Timber Structures - 10

OVERVIEW
This section will:

describe the fire behaviour of timber construction
give design methods for heavