graphs yoke-chains. Ronald Foster in 1932 categorized graphs by their
nullity or rank and provided charts of all those with a small number of nodes.
This work grew out of an earlier survey by Foster while collaborating with George Campbell in
1920 on 4-port telephone repeaters and produced 83,539 distinct graphs.
For a long time topology in electrical circuit theory remained concerned only with linear passive
networks. The more recent developments of semiconductor devices and circuits have required
new tools in topology to deal with them. Enormous increases in circuit complexity have led to
the use of combinatory in graph theory to improve efficiency of computer calculation.
GRAPHS AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Networks are commonly classified by the

kind of electrical elements making them up.
in a circuit diagram these element-kinds are
specifically drawn, each with its own unique
symbol.
Resistive networks are one-element-kind networks, consisting only of R elements. Likewise

capacitive or inductive networks are one-element-kind. The RC, RL and LC circuits are simple
two-element-kind network.
The RLC circuit is the simplest three-element-kind network. The LC ladder network commonly
used for low-pass filters can have many elements but is another example of a two-element-kind
network.
Conversely, topology is concerned only with the geometric relationship between the elements of
a network, not with the kind of elements themselves.
The heart of a topological representation of a network is the graph of the network. Elements are
represented as the edges of the graph.
An edge is drawn as a line, terminating on dots or small circles from which other edges
(elements) may emanate. In circuit analysis, the edges of the graph are called branches.
The dots are called the vertices of the graph and represent the nodes of the network. Node and
vertex are terms that can be used interchangeably when discussing graphs of networks.
Graphs used in network analysis are usually, in addition, both directed graphs, to capture the
direction of current flow and voltage, and labeled graphs, to capture the uniqueness of the
branches and nodes.
For instance, a graph consisting of a square of branches would still be the same topological graph
if two branches were interchanged unless the branches were uniquely labeled.
In directed graphs, the two nodes that a branch connects to be designated the source and target
nodes. Typically, these will be indicated by an arrow drawn on the branch.
Equivalence
Graphs are equivalent if one can be transformed into the other by deformation. Deformation can
include the operations of translation, rotation and reflection; bending and stretching the branches;
and crossing or knotting the branches.
Two graphs which are equivalent through deformation are said to be congruent. In the field of
electrical networks, there are two additional transforms that are considered to result in equivalent
graphs which do not produce congruent graphs.
The first of these is the interchange of series connected branches. This is the dual of interchange
of parallel connected branches which can be achieved by deformation without the need for a
special rule.
The second is concerned with graphs divided into two or more separate parts, that is, a graph
with two sets of nodes which have no branches incident to a node in each set.
Two such separate parts are considered an equivalent graph to one where the parts are joined by
combining a node from each into a single node. Likewise, a graph that can be split into two
separate parts by splitting a node in two is also considered equivalent.
Trees and links

A tree is a graph in which all the nodes are
connected, either directly or indirectly, by
branches, but without forming any closed
loops. Since there are no closed loops, there
are
no
currents
in
a
tree.
In network analysis, we are interested in spanning trees, that is, trees that connect every node
present in the graph of the network. In this article, spanning tree is meant by an unqualified tree
unless otherwise stated. A given network graph can contain a number of different trees.
The branches removed from a graph in order to form a tree are called links. The branches
remaining in the tree are called twigs. For a graph with n nodes, the number of branches in each
tree, t, must be
An important relationship for circuit analysis is;
Where b is the number of branches in the graph and l is the number of links removed to form the
tree.
Tie sets and cut sets

The goal of circuit analysis is to determine all the branch currents and voltages in the network.
These network variables are not all independent. The branch voltages are related to the branch
currents by the transfer function of the elements of which they are composed.
A complete solution of the network can therefore be either in terms of branch currents or branch
voltages only. Nor are all the branch currents independent from each other. The minimum
number of branch currents required for a complete solution is l.
This is a consequence of the fact that a tree has l links removed and there can be no currents in a
tree. Since the remaining branches of the tree have zero current they cannot be independent of
the link currents. The branch currents chosen as a set of independent variables must be a set
associated with the links of a tree: one cannot choose any l branches arbitrarily.
In terms of branch voltages, a complete solution of the network can be obtained with t branch
voltages. This is a consequence the fact that short-circuiting all the branches of a tree results in
the voltage being zero everywhere. The link voltages cannot, therefore, be independent of the
tree branch voltages
A common analysis approach is to solve
for loop currents rather than branch currents.
The branch currents are then found in terms
of the loop currents. Again, the set of loop
currents cannot be chosen arbitrarily.
To guarantee a set of independent variables the loop currents must be those associated with a
certain set of loops. This set of loops consists of those loops formed by replacing a single link of
a given tree of the graph of the circuit to be analyzed.
Since replacing a single link in a tree forms exactly one unique loop, the number of loop currents
so defined is equal to l. The term loop in this context is not the same as the usual meaning
of loop in graph theory. The set of branches forming a given loop is called a tie set. The set of
network equations are formed by equating the loop currents to the algebraic sum of the tie set
branch currents.[
It is possible to choose a set of independent loop currents without reference to the trees and tie
sets. A sufficient, but not necessary, condition for choosing a set of independent loops is to
ensure that each chosen loop includes at least one branch that was not previously included by
loops already chosen.
7
A particularly straightforward choice is that used in mesh analysis in which the loops are all
chosen to be meshes. Mesh analysis can only be applied if it is possible to map the graph on to a
plane or a sphere without any of the branches crossing over. Such graphs are called planar
graphs. Ability to map onto a plane or a sphere is equivalent conditions.
Any finite graph mapped onto a plane can be shrunk until it will map onto a small region of a
sphere. Conversely, a mesh of any graph mapped onto a sphere can be stretched until the space
inside it occupies nearly the entire sphere. The entire graph then occupies only a small region of
the sphere. This is the same as the first case, hence the graph will also map onto a plane.
There is an approach to choosing network variables with voltages which is analogous and dual to
the loop current method. Here the voltage associated with pairs of nodes is the primary variables
and the branch voltages are found in terms of them. In this method also, a particular tree of the
graph must be chosen in order to ensure that all the variables are independent. The dual of the tie
set is the cut set. A tie set is formed by allowing all but one of the graph links to be open circuit.
A cut set is formed by allowing all but one of the tree branches to be short circuit. The cut set
consists of the tree branch which was not short-circuited and any of the links which are not shortcircuited by the other tree branches. A cut set of a graph produces two disjoint sub graphs, that
is, it cuts the graph into two parts, and is the minimum set of branches needed to do so.
The set of network equations are formed by equating the node pair voltages to the algebraic sum
of the cut set branch voltages. The dual of the special case of mesh analysis is nodal analysis.
Nullity and rank

The nullity, N, of a graph with s separate parts is defined by;
The nullity of a graph represents the number of degrees of freedom of its set of network
equations. For a planar graph, the nullity is equal to the number of meshes in the graph.
The rank, R of a graph is defined by;
Rank plays the same role in nodal analysis as nullity plays in mesh analysis. That is, it gives the
number of node voltage equations required. Rank and nullity are dual concepts and are related
by;
Solving the network variables

Once a set of geometrically independent variables have been chosen the state of the network is
expressed in terms of these. The result is a set of independent linear equations which need to
be solved simultaneously in order to find the values of the network variables.
8
This set of equations can be expressed in a matrix format which leads to a characteristic
parameter matrix for the network. Parameter matrices take the form of an impedance matrix if
the equations have been formed on a loop-analysis basis, or as an admittance matrix if the
equations have been formed on a node-analysis basis.
These equations can be solved in a number of well-known ways. One method is the systematic
elimination of variables. Another method involves the use of determinants. This is known
as Cramer's rule and provides a direct expression for the unknown variable in terms of
determinants. This is useful in that it provides a compact expression for the solution. However,
for anything more than the most trivial networks, a greater calculation effort is required for this
method when working manually.
Duality
Two graphs are dual when the relationship between branches and node pairs in one is the same
as the relationship between branches and loops in the other. The dual of a graph can be found
entirely by a graphical method.
The dual of a graph is another graph. For a given tree in a graph, the complementary set of
branches (i.e., the branches not in the tree) form a tree in the dual graph. The set of current loop
equations associated with the tie sets of the original graph and tree are identical to the set of
voltage node-pair equations associated with the cut sets of the dual graph
links in the same way that the tree consists
of nodes connected by tree branches.Duals
cannot be formed for every graph. Duality
requires that every tie set has a dual cut set
in the dual graph. This condition is met if
and only if the graph is map able on to a
sphere with no branches crossing.
The dual of a tree is sometimes called
a maze. It consists of spaces connected by
To see this, note that a tie set is required to "tie off" a graph into two portions and its dual, the cut
set, is required to cut a graph into two portions. The graph of a finite network which will not map
on to a sphere will require an n-fold torus.
A tie set that passes through a hole in a torus will fail to tie the graph into two parts.
Consequently, the dual graph will not be cut into two parts and will not contain the required cut
set. Consequently, only planar graphs have duals.
Duals also cannot be formed for networks containing mutual inductances since there is no
corresponding capacitive element. Equivalent circuits can be developed which do have duals, but
the dual cannot be formed of a mutual inductance directly.
Node and mesh elimination

Operations on a set of network equations have a topological meaning which can aid visualization
of what is happening.
Elimination of a node voltage from a set of network equations corresponds topologically to the
elimination of that node from the graph.
For a node connected to three other nodes, this corresponds to the well known Y- transform.
The transform can be extended to greater numbers of connected nodes and is then known as
the star-mesh transform.
The inverse of this transform is the -Y transform which analytically corresponds to the
elimination of a mesh current and topologically corresponds to the elimination of a mesh.
However, elimination of a mesh current whose mesh has branches in common with an arbitrary
number of other meshes will not, in general, result in a realizable graph.
This is because the graph of the transform of the general star is a graph which will not map on to
a sphere (it contains star polygons and hence multiple crossovers). The dual of such a graph
cannot exist, but is the graph required to represents a generalized mesh elimination
Mesh analysis
circuits for the currents (and indirectly
the voltages) at any place in the circuit.
Planar circuits are circuits that can be drawn
on a surface with no wires crossing each
other.
A more general technique, called loop
analysis (with the corresponding network
variables called loop currents) can be
applied to any circuit, planar or not.
Mesh analysis (or the mesh current method)
is a method that is used to solve planar
Mesh analysis and loop analysis both make use of Kirchhoffs voltage law to arrive at a set of
equations guaranteed to be solvable if the circuit has a solution. Mesh analysis is usually easier
to use when the circuit is planar, compared to loop analysis.
10
Mesh currents and essential meshes

Mesh analysis works by arbitrarily assigning
mesh currents in the essential meshes (also
referred to as independent meshes). An
essential mesh is a loop in the circuit that
does not contain any other loop. Figure
labels the essential meshes with one, two,
and three.
A mesh current is a current that loops around the essential mesh and the equations are set solved
in terms of them. A mesh current may not correspond to any physically flowing current, but the
physical currents are easily found from them. It is usual practice to have all the mesh currents
loop in the same direction.
This helps prevent errors when writing out the equations. The convention is to have all the mesh
currents looping in a clockwise direction. Figure shows the same circuit from Figure 1 with the
mesh currents labeled.
Solving for mesh currents instead of directly applying law and Kirchhoff's voltage law can
greatly reduce the amount of calculation required. This is because there are fewer mesh currents
than there are physical branch currents. In figure 2 for example, there are six branch currents but
only three mesh currents.
Setting up the equations

Each mesh produces one equation. These equations are the sum of the voltage drops in a
complete loop of the mesh current. For problems more general than those including current and
voltage sources, the voltage drops will be the impedance of the electronic component multiplied
by the mesh current in that loop.
If a voltage source is present within the mesh loop, the voltage at the source is either added or
subtracted depending on if it is a voltage drop or a voltage rise in the direction of the mesh
current. For a current source that is not contained between two meshes, the mesh current will
take the positive or negative value of the current source depending on if the mesh current is in
the same or opposite direction of the current source. The following is the same circuit from
above with the equations needed to solve for all the currents in the circuit.
11
Once the equations are found, the system of linear equations can be solved by using any
technique to solve linear equations.
Special cases
There are two special cases in mesh current: currents containing a supermesh and currents
containing dependent sources.
Supermesh
The circuit is first treated as if the current
source is not there. This leads to one
equation that incorporates two mesh
currents.
Once this equation is formed, an equation is
needed that relates the two mesh currents
with the current source.
A supermesh occurs when a current source
is contained between two essential meshes.
This will be an equation where the current source is equal to one of the mesh currents minus the
other. The following is a simple example of dealing with a supermesh.
Dependent sources
A dependent source is a current source or
voltage source that depends on the voltage
or current of another element in the circuit.
When a dependent source is contained
within an essential mesh, the dependent
source should be treated like an independent
source.
After the mesh equation is formed, a dependent source equation is needed. This equation is
generally called a constraint equation.
This is an equation that relates the dependent sources variable to the voltage or current that the
source depends on in the circuit. The following is a simple example of a dependent source.
12
Nodal analysis
In electric circuit analysis, nodal analysis,

node-voltage analysis, or the branch current
method is a method of determining the
voltage (potential difference) between
"nodes" (points where elements or branches
connect) in an electrical circuit in terms of
the branch currents.
In analyzing a circuit using Kirchhoff's circuit laws, one can either do nodal analysis using
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) or mesh analysis using Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL).
Nodal analysis writes an equation at each electrical node, requiring that the branch currents
incident at a node must sum to zero. The branch currents are written in terms of the circuit node
voltages.
As a consequence, each branch constitutive relation must give current as a function of voltage;
an admittance representation. For instance, for a resistor, I branch = V branch * G, where G
(=1/R) is the admittance (conductance) of the resistor.
Nodal analysis is possible when all the circuit elements' branch constitutive relations have an
admittance representation.
Nodal analysis produces a compact set of equations for the network, which can be solved by
hand if small, or can be quickly solved using linear algebra by computer. Because of the compact
system of equations, many circuit simulation programs (e.g. SPICE) use nodal analysis as a
basis.
When elements do not have admittance representations, a more general extension of nodal
analysis, modified, can be used.
13
While simple examples of nodal analysis focus on linear elements, more complex nonlinear
networks can also be solved with nodal analysis by using Newton's method to turn the nonlinear
problem into a sequence of linear problems.
Method
1. Note all connected wire segments in the circuit. These are the nodes of nodal analysis.
2. Select one node as the ground reference. The choice does not affect the result and is just a
matter of convention. Choosing the node with the most connections can simplify the
analysis.
3. Assign a variable for each node whose voltage is unknown. If the voltage is already
known, it is not necessary to assign a variable.
4. For each unknown voltage, form an equation based on Kirchhoff's current law. Basically,
add together all currents leaving from the node and mark the sum equal to zero.
5. Finding the current between two nodes is nothing more than "the node you're on, minus
the node you're going to, divided by the resistance between the two nodes."
6. If there are voltage sources between two unknown voltages, join the two nodes as
a supernode. The currents of the two nodes are combined in a single equation, and a new
equation for the voltages is formed.
7. Solve the system of simultaneous equations for each unknown voltage.
Example
Basic case
The only unknown voltage in this circuit is
V1. There are three connections to this node
and consequently three currents to consider.
The direction of the currents in calculations
is chosen to be away from the node.
1. Current through resistor R1: (V1 - VS) / R1
2. Current through resistor R2: V1 / R2
3. Current through current source IS: -IS
With Kirchhoff's current law, we get:
14
This equation can be solved in respect to V1:
Finally, the unknown voltage can be solved by substituting numerical values for the symbols.
Any unknown currents are easy to calculate after all the voltages in the circuit are known.
Supernodes
In this circuit, we initially have two
unknown voltages, V1 and V2. The voltage
at V3 is already known to be VB because the
other terminal of the voltage source is at
ground potential.
The current going through voltage source VA cannot be directly calculated. Therefore we cannot
write the current equations for either V1 or V2. However, we know that the same current leaving
node V2 must enter node V1.
Even though the nodes cannot be individually solved, we know that the combined current of
these two nodes is zero. This combining of the two nodes is called the supernode technique, and
it requires one additional equation: V1 = V2 + VA.
The complete set of equations for this circuit is:
By substituting V1 to the first equation and solving in respect to V2, we get :
15
UNIT II
16
NETWORK THEOREMS
1. Superposition theorem
The superposition theorem for electrical circuits states that for a linear system the response
(Voltage or Current) in any branch of a bilateral linear circuit having more than one independent
source equals the algebraic sum of the responses caused by each independent source acting
alone, while all other independent sources are replaced by their internal impedances.
To ascertain the contribution of each individual source, all of the other sources first must be
"turned off" (set to zero) by:
1. Replacing all other independent voltage sources with a short circuit (thereby eliminating
difference of potential. i.e. V=0, internal impedance of ideal voltage source is ZERO
(short circuit)).
2. Replacing all other independent current sources with an open circuit (thereby eliminating
current. i.e. I=0, internal impedance of ideal current source is infinite (open circuit).
This procedure is followed for each source in turn, and then the resultant responses are added to
determine the true operation of the circuit.
The resultant circuit operation is the superposition of the various voltage and current sources.
The superposition theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It is used in converting any
circuit into its Norton equivalent or Thevenin equivalent.
Applicable to linear networks (time varying or time invariant) consisting of independent sources,
linear dependent sources, linear passive elements Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors and
linear transformers.
Another point that should be considered is that superposition only works for voltage and current
but not power. In other words the sum of the powers is not the real consumed power.
To calculate power we should first use superposition to find both current and voltage of that
linear element and then calculate sum of the multiplied voltages and currents respectively.
3. Thevenin's theorem
In circuit theory, Thevenin's theorem for linear electrical networks states that any combination
of voltage sources, current sources, and resistors with two terminals is electrically equivalent to a
single voltage source V and a single series resistor R.
For single frequency AC systems the theorem can also be applied to general impedances, not just
resistors.
17
This theorem states that a circuit of voltage sources and resistors can be converted into
a Thevenin equivalent, which is a simplification technique used in circuit analysis.
The Thevenin equivalent can be used as a good model for a power supply or battery (with the
resistor representing the internal impedance and the source representing the electromotive force).
The circuit consists of an ideal voltage source in series with an ideal resistor.
Calculating the Thevenin equivalent

To calculate the equivalent circuit, the resistance and voltage are needed, so two equations are
required. These two equations are usually obtained by using the following steps, but any
conditions placed on the terminals of the circuit should also work:
1. Calculate the output voltage, VAB, when in open circuit condition (no load resistor
meaning infinite resistance). This is VTh.
2. Calculate the output current, IAB, when the output terminals are short circuited (load
resistance is 0). RTh equals VTh divided by this IAB.
The equivalent circuit is a voltage source with voltage VTh in series with a resistance RTh.
Step 2 could also be thought of as:
2a. Replace voltage sources with short circuits, and current sources with open circuits.
2b. Calculate the resistance between terminals A and B. This is RTh.
The Thevenin-equivalent voltage is the voltage at the output terminals of the original circuit.
When calculating a Thevenin-equivalent voltage, the voltage divider principle is often useful, by
declaring one terminal to be Vout and the other terminal to be at the ground point.
The Thevenin-equivalent resistance is the resistance measured across points A and B "looking
back" into the circuit. It is important to first replace all voltage- and current-sources with their
internal resistances.
For an ideal voltage source, this means replace the voltage source with a short circuit. For an
ideal current source, this means replace the current source with an open circuit.
Resistance can then be calculated across the terminals using the formulae for series and parallel
circuits.
18
This method is valid only for circuits with independent sources. If there are dependent sources in
the circuit, another method must be used such as connecting a test source across A and B and
calculating the voltage across or current through the test source.
Example
In the example, calculating the equivalent voltage:
(notice that R1 is not taken into consideration, as above calculations are done in an open circuit
condition between A and B, therefore no current flows through this part, which means there is no
current through R1 and therefore no voltage drop along this part)
Calculating equivalent resistance:
19
Practical limitations
Many, if not most circuits are only linear over a certain range of values, thus the Thevenin
equivalent is valid only within this linear range and may not be valid outside the range.
The Thevenin equivalent has an equivalent IV characteristic only from the point of view of the
load.
The power dissipation of the Thevenin equivalent is not necessarily identical to the power
dissipation of the real system.
However, the power dissipated by an external resistor between the two output terminals is the
same regardless of how the internal circuit is represented
Proof of the theorem

The proof involves two steps. First use superposition theorem to construct a solution, and then
use uniqueness theorem to show the solution is unique. The second step is usually implied.
Firstly, using the superposition theorem, in general for any linear "black box" circuit which
contains voltage sources and resistors, one can always write down its voltage as a linear function
of the corresponding current as follows
Where the first term reflects the linear summation of contributions from each voltage source,
while the second term measures the contribution from all the resistors.
The above argument is due to the fact that the voltage of the black box for a given current
identical to the linear superposition of the solutions of the following problems:
is
(1) to leave the black box open circuited but activate individual voltage source one at a time
and,
(2) to short circuit all the voltage sources but feed the circuit with a certain ideal voltage
source so that the resulting current exactly reads I (or an ideal current source of current I).
20
Once the above expression is established, it is straightforward to show that

single voltage source and the single series resistor in question
and
is the
3. Norton's theorem
Norton's theorem for linear electrical networks, known in Europe as the MayerNorton theorem,
states that any collection of voltage sources, current sources, and resistors with two terminals is
electrically equivalent to an ideal current source, I, in parallel with a single resistor, R.
For single-frequency AC systems the theorem can also be applied to general impedances, not just
resistors.
The Norton equivalent is used to represent any network of linear sources and impedances, at a
given frequency. The circuit consists of an ideal current source in parallel with an ideal
impedance (or resistor for non-reactive circuits).
Norton's theorem is an extension of Thevenin's theorem and was introduced in 1926 separately
by two people: Siemens & Halske researcher Hans Ferdinand Mayer (18951980) and Bell
Labs engineer Edward Lawry Norton (18981983).
The Norton equivalent circuit is a current source with current INo in parallel with a
resistance RNo. To find the equivalent,
1. Find the Norton current INo. Calculate the output current, IAB, with a short circuit as
the load (meaning 0 resistances between A and B). This is I No.
2. Find the Norton resistance RNo. When there are no dependent sources (all current and
voltage sources are independent), there are two methods of determining the Norton
impedance RNo.
Calculate the output voltage, VAB, when in open circuit condition (i.e., no load
resistor meaning infinite load resistance). RNo equals this VAB divided by INo.
Or
21
Replace independent voltage sources with short circuits and independent current
sources with open circuits. The total resistance across the output port is the Norton
impedance RNo.
This is equivalent to calculating the Thevenin resistance.

However, when there are dependent sources, the more general method must be used. This
method is not shown below in the diagrams.
Connect a constant current source at the output terminals of the circuit with a value of
1 Ampere and calculate the voltage at its terminals.
This voltage divided by the 1A current is the Norton impedance RNo.
This method must be used if the circuit contains dependent sources, but it can be used
in all cases even when there are no dependent sources.
Example
In the example, the total current Itotal is given by:
22
The current through the load is then, using the current divider rule:
And the equivalent resistance looking back into the circuit is:
So the equivalent circuit is a 3.75 mA current source in parallel with a 2 k resistor
Relation between Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit
4. Maximum power transfer theorem
23
obtain maximum external power from a

source with a finite internal resistance, the
resistance of the load must equal the
resistance of the source as viewed from its
output
terminals. Moritz
von
Jacobi published the maximum power
(transfer) theorem around 1840; it is also
referred to as "Jacobi's law".
In electrical engineering, the maximum
power transfer theorem states that, to
The theorem results in maximum power transfer, and not maximum efficiency. If
the resistance of the load is made larger than the resistance of the source, then efficiency is
higher, since a higher percentage of the source power is transferred to the load, but the
magnitude of the load power is lower since the total circuit resistance goes up.
If the load resistance is smaller than the source resistance, then most of the power ends up being
dissipated in the source, and although the total power dissipated is higher, due to a lower total
resistance, it turns out that the amount dissipated in the load is reduced.
The theorem states how to choose (so as to maximize power transfer) the load resistance, once
the source resistance is given. It is a common misconception to apply the theorem in the opposite
scenario.
It does not say how to choose the source resistance for a given load resistance. In fact, the source
resistance that maximizes power transfer is always zero, regardless of the value of the load
resistance.
The theorem can be extended to AC circuits that include reactance, and states that maximum
power transfer occurs when the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of the source
impedance.
2
2
ET h
I N RN
Pmax
4 RT h
4
Maximizing power transfer versus power efficiency

The theorem was originally misunderstood (notably by Joule) to imply that a system consisting
of an electric motor driven by a battery could not be more than 50% efficient since, when the
impedances were matched, the power lost as heat in the battery would always be equal to the
power delivered to the motor.
In 1880 this assumption was shown to be false by either Edison or his colleague Francis Robbins
Upton, who realized that maximum efficiency was not the same as maximum power transfer.
24
To achieve maximum efficiency, the resistance of the source (whether a battery or a dynamo)
could be made close to zero. Using this new understanding, they obtained an efficiency of about
90%, and proved that the electric motor was a practical alternative to the heat engine
The condition of maximum power transfer does not result in maximum efficiency. If we define
the efficiency as the ratio of power dissipated by the load to power developed by the source,
then it is straightforward to calculate from the above circuit diagram that
Consider three particular cases:
If
If
or
If
, then
, then
then
The efficiency is only 50% when maximum power transfer is achieved, but approaches 100% as
the load resistance approaches infinity, though the total power level tends towards zero.
Efficiency also approaches 100% if the source resistance can be made close to zero.
When the load resistance is zero, all the power is consumed inside the source (the power
dissipated in a short circuit is zero) so the efficiency is zero.
Impedance matching
A related concept is reflection less impedance matching. In radio, transmission lines, and
other electronics, there is often a requirement to match the source impedance (such as a
transmitter) to the load impedance (such as an antenna) to avoid reflections in the transmission
Calculus-based proof for purely resistive circuits
25
In the diagram opposite, power is being

transferred from the source, with voltage
and fixed source resistance
, to a load
with resistance
, resulting in a current .
By Ohm's law, is simply the source
voltage divided by the total circuit
resistance:
The power
dissipated in the load is the square of the current multiplied by the resistance :
The value of
for which this expression is a maximum could be calculated by differentiating
it, but it is easier to calculate the value of
for which the denominator
is a minimum. The result will be the same in either case. Differentiating the denominator with
respect to
:
For a maximum or minimum, the first derivative is zero, so
or
In practical resistive circuits,

and
are both positive, so the positive sign in the above is
the correct solution. To find out whether this solution is a minimum or a maximum, the
denominator expression is differentiated again:
This is always positive for positive values of

and
minimum, and the power is therefore a maximum, when
In reactive circuits
26
, showing that the denominator is a
However, this equation only applies if the source resistance cannot be adjusted, e.g., with
antennas (see the first line in the proof stating "fixed source resistance").
For any given load resistance a source resistance of zero is the way to transfer maximum power
to the load. As an example, a 100 volt source with an internal resistance of 10 ohms connected to
a 10 ohm load will deliver 250 watts to that load. Make the source resistance zero ohms and the
load power jumps to 1000 watts.
5. Tellegen's theorem
Tellegen's theorem is one of the most powerful theorems in network theory. Most of the energy
distribution theorems and extremism principles in network theory can be derived from it. It was
published in 1952 by Bernard Tellegens. Fundamentally, Tellegen's theorem gives a simple
relation between magnitudes that satisfy Kirchhoff's laws of electrical circuit theory.
The Tellegens theorem is applicable to a multitude of network systems. The basic assumptions
for the systems are the conservation of flow of extensive quantities (Kirchhoff's current law,
KCL) and the uniqueness of the potentials at the network nodes (Kirchhoff's voltage law, KVL).
The Tellegens theorem provides a useful tool to analyze complex network systems among the
electrical circuits, biological and metabolic networks, pipeline flow networks, and chemical
process networks.
The theorem
Consider an arbitrary lumped network whose graph
has branches and
nodes. In an
electrical network, the branches are two-terminal components and the nodes are points of
interconnection. Suppose that to each branch of the graph we assign arbitrarily a branch potential
difference
and a branch current
for , and suppose that they are measured with respect to
arbitrarily
picked associated reference
directions.
If
the
branch
potential
differences
satisfy all the constraints imposed by KVL and if the branch
currents
satisfy all the constraints imposed by KCL, then
Tellegen's theorem is extremely general; it is valid for any lumped network that contains any
elements, linear or nonlinear, passive or active, time-varying or time-invariant.The generality is
extended when
and
are linear operations on the set of potential differences and on the
set of branch currents (respectively) since linear operations don't affect KVL and KCL. For
instance, the linear operation may be the average or the Laplace transform. The set of currents
can also be sampled at a different time from the set of potential differences since KVL and KCL
are true at all instants of time. Another extension is when the set of potential differences
is
from one network and the set of currents
is from an entirely different network, so long as the
27
two networks have the same topology (same incidence matrix) Tellegen's theorem remains true.
This extension of Tellegen's Theorem leads to many theorems relating to two-port networks.
Definitions
We need to introduce a few necessary network definitions to provide a compact proof.
Incidence matrix: The
matrix elements
being
A reference or datum node
matrix
is called node-to-branch incidence matrix for the
is introduced to represent the environment and connected to all
dynamic nodes and terminals. The

elements
of the reference node
matrix , where the row that contains the

is eliminated, is called reduced incidence matrix.
The conservation laws (KCL) in vector-matrix form:
The uniqueness condition for the potentials (KVL) in vector-matrix form:
Where
are the absolute potentials at the nodes to the reference node
Proof
Using KVL:
Because
by KCL. So:
Applications
Network analogs have been constructed for a wide variety of physical systems, and have
proven extremely useful in analyzing their dynamic behavior. The classical application
area for network theory and Tellegen's theorem is electrical circuit theory. It is mainly in
use to design filters in signal processing applications.
A more recent application of Tellegen's theorem is in the area of chemical and biological
processes. The assumptions for electrical circuits (Kirchhoff laws) are generalized for
dynamic systems obeying the laws of irreversible thermodynamics. Topology and
28
structure of reaction networks (reaction mechanisms, metabolic networks) can be

analyzed using the Tellegens theorem.
Another application of Tellegen's theorem is to determine stability and optimality of
complex process systems such as chemical plants or oil production systems. The
Tellegens theorem can be formulated for process systems using process nodes,
terminals, flow connections and allowing sinks and sources for production or destruction
of extensive quantities.
A formulation for Tellegen's theorem of process systems:
Where
are the production terms,
are the terminal connections, and
storage terms for the extensive variables.
are the dynamic
6. Millmans Theorem
In electrical engineering, Millman's theorem (or the parallel generator theorem) is a method to
simplify the solution of a circuit. Specifically, Millman's theorem is used to compute
the voltage at the ends of a circuit made up of only branches in parallel.
It is named after Jacob Millman, who proved the theorem.
Explanation
Let ek be the voltage generators and am the current generators.

