VCB 4223 Ocean and Coastal

Engineering
Group Assignment
GROUP MEMBER
KEE RI HONG
LEOW YENN SHERN
CHONG QI WEN
JANNET BULAN ARANG

Date of Submission: 7th of December 2015

Table of Contents

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1.

2.

Introduction to Sand Dunes...................................................................3

1.1.

Formation of Sand Dunes................................................................3

1.2.

Stages in succession along a coastal sand dune............................3

1.2.1.

Stage 1: Embryo Dune..............................................................4

1.2.2.

Stage 2: Yellow (Main) Dune.....................................................4

1.2.3.

Stage 3: Semi fixed Dune.........................................................4

1.2.4.

Stage 4: Grey/ fixed Dune........................................................5

1.2.5.

Stage 5: Climax Vegetation......................................................5

1.2.6.

Slacks....................................................................................... 6

1.3.

The importance of native dunal vegetation....................................6

1.4.

Impacts of inappropriate Dunal vegetation.....................................7

1.5.

Impact of Human/Urban Activity.....................................................7

1.6.

Local scale dune management methods........................................7

1.7.

Hard protection methods................................................................8

Introduction to Bulkhead.......................................................................8
2.1.

Limitations of Bulkhead..................................................................9

2.2.

Advantages of Bulkhead.................................................................9

2.3.

Disadvantages of Bulkhead............................................................9

2.4.

Effects of Bulkhead on Coastal Process..........................................9

2.5.

Socioeconomic Effects of Bulkhead..............................................10

2.6.

Case Studies of Bulkheads............................................................10

2.6.1.

Sandy Hook Spit, New Jersey..................................................10

2.6.2.

Leonardo, Sandy Hook bay, New Jersey..................................12

1. Introduction to Sand Dunes

Sand dune systems can provide an important natural coastal flood defence and are
also of great importance from nature conservation, recreation and tourism
perspectives. They act as a long-term sand store to build offshore bars during major
erosion events. Large waves make withdrawals from the dunal sand bank to build
offshore, protective sand bars, and then small waves return this sand back to the
visible beach. The general pattern is one of swift erosion during storms, and a gradual
return to the beach of the eroded material during quiet periods. Vegetation
significantly influences the size and also stability of dunal areas.

1.1.

Formation of Sand Dunes

Where there is large supply of dry sand (for example, on a sandy beach exposed by
the tide and heated by the sun), together with winds having a speed greate than 15
kph, the sand will be picked up and blown by the wind. Plants growing on the shoreline provide mini- wind breaks which slow the wind down in their immediate vicinity.
If the wind is slowed sufficiently, it will drop some of its cargo of sand. A sand pile
will begin to accumulate at this point, providing an ever increasing wind break.
Eventually the sand pile will grow into a dune at the back of the break. With high
wind speeds, the sand is continually pushed over the crest of the dune, falling down
the steeper windward slope. This has the effect of causing the dune to move steadily
inland. Pioneer plants will begin to colonize the dunes, gradually holding the sand in
one place with their root networks. New sand dunes may build up behind the first
dune, eventually forming a series of dunes from the seashore, inland.

1.2.

Stages in succession along a coastal sand dune

There are five main stages in succession across a coastal sand dune:
Stage 1: Embryo Dune
Stage 2: Yellow (Main) Dune
Stage 3: Semi fixed Dune
Stage 4: Grey/ fixed Dune
Stage 5: Climax Vegetation

1.2.1. Stage 1: Embryo Dune

Strandline: a line of seaweed litter and debris along the high tide mark which provides
nutrients for sea rocket and couch. Sea Couch and rocket starting to form embryo
dunes. Both plants have long roots and are tolerant of salt.

1.2.2. Stage 2: Yellow (Main) Dune

As pioneer plants grow they provide shelter for the thin humus layer which is being
formed by the decomposition of the pioneer biota. The environment here is still very
harsh though and only very hardy plants can survive, such as Marram Grass.

1.2.3. Stage 3: Semi fixed Dune

At around 10m above sea level, the marram grass dies out as the sand supply is
reduced meaning a thin humus layer is now permanent and soil can form.
Improved conditions and increased moisture content leads to a greater variety of
vegetation type. A greater variety of plants can now be supported including dandelion,
ragwort and rest harrow.

1.2.4. Stage 4: Grey/ fixed Dune

With the increasing variety of plants, the soil becomes deeper and more fertile and can
support an almost complete covering of vegetation. Typical plants: Mosses and
Lichens, Clover and herbs such as Red Fescue.

1.2.5. Stage 5: Climax Vegetation

When a dune succession reaches its climax stage, the vegetation found largely
depends on the mineral composition of the sand. Calcareous (alkaline, shell based)
which is rich grassland. Silica (acidic rock fragments), which is health land then
deciduous trees.

1.2.6. Slacks
Low lying areas in between dunes (found at all stages in the succession). These are
often marshy due to rise in water table. March species develop, along with peat in the
waterlogged soil.

1.3.

The importance of native dunal vegetation

In coastal areas the foliage of plants can be burnt by high temperatures, salt-laden
winds and rain also abraded by windblown sand. The species that can withstand these
effects can actually benefit from onshore winds by intercepting wind-borne nutrients
from the sea. These nutrients are then deposited on the leaves of coastal plants and
washed into the sand by the first showers of rain. These native dunal vegetation can
provide a significant refuge and source of food for local and migratory fauna species.
These native dunal vegetation provides a seed bak of plants for future generations,
thus maintaining the natural biodiversity of area especially spinifex grass (Spinifex
sericeous), facilitate dune growth by colonising and trapping windblown sand and
preventing it escaping the beach system.
These long, deep and expansive root system of dunal plants help to minimise sand
losses from frontal dune areas caused by wave attack during severe erosion events.
The variation of height and density of these native dunal species provides an effective
buffer to minimise wind effect. These vegetation can withstand burial by wind-blown
sand, a common occurrence in Active frontal Dune Areas, they also provides habitat

and corridors for a wide range of insects, birds and other while life. Another plus
point of these native dunal vegetation is that they enhance the natural appearance,
overall character and environmental quality of the beach and dunal areas and
ultimately the image of the city.

1.4.

Impacts of inappropriate Dunal vegetation

When the dunal areas are stressed through erosion, non - native plant species can
quickly die, leaving bare sand which can be prone to wind erosion. Invasive exotic
plants that inhabit areas close to the shoreline can be spread along the coastline by
currents and become invasive in other areas. Hardy salt tolerant non-native dunal
species are not desirable in actively forming Frontal Dune Areas. They can often
displace native dunal vegetation due to their ability to grow aggressively, smother
native dunal species, and compete for available nutrients. The turf establishment stuns
growth of the sand dunes in terms of height and width. Turf is not capable of
withstanding sand burial. Buried turf is most likely to die off, leaving the
dunal area without vegetative stabilisation in erosion events.

1.5.

Impact of Human/Urban Activity

Coastal sand dunes in urban areas are affected significantly by the activities of
humans. Such activities include recreational use, establishment of environmentally
inappropriate exotic vegetation, roads, car parks, beach access tracks, waste disposal
and housing. Dunes and the plants 4 of 33 Management of Coastal Dune Areas
Ver.1.1 Amended Jan 07 that grow in them have a limited capacity to recover from
intensive use without assistance and care from the community.

1.6.

Local scale dune management methods

Many types of dune management methods are implemented such as Local scale
techniques, such as vegetation planting, thatching and sand fence
Erection. They are implemented in many parts of Europe, Australia, Asia and North
America for centuries to stabilise and fix sand dunes to prevent sand encroachment
into settlement and onto agricultural land.

1.7.

Hard protection methods

Hard protection methods are used to reduce the risks of coastal erosion and
Marine flooding where dunes defend residential property, industrial buildings And
low-lying agricultural land, and where the dune belt is narrow, low and/or
Shows a natural tendency to erode. Various types of hard protection have been
employed in England and Wales, and elsewhere, including concrete walls and stepped
revetments.
Sea walls constructed from concrete effectively protect the dune toe from wave
erosion but, due to their impermeable nature, wave reflection often induces scour and
lowering of the fronting beach. A high concrete wall or stepped revetment may also
prevent or reduce the transfer of windblown sand from the beach to the dunes. Some
of the walls are built with gradual seaward slope to reduce these effects where the use
of honeycomb revetment on seawards side permits a degree of windblown sand
accumulation and inland transfer to the frontal dune. This is also where maram can be
planted in the interstices to promote dune growth.
Another method is called gabion revetment. This is effective in reventing small waves
from attacking the dune toe, however, larger waves can either undermine the gabion
revetment or overtop the revetment, and they are generally not suitable for moderate
to high energy environments. Broken gabions can be a public safety hazard and a
source of beach contamination if the contents spill out.
A different hard technique is rock armour, which they are large boulders placed along
the dune front, creates an effective physical barrier which then will dissipates wave
energy and protects the dune toe but which does not entirely prevent the transport of
windblown sand from the beach to the frontal dunes However, in very severe storms
even very large rock blocks can be undermined and moved by scour unless they are
initially emplaced well below normal beach level.

2. Introduction to Bulkhead
Bulkhead is a structure built parallel (or nearly parallel) to the shore along
a bank, at the toe of a bluff, or along a beach to retain or hold back the
land and prevent it from moving water ward. A bulkhead may also called
as a retaining wall. Secondary functions are to protect the land against
wave action and to reclaim lost land by backfilling. A bulkhead does not

ensure the stability of the land behind it; if a bulkhead were to be

constructed at the toe of a high unstable bluff, the structure itself could be
buried or pushed water ward by major sliding of the bluff. A bulkhead is
fairly effective at deflecting wave run up. Bulkhead are often used in
situation where there is little or no fronting beach to protect the shore.
Often people will call a bulkhead as a sea wall and vice versa. This is
because it is often difficult to determine whether a structure built at a toe
of bluff is holding back the land (a bulkhead) of the water (sea wall) or a
bit of both. A major construction difference between the two is that since a
bulkheads primary function is to hold back the land, not taking full brunt
of storm wave attack. A bulk head can be constructed by a lighter
materials and be less massive than a seawall.

2.1.

Limitations of Bulkhead

A bulkhead protects only the land immediately behind the structure.

Adjacent land and fronting breaches often experience increased rate of
erosion, for the bulkhead prevents soil that would otherwise have been
contributed by erosion of the land behind the bulkhead from entering the
littoral system, thereby changing the littoral drift rates. Many studies now
confirm this negative effect of bulkheads on fronting beaches and their
used in beach areas is prohibited in some states because of this.

2.2.

2.3.

2.4.

Advantages of Bulkhead
Provide good protection to property.
May provide direct boat acess to the shore
Fair and easy to repair

Disadvantages of Bulkhead
Structure integrity depends upon toe protection, bracing, or
anchoring.
May increase erosion immediately at downdrift.
Pile driving requires special equipment/ skill
Relatively expensive to build

Effects of Bulkhead on Coastal Process

Bulkheads may cause some depletion of the down drift shore by

preventing sediments from behind the wall form entering the littoral drift

system and replenishing the down drift area. Waves reflected by the
bulkhead may increase toe scour, beach depletion, or beach steepening
immediately in front of or adjacent to the structure.

2.5.

Socioeconomic Effects of Bulkhead

Bulkheads can severely limit recreational uses of the shoreline (swimming,

waterski, and fishing). They stand out visually form their surroundings.
Floating trash will trap in any sharp angle turns on the bulkhead.
Studies over recent decades have resulted in public awareness as to
potential negative effects that bulkheads may bring to beaches and the
interconnected habitat areas of fish, plants, and birds. Many states have
enacted laws to protect beaches to allow for future use of the beaches, as
well as protect these natural habitats. As of 1971, Washington State
property owners are required to obtain a permit for the construction of
bulkheads that adhere to the strict regulations of the Shoreline
Management Act (SMA), enacted by the state legislature.
A bulkhead cannot really be characterised as a coast protection structure;
it is rather a structure that is used to retain fills along the water perimeter
of reclaimed areas and in port basins. The following article discusses
applications of bulkeads.