Let Ri be the resistances on the branches with no generator.
Let Rk be the resistances on the branches with voltage generators.
Let Rm be the resistances on the branches with current generators.
Then Millman states that the voltage at the ends of the circuit is given by:
29
It can be proved by considering the circuit as a single supernode. Then, according

to Ohm and Kirchhoff, "the voltage between the ends of the circuit is equal to the total current
entering the supernode divided by the total equivalent conductance of the supernode".
The total current is the sum of the currents flowing in each branch.
The total equivalent conductance of the supernode is the sum of the conductance of each branch,
since all the branches are in parallel. When computing the equivalent conductance all the
generators have to be switched off, so all voltage generators become short circuits and all current
generators become open circuits. That's why the resistances on the branches with current
generators do not appear in the expression of the total equivalent conductance.
7. Reciprocity Theorem
The reciprocity theorem is applicable only to single-source networks and states the following:
1. The current I in any branch of a network, due to a single voltage source E
anywhere in the network, will equal the current through the branch in which the
source was originally located if the source is placed in the branch in which the
current I was originally measured.
2. The location of the voltage source and the resulting current may be interchanged
without a change in current
30
UNIT III
31
NETWORK FUNCTIONS
Driving point impedance
The driving point impedance is a mathematical representation of the input impedance of a filter
in the frequency domain using one of a number of notations such as Laplace transform (sdomain) or Fourier transform ( j-domain).
Treating it as a one-port network, the expression is expanded using continued fraction or partial
fraction expansions. The resulting expansion is transformed into a network (usually a ladder
network) of electrical elements.
Taking an output from the end of this network, so realized, will transform it into a two-port
network filter with the desired transfer function.
Not every possible mathematical function for driving point impedance can be realized using real
electrical components.
Wilhelm Cauer (following on from R. M. Foster) did much of the early work on what
mathematical functions could be realized and in which filter topologies. The ubiquitous ladder
topology of filter design is named after Cauer.
There are a number of canonical forms of driving point impedance that can be used to express all
(except the simplest) realizable impedances. The most well known ones are
Cauer's first form of driving point impedance consists of a ladder of shunt capacitors and
series inductors and is most useful for low-pass filters.
Cauer's second form of driving point impedance consists of a ladder of series capacitors and
shunt inductors and is most useful for high-pass filters.
Foster's first form of driving point impedance consists of parallel connected LC resonators
and is most useful for band-pass filters.
Foster's second form of driving point impedance consists of series connected LC antiresonators and is most useful for band-stop filters.
32
Transfer Function
A transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the input with
all initial conditions equal to zero. Transfer functions are defined only for linear time invariant
systems.
Transfer functions can usually be expressed as the ratio of two polynomials in the complex
variable, s. A transfer function can be factored into the following form.
G( s)
K ( s z1 )( s z2 ) ... ( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 ) ... ( s pn )
The roots of the numerator polynomial are called zeros.

The roots of the denominator polynomial are called poles.
Visualizing Pole-Zero plot

Pole-Zero plots is an important tool, which helps us to relate the Frequency domain and Zdomain representation of a system. Understanding this relation will help in interpreting results in
either domain. It also helps in determining stability of a system; given its transfer function H (z).
Since the z-transform is a function of a complex variable, it is convenient to describe and
interpret it using the complex z-plane. In the z-plane, the contour corresponding to |z| = 1 is a
circle of unit radius.
This contour is referred to as the Unit Circle. Also, the z-transform is most useful when the
infinite sum can be expressed as a simple mathematical formula. One important form of
representation is to represent it as a rational function inside the Region of Convergence, i.e.
Where, the numerator and denominator are polynomials in z. The values of z for which H (z) = 0
are called the zeros of H(z), and the values of z for which H(z) is are referred to as the poles of
H(z).
In other words, the zeros are the roots of the numerator polynomial and the poles of H (z) for
finite values of z are the roots of the denominator polynomial.
33
A plot of Pole and Zeros of a system on the z-plane is called a Pole-Zero plots. Usually, a Zero
is represented by a 'o'(small-circle) and a pole by a 'x'(cross).
Since H (z) evaluated on the unit-circle gives the frequency response of a system.
The pole-zero plots gives us a convenient way of visualizing the relationship between the
Frequency domain and Z-domain.
The frequency response H (e jw) is obtained from the transfer function H(z), by evaluating the
transfer function at specific values of z = e jw.
Since, the frequency response is periodic with period 2p, we need to evaluate it over one period,
such as -p < w < p.
If we substitute these values of w in z= e jw, values of z lie on the unit circle and range from z = 1 all the way around and back to the point z = -1.
This is shown in Figure 1 below.
From this the periodicity of 2p in frequency domain corresponds to moving through an angle of
2p on the unit circle.
An Example:
You are given the following transfer function. Show the poles and zeros in the s-plane.
G( s )
(s 8)(s 14)
s(s 4)(s 10)
34
Bode Plots
A Bode plot is a (semi log) plot of the transfer function magnitude and phase angle as a function
of frequency. The gain magnitude is many times expressed in terms of decibels (dB).
Bode plot is the representation of the magnitude and phase of G(j*w) (where the frequency
vector w contains only positive frequencies).
dB = 20 log10 A
where A is the amplitude or gain
a decade is defined as any 10-to-1 frequency range
an octave is any 2-to-1 frequency range
20 dB/decade = 6 dB/octave
A Bode plot is a standard format for plotting frequency response of LTI systems. Becoming
familiar with this format is useful because:
It is a standard format, so using that format facilitates communication between engineers.
Many common system behaviors produce simple shapes (e.g. straight lines) on a Bode
plot, so it is easy to either look at a plot or recognize the system behavior, or to sketch a
plot from what you know about the system behavior.
The format is a log frequency scale on the horizontal axis and, on the vertical axis, phase
in degrees and magnitude in decibels.
Straight-line approximations of the Bode plot may be drawn quickly from knowing the
poles and zeros
o response approaches a minimum near the zeros
o response approaches a maximum near the poles
The overall effect of constant, zero and pole terms
Term
Magnitude
Break
Asymptotic
Magnitude Slope
Asymptotic
Phase Shift
Constant (K)
N/A
Zero
upward
+20 dB/decade
+ 90
Pole
downward
20 dB/decade
90
35
Method
Express the transfer function in standard form
K j (1 j1 ) 1 2 2 ( j2 ) ( j2 ) 2
H( j )
(1 ja ) 1 2 b ( jb ) ( jb ) 2
N
There are four different factors:

Constant gain term, K
Poles or zeros at the origin, (j)N
Poles or zeros of the form (1+ j)
Quadratic poles or zeros of the form 1+2(j)+(j)2
We can combine the constant gain term (K) and the N pole(s) or zero(s) at the origin such
that the magnitude crosses 0 dB at
Pole :
K
( j ) N
Zero : K ( j ) N
0 dB K 1/ N
0 dB (1 / K )1/ N
Define the break frequency to be at =1/ with magnitude at 3 dB and phase at 45
Bode Plot Summary

Magnitude Behavior
Factor
Constant
Low
Freq
Break
Asymptotic
Phase Behavior
Low
Freq
Break
Asymptotic
20 log10(K) for all frequencies
0 for all frequencies
Poles or
zeros at origin
20N dB/decade for all

frequencies with a crossover of
0 dB at =1
90(N) for all frequencies
First order
(simple) poles
or zeros
0 dB
3N dB
at =1/
20N
dB/decade
45(N) with
slope 45(N)
per decade
90(N)
Quadratic
poles or zeros
0 dB
see at
=1/
40N
dB/decade
90(N)
180(N)
36
Single Pole and Zero Bode Plots
Gain Margin and Phase Margin
37
The gain margin is defined as the change in open loop gain required to make the system
unstable. Systems with greater gain margins can withstand greater changes in system
parameters before becoming unstable in closed loop. Keep in mind that unity gain in
magnitude is equal to a gain of zero in dB.
The phase margin is defined as the change in open loop phase shift required to make a
closed loop system unstable.
The phase margin is the difference in phase between the phase curve and -180 deg at the
point corresponding to the frequency that gives us a gain of 0dB (the gain cross over
frequency, Wgc).
Likewise, the gain margin is the difference between the magnitude curve and 0dB at the
point corresponding to the frequency that gives us a phase of -180 deg (the phase cross
over frequency, Wpc).
38
UNIT IV
39
TWO PORT NETWORK

A two-port
network is
an electrical
network (circuit) or device with two pairs of
terminals to connect to external circuits.
Two terminals constitute a port if the
currents applied to them satisfy the essential
requirement known as the port condition:
the electric current entering one terminal
must equal the current emerging from the
other.
The ports constitute interfaces where the network connects to other networks, the points where
signals are applied or outputs are taken. In a two-port network, often port 1 is considered the
input port and port 2 is considered the output port.
The two-port network model is used in mathematical circuit analysis techniques to isolate
portions of larger circuits. A two-port network is regarded as a "black box" with its properties
specified by amatrix of numbers. This allows the response of the network to signals applied to
the ports to be calculated easily, without solving for all the internal voltages and currents in the
network. It also allows similar circuits or devices to be compared easily. For example, transistors
are often regarded as two-ports, characterized by their h-parameters (see below) which are listed
by the manufacturer. Any linear circuit with four terminals can be regarded as a two-port
network provided that it does not contain an independent source and satisfies the port conditions.
Examples of circuits analyzed as two-ports are filters, matching networks, transmission
lines, transformers, and small-signal models for transistors (such as the hybrid-pi model). The
analysis of passive two-port networks is an outgrowth of reciprocity theorems first derived by
Lorentz.
In two-port mathematical models, the network is described by a 2 by 2 square matrix of complex
numbers. The common models that are used are referred to as z-parameters, y-parameters, hparameters, g-parameters, and ABCD-parameters, each described individually below. These
are all limited to linear networks since an underlying assumption of their derivation is that any
given circuit condition is a linear superposition of various short-circuit and open circuit
conditions. They are usually expressed in matrix notation, and they establish relations between
the variables
40
General Properties
There are certain properties of two-ports that frequently occur in practical networks and can be
used to greatly simplify the analysis. These include:
Reciprocal Networks. A network is said to be reciprocal if the voltage appearing at port 2 due to
a current applied at port 1 is the same as the voltage appearing at port 1 when the same current is
applied to port 2. Exchanging voltage and current results in an equivalent definition of
reciprocity. In general, a network will be reciprocal if it consists entirely of linear passive
components (that is, resistors, capacitors and inductors). In general, it will not be reciprocal if it
contains active components such as generators.
Symmetrical Networks. A network is symmetrical if its input impedance is equal to its output
impedance. Most often, but not necessarily, symmetrical networks are also physically
symmetrical. Sometimes also anti symmetrical networks are of interest. These are networks
where the input and output impedances are the duals of each other.
Lossless Network. A lossless network is one which contains no resistors or other dissipative
elements.
Impedance parameters (z-parameters)
Where
z11 is the impedance seen looking into port 1
when port 2 is open.
z12 is a transfer impedance. It is the ratio of
the voltage at port 1 to the current at port 2
z21 is a transfer impedance. It is the ratio of
the voltage at port 2 to the current at port 1
z22 is the impedance seen looking into port 2
41
Notice that all the z-parameters have dimensions of ohms.

For reciprocal networks
lossless networks all the
. For symmetrical networks

are purely imaginary.
. For reciprocal
Admittance parameters (y-parameters)
Where
y11 is the admittance seen looking into port 1
when port 2 is shorted.
y12 is a transfer admittance. It is the ratio of
the current at port 1 to the voltage at port 2
when port 1 is shorted.
y21 is a transfer impedance. It is the ratio of
the current at port 2 to the voltage at port 1
when port 2 is shorted
y22 is the admittance seen looking into port 2
when port 1 is shorted
Notice that all the Y-parameters have dimensions of Mho.
lossless networks all the

are purely imaginary.
Hybrid parameters (h-parameters)
Where
42
. For reciprocal
This circuit is often selected when a current amplifier is wanted at the output. The resistors
shown in the diagram can be general impedances instead.
Notice that off-diagonal h-parameters are dimensionless, while diagonal members have
dimensions the reciprocal of one another.
ABCD-parameters
The ABCD-parameters are known variously as chain, cascade, or transmission line parameters.
There are a number of definitions given for ABCD parameters, the most common is

. For networks which are
reciprocal and lossless, A and D are purely real while B and C are purely imaginary.
This representation is preferred because when the parameters are used to represent a cascade of
two-ports, the matrices are written in the same order that a network diagram would be drawn,
that is, left to right. However, the examples given below are based on a variant definition.
Where
The negative signs in the definitions of parameters

the opposite sense to , that is,
.
and
arise because
is defined with
The reason for adopting this convention is so that the output current of one cascaded stage is
equal to the input current of the next. Consequently, the input voltage/current matrix vector can
be directly replaced with the matrix equation of the preceding cascaded stage to form a
combined
matrix.
The terminology of representing the
parameters
designated a11 etc. as adopted by some authors and the inverse
43
as
matrix of elements
parameters as a matrix
of elements designated b11 etc. is used here for both brevity and to avoid confusion with circuit
elements.
There is a simple relationship between these two forms: one is the matrix inverse of the other,
that is;
Two Port Parameter Conversions
44
Combinations of two-port networks

When two or more two-port networks are connected, the two-port parameters of the combined
network can be found by performing matrix algebra on the matrices of parameters for the
component two-ports.
The matrix operation can be made particularly simple with an appropriate choice of two-port
parameters to match the form of connection of the two-ports. For instance, the z-parameters are
best for series connected ports.
The combination rules need to be applied with care. Some connections (when dissimilar
potentials are joined) result in the port condition being invalidated and the combination rule will
no longer apply.
This difficulty can be overcome by placing 1:1 ideal transformers on the outputs of the problem
two-ports.
This does not change the parameters of the two-ports, but does ensure that they will continue to
meet the port condition when interconnected. An example of this problem is shown for seriesseries connections in figures 11 and 12 below.
1. Series-series
connection:
When two-ports are connected in a series-series configuration as shown in figure 10, the best
choice of two-port parameter is the z-parameters.
The z-parameters of the combined network are found by matrix addition of the two individual zparameter
matrices
45
As mentioned above, there are some networks which will not yield directly to this analysis. [11] A
simple example is a two-port consisting of a L-network of resistors R1 and R2. The z-parameters
for this network are;
Figure 11 shows two identical such networks connected in series-series. The total z-parameters
predicted by matrix addition are;
However, direct analysis of the combined circuit shows that ,
The discrepancy is explained by observing that R1 of the lower two-port has been by-passed by
the short-circuit between two terminals of the output ports. This results in no current flowing
through one terminal in each of the input ports of the two individual networks.
Consequently, the port condition is broken for both the input ports of the original networks since
current is still able to flow into the other terminal.
This problem can be resolved by inserting an ideal transformer in the output port of at least one
of the two-port networks. While this is a common text-book approach to presenting the theory of
46
two-ports, the practicality of using transformers is a matter to be decided for each individual
design.
2. Parallel-parallel connection:
When two-ports are connected in a parallelparallel configuration as shown in figure 13,
the best choice of two-port parameter is
the y-parameter
The y-parameters of the combined network are found by matrix addition of the two individual yparameter matrices.
3. Series-parallel connection:
When two-ports are connected in a seriesparallel configuration as shown in figure 14,
the h-parameters. The h-parameters of the
combined network are found by matrix
addition of the two individual h-parameter
matrices.
4. Parallel-series connection:
When two-ports are connected in a parallelseries configuration as shown in figure 15,

the g-parameters. The g-parameters of the
47
combined network are found by matrix

addition of the two individual g-parameter
matrices.
5. Cascade connection:
When two-ports are connected with the
output port of the first connected to the input
port of the second (a cascade connection) as
shown in figure 16, the best choice of twoport parameter is the ABCD-parameters.
The a-parameters of the combined network
are found by matrix multiplication of the
two individual a-parameter matrices.
A chain of n two-ports may be combined by matrix multiplication of the n matrices. To combine

a cascade of b-parameter matrices, they are again multiplied, but the multiplication must be
carried out in reverse order, so that;
48
UNIT V
49
NETWORK SYNTHESIS
Hurwitz polynomial
Hurwitz polynomial, named after Adolf Hurwitz, is a polynomial whose coefficients are
positive real numbers and whose zeros are located in the left half-plane of the complex plane,
that is, the real part of every zero is negative. One sometimes uses the term Hurwitz
polynomial simply as a (real or complex) polynomial with all zeros in the left-half plane (i.e., a
Hurwitz stable polynomial).
A polynomial is said to be Hurwitz if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. P(s) is real when s is real.
2. The roots of P(s) have real parts which are zero or negative.
Note: Here P(s) is any polynomial in s.
A simple example of a Hurwitz polynomial is the following:
The only real solution is 1, as it factors to
Properties
For a polynomial to be Hurwitz, it is necessary but not sufficient that all of its coefficients be
positive. For all of a polynomial's roots to lie in the left half-plane, it is necessary and sufficient
that the polynomial in question pass the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion. A given polynomial
can be tested to be Hurwitz or not by using the continued fraction expansion technique.
1. All the poles and zeros of a function are in the left half plane or on its boundary the
imaginary axis.
2. Any poles and zeros on the imaginary axis are simple (have a multiplicity of one).
3. Any poles on the imaginary axis have real strictly positive residues, and similarly at
any zeros on the imaginary axis, the function has a real strictly positive derivative.
4. Over the right half plane, the minimum value of the real part of a PR function occurs
on the imaginary axis (because the real part of an analytic function constitutes a
harmonic function over the plane, and therefore satisfies the maximum principle).
5. there have no any missing term of 's' but it possible after the testing the prf stability
50
Positive-real functions, often abbreviated to PR function, are a kind of mathematical function