2.6.

Case Studies of Bulkheads

2.6.1. Sandy Hook Spit, New Jersey

0
Figure 1: Location of Sandy Hook Bay image from Google Earth
Sandy Hook is located near Monmouth, New Jersey. It is a sand barrier extended from north
of Long Branch with approximate distance of 16 km long. According to RUTGERS Institute
of Marine and Coastal Sciences, the erosion of the beach facing the Atlantic Ocean is caused
by the diffraction and refraction of waves. A log-spiral pattern of waves formed down drift
and eroded the shoreline landward for approximately 2 km. This offsetting has becoming a

threat in late 1980 as the beach erosion became larger that the infrastructures such as road
access has damaged.

Figure 2: Seawall or bulkhead in Monmouth, NJ in 1976

Other factors influencing the erosion of the beach was the negative sediment budget resulted
from the presence of groins in Sea Bright beach and Long Branch as in Fig 3.

Groins

Figure 3: Groins at Long Branch side

The use of bulkheads was one of the prevention measures used by the National Park Service
of Sandy Hook. Fig. 3 shows the sheet-pile installed to protect the road at Sandy Hook.

Figure 4: Sheet-pile bulkheads on the beach 1988 (Left) and now (right)

This row of bulkheads was installed in 1988 when active erosion occur at the beach. In Fig. 4,
the bulkheads seemed very near to the shoreline as the beach eroded. Currently, the bulkheads
is at a safe distance from the shoreline as the beach has been placed under Critical Zone since
the late of 1980s. Besides bulkheads, beach nourishment projects have been conducted in
order to protect the property and infrastructures. Each beach nourishment project will last for
5 years and fill maintenance is continued, regardless the negative sediment budget. Besides
that, artificial dunes have been constructed on the beach as extra protection measure from
future erosion.

Initial beach (Before fill) now

turn Dunes

Boulder Bulkheads

Beach fill

Figure 5: The current Sandy Hook beach (Top view)

2.6.2. Leonardo, Sandy Hook bay, New Jersey

Leonardo is a town with an area of approximately 0.5 square miles and is located in the
northeastern part of Monmouth County, New Jersey. The mound of Leonardo has elevation
of +39 ft. North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88). This location is at a low
elevation and more subjected many coastal issues such as storm induced flood, erosion and
wave damage. In addition to that, the change in water level has increased the need of coastal
protection at the sea side of Leonardo town. During Hurricane Sandy, the water level at
Leonardo reached +11.7 ft. NAVD88.
There are several measures taken in order to overcome the coastal issues. A harbor at central
Leonardo named Leonardo State Marina is stabilized by two timber jetties. This low-lying
area surrounding the marina are subjected to storm-induced flooding and frequent tidal. In
Fig. 6, bulkhead is anchored as a barrier at the jetties. Due to frequent tidal and flooding, the
bulkhead is easily ruined. The New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection
(NJDEP) performed the bulkhead repair and replacement periodically.

Bulkheads

Figure 6: Leonardo State Marina

Bulkheads
Groyne

Figure 7: Bulkheads on sea sides of Leonardo Town

The eastern part of Leonardo is armored by seawalls and bulkheads. These bulkheads are
made of timber. Initially, these bulkhead or seawalls are built to avoid overtopping flood and
tidal. However, erosion occurs at the shoreline of the eastern part of Leonardo particularly in
front of the structure line. There are minimal amount of dry sand found in front of the
structures. In Fig. 7, an effective method of using a groyne with bulkhead to act as groin trap
to trap sand or sediments at this area.
Nevertheless during significant storm event in 1992, Hurricane Irene in 2011 and Hurricane
Sandy in 2012, many of the bulkheads are destructed due to high waves damage. The local
owners have to repair and replace the damaged bulkheads. Despite these phenomena, the
buildings behind the bulkheads are unharmed.