that first arose in electrical network analysis. They are complex functions, Z(s), of a complex
variable, s.
A rational function is defined to have the PR property if it has a positive real part and is analytic
in the right half plane of the complex plane and takes on real values on the real axis.
In symbols the definition is,
In electrical network analysis, Z(s) represents an impedance expression and s is the complex
frequency variable, often expressed as its real and imaginary parts;
In which terms the PR condition can be stated;
The importance to network analysis of the PR condition lies in the reliability condition. Z(s) is
realizable as one-port rational impedance if and only if it meets the PR condition.
Realizable in this sense means that the impedance can be constructed from a finite (hence
rational) number of discrete ideal passive linear elements (resistors, inductors and capacitors in
electrical terminology).
Definition
The term positive-real function was originally defined as any function Z(s) which
is rational (the quotient of two polynomials),

is real when s is real
has positive real part when s has a positive real part
Many authors strictly adhere to this definition by explicitly requiring rationality, or by restricting
attention to rational functions, at least in the first instance. However, a similar more general
condition, not restricted to rational functions had earlier been considered by Cauer, and some
authors ascribe the term positive-real to this type of condition, while other consider it to be a
generalization of the basic definition.
Positive real Function

Positive-real functions, often abbreviated to PR function, are a kind of mathematical function
that first arose in electrical network analysis. They are complex functions, Z(s), of a complex
51
variable, s. A rational function is defined to have the PR property if it has a positive real part and
is analytic in the right half plane of the complex plane and takes on real values on the real axis.
In symbols the definition is,
In electrical network analysis, Z(s) represents an impedance expression and s is the complex
frequency variable, often expressed as its real and imaginary parts;
in which terms the PR condition can be stated;
The importance to network analysis of the PR condition lies in the realizability condition. Z(s) is
realizable as a one-port rational impedance if and only if it meets the PR condition.
Realizable in this sense means that the impedance can be constructed from a finite (hence
rational) number of discrete ideal passive linear elements (resistors, inductors and capacitors in
electrical terminology)
Properties
The sum of two PR functions is PR.

The composition of two PR functions is PR. In particular, if Z(s) is PR, then so
are 1/Z(s) and Z (1/s).
All the poles and zeros of a PR function are in the left half plane or on its
boundary the imaginary axis.
Any poles and zeroes on the imaginary axis are simple (have a multiplicity of
one).
Any poles on the imaginary axis have real strictly positive residues, and similarly
at any zeroes on the imaginary axis, the function has a real strictly positive
derivative.
Over the right half plane, the minimum value of the real part of a PR function
occurs on the imaginary axis (because the real part of an analytic function
constitutes a harmonic function over the plane, and therefore satisfies
the maximum principle).
52
For a rational PR function, the number of poles and number of zeroes differ by at
most one.
FILTERS
Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions, specifically to
remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones, or both.
Electronic filters can be:
passive or active
analog or digital
High-pass, low-pass, band pass, band-reject (band reject; notch), or all-pass.
discrete-time (sampled) or continuous-time
linear or non-linear
infinite impulse response (IIR type) or finite impulse response (FIR type)
The most common types of electronic filters are linear filters, regardless of other aspects of their
design. See the article on linear filters for details on their design and analysis
L filter
An L filter consists of two reactive elements, one in series and one in parallel.
T and filters
Three-element filters can have a 'T' or '' topology and in geometries, a low-pass, high-pass,
band-pass, or band-stop characteristic is possible. The components can be chosen symmetric or
not, depending on the required frequency characteristics.
The high-pass T filter in the illustration has very low impedance at high frequencies, and a very
high impedance at low frequencies.
That means that it can be inserted in a transmission line, resulting in the high frequencies being
passed and low frequencies being reflected
Likewise, for the illustrated low-pass filter, the circuit can be connected to a transmission line,
transmitting low frequencies and reflecting high frequencies.
Using m-derived filter sections with correct termination impedances, the input impedance can be
reasonably constant in the pass band.
53
Low-pass filter
A low-pass filter is an electronic filter that passes low-frequency signals and attenuates (reduces
the amplitude of) signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency.
The actual amount of attenuation for each frequency varies from filter to filter. It is sometimes
called a high-cut filter, or treble cut filter when used in audio applications.
A low-pass filter is the opposite of a high-pass filter. A band-pass filter is a combination of a
low-pass and a high-pass.
Low-pass filters exist in many different forms, including electronic circuits (such as a hiss
filter used in audio), anti-aliasing filters for conditioning signals prior to analog-to-digital
conversion, digital filters for smoothing sets of data, acoustic barriers, blurring of images, and so
on.
The moving average operation used in fields such as finance is a particular kind of low-pass
filter, and can be analyzed with the same signal processing techniques as are used for other lowpass filters.
Low-pass filters provide a smoother form of a signal, removing the short-term fluctuations, and
leaving the longer-term trend.
In an electronic low-pass RC filter for voltage signals, high frequencies contained in the input
signal are attenuated but the filter has little attenuation below its cutoff frequency which is
determined by its RC time constant.
For current signals, a similar circuit using a resistor and capacitor in parallel works in a similar
manner. See current divider discussed in more detail below.
Electronic low-pass filters are used on input signals to subwoofers and other types
of loudspeakers, to block high pitches that they can't efficiently reproduce.
Radio transmitters use low-pass filters to block harmonic emissions which might cause
interference with other communications.
The tone knob found on many electric guitars is a low-pass filter used to reduce the amount of
treble in the sound.
An integrator is another example of a single time constant low-pass filter.
Telephone lines fitted with DSL splitters use low-pass
separate DSL and POTS signals sharing the same pair of wires.
and high-pass filters
to
Low-pass filters also play a significant role in the sculpting of sound for electronic music as
created by analogue synthesizers.
Ideal and real filters
54
frequency while
unchanged.
passing
those
below
its frequency
response is
a rectangular
function, and is abrick-wall filter.
The transition region present in practical
filters does not exist in an ideal filter.
An ideal
low-pass
filter completely
eliminates all frequencies above the cutoff
An ideal low-pass filter can be realized mathematically (theoretically) by multiplying a signal by
the rectangular function in the frequency domain or, equivalently, convolution with its impulse
response, a sinc function, in the time domain
However, the ideal filter is impossible to realize without also having signals of infinite extent in
time, and so generally needs to be approximated for real ongoing signals.
Real filters for real-time applications approximate the ideal filter by truncating
and windowing the infinite impulse response to make a finite impulse response; applying that
filter requires delaying the signal for a moderate period of time, allowing the computation to
"see" a little bit into the future.
There are many different types of filter circuits, with different responses to changing frequency.
The frequency response of a filter is generally represented using a Bode plot, and the filter is
55
characterized by its cutoff frequency and rate of frequency roll off. In all cases, at the cutoff
frequency, the filter attenuates the input power by half or 3 dB. So the order of the filter
determines the amount of additional attenuation for frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency.
A first-order filter, for example, will reduce the signal amplitude by half (so power reduces
by a factor of 4), or 6 dB, every time the frequency doubles (goes up one octave); more
precisely, the power roll off approaches 20 dB per decade in the limit of high frequency. The
magnitude Bode plot for a first-order filter looks like a horizontal line below the cutoff
frequency, and a diagonal line above the cutoff frequency. There is also a "knee curve" at the
boundary between the two, which smoothly transitions between the two straight line regions.
If the transfer function of a first-order low-pass filter has a zero as well as a pole, the Bode
plot will flatten out again, at some maximum attenuation of high frequencies; such an effect
is caused for example by a little bit of the input leaking around the one-pole filter; this onepoleone-zero filter is still a first-order low-pass. See Polezero plot and RC circuit.
A second-order filter attenuates higher frequencies more steeply. The Bode plot for this type
of filter resembles that of a first-order filter, except that it falls off more quickly. For
example, a second-order Butterworth filter will reduce the signal amplitude to one fourth its
original level every time the frequency doubles (so power decreases by 12 dB per octave, or
40 dB per decade).
Other all-pole second-order filters may roll off at different rates initially depending on
their Q factor, but approach the same final rate of 12 dB per octave; as with the first-order
filters, zeroes in the transfer function can change the high-frequency asymptote. See RLC
circuit.
Third- and higher-order filters are defined similarly.
Electronic Low Pass Filter

One simple electrical circuit that will serve
as a low-pass filter consists of a resistor in
series with a load, and a capacitor in parallel
with
the
load.
The
capacitor
exhibits reactance,
and
blocks
lowfrequency signals, causing them to go
through the load instead. At higher
frequencies the reactance drops, and the
capacitor effectively functions as a short
circuit.
The combination of resistance and capacitance gives the time constant of the filter
(represented by the Greek letter tau). The break frequency, also called the turnover frequency
Or cutoff frequency (in hertz), is determined by the time constant:
56
Or equivalently (in radians per second):
One way to understand this circuit is to focus on the time the capacitor takes to charge. It takes
time to charge or discharge the capacitor through that resistor:
At low frequencies, there is plenty of time for the capacitor to charge up to

practically the same voltage as the input voltage.
At high frequencies, the capacitor only has time to charge up a small amount before
the input switches direction. The output goes up and down only a small fraction of
the amount the input goes up and down. At double the frequency, there's only time
for it to charge up half the amount.
Another way to understand this circuit is with the idea of reactance at a particular frequency:
Since DC cannot flow through the capacitor, DC input must "flow out" the path
marked
(analogous to removing the capacitor).
Since AC flows very well through the capacitor almost as well as it flows through
solid wire AC input "flows out" through the capacitor, effectively short
circuiting to ground (analogous to replacing the capacitor with just a wire).
The capacitor is not an "on/off" object (like the block or pass fluidic explanation above). The
capacitor will variably act between these two extremes. It is the Bode plot and frequency
response that show this variability.
Active electronic realization
In the operational amplifier circuit shown in the figure, the cutoff frequency (in hertz) is defined
as:
57
or equivalently (in radians per second):
The gain in the passband is R2/R1, and the stopband drops off at 6 dB per octave (that is
20 dB per decade) as it is a first-order filter.
High-pass filter
A high-pass
filter (HPF)
is
an electronic
filter that
passes
highfrequency signals but attenuates (reduces the amplitude of) signals with frequencies lower than
the cutoff frequency.
The actual amount of attenuation for each frequency varies from filter to filter. A high-pass
filter is usually modeled as a linear time-invariant system. It is sometimes called a low-cut
filter or bass-cut filter.
High-pass filters have many uses, such as blocking DC from circuitry sensitive to non-zero
average voltages or RF devices. They can also be used in conjunction with a low-pass filter to
make a bandpass filter.
First-order implementation
The simple first-order electronic high-pass
filter shown in Figure 1 is implemented by
placing an input voltage across the series
combination of a capacitor and a resistor and
using the voltage across the resistor as an
output.
The product of the resistance and capacitance (RC) is the time constant (); it is inversely
proportional to the cutoff frequency fc, that is,
where fc is in hertz, is in seconds, R is in ohms, and C is in farads.
58
Figure shows an active electronic

implementation of a first-order highpass filter using an operational
amplifier. In this case, the filter has
a pass band gain of -R2/R1 and has a
corner frequency of
Because this filter is active, it may have non-unity pass band gain. That is, high-frequency
signals are inverted and amplified by R2/R1.
Band-pass filter
and rejects (attenuates) frequencies outside
that range. Optical band-pass filters are of
common
usage.
An
example
of
an analogue electronic
band-pass filter is
an RLC
circuit (a
resistorinductor
capacitor circuit). These filters can also be
created by combining a low-pass filter with
a high-pass filter
A band-pass filter is a device that
passes frequencies within a certain range
.
Bandpass is an adjective that describes a type of filter or filtering process; it is to be
distinguished from pass band, which refers to the actual portion of affected spectrum.
Hence, one might say "A dual bandpass filter has two pass bands." A bandpass signal is a signal
containing a band of frequencies away from zero frequency, such as a signal that comes out of a
bandpass filter
An ideal bandpass filter would have a completely flat pass band (e.g. with no gain/attenuation
throughout) and would completely attenuate all frequencies outside the pass band. Additionally,
the transition out of the pass band would be instantaneous in frequency. In practice, no bandpass
filter is ideal.
The filter does not attenuate all frequencies outside the desired frequency range completely; in
particular, there is a region just outside the intended pass band where frequencies are attenuated,
but not rejected.
59
This is known as the filter roll-off, and it is usually expressed in dB of attenuation

per octave or decade of frequency. Generally, the design of a filter seeks to make the roll-off as
narrow as possible, thus allowing the filter to perform as close as possible to its intended design.
Often, this is achieved at the expense of pass-band or stop-band ripple.
The bandwidth of the filter is simply the difference between the upper and lower cutoff
frequencies. The shape factor is the ratio of bandwidths measured using two different attenuation
values to determine the cutoff frequency, e.g., a shape factor of 2:1 at 30/3 dB means the
bandwidth measured between frequencies at 30 dB attenuation is twice that measured between
frequencies at 3 dB attenuation.
Outside of electronics and signal processing, one example of the use of band-pass filters is in
the atmospheric sciences. It is common to band-pass filter recent meteorological data with
a period range of, for example, 3 to 10 days, so that only cyclones remain as fluctuations in the
data fields.
Band-stop Filter or band-rejection Filter

In signal processing, a band-stop
filter or band-rejection filter is a filter that
passes most frequencies unaltered,
but attenuates those in a specific range to
very low levels. It is the opposite of a bandpass filter. A notch filter is a band-stop filter
with a narrow stopband (high Q factor).
Narrow notch filters (optical) are used in Raman spectroscopy, live sound reproduction (public
address systems, or PA systems) and in instrument amplifiers (especially amplifiers
or preamplifiers for acoustic instruments such as acoustic guitar, mandolin, bass instrument
amplifier, etc.) to reduce or prevent audio feedback, while having little noticeable effect on the
rest of the frequency spectrum (electronic or software filters). Other names include 'band limit
filter', 'T-notch filter', 'band-elimination filter', and 'band-reject filter'.
Typically, the width of the stopband is 1 to 2 decades (that is, the highest frequency attenuated is
10 to 100 times the lowest frequency attenuated). However, in the audio band, a notch filter has
high and low frequencies that may be only semitones apart.
60
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NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

GRAPHS AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Networks are commonly classified by the

Resistive networks are one-element-kind networks, consisting only of R elements. Likewise

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

Trees and links

An important relationship for circuit analysis is;

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

Tie sets and cut sets

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

Nullity and rank

Solving the network variables

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

Node and mesh elimination

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

Mesh currents and essential meshes

Setting up the equations

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

In electric circuit analysis, nodal analysis,

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

This equation can be solved in respect to V1:

By substituting V1 to the first equation and solving in respect to V2, we get :

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

Calculating the Thevenin equivalent

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

In the example, calculating the equivalent voltage:

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

Proof of the theorem

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

Once the above expression is established, it is straightforward to show that

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

This is equivalent to calculating the Thevenin resistance.

In the example, the total current Itotal is given by:

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

So the equivalent circuit is a 3.75 mA current source in parallel with a 2 k resistor

Relation between Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit

4. Maximum power transfer theorem

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

obtain maximum external power from a

Maximizing power transfer versus power efficiency

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

Consider three particular cases:

Calculus-based proof for purely resistive circuits

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

In the diagram opposite, power is being

For a maximum or minimum, the first derivative is zero, so

In practical resistive circuits,

This is always positive for positive values of

, showing that the denominator is a

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

satisfy all the constraints imposed by KCL, then

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (EEE-402)

A reference or datum node

is called node-to-branch incidence matrix for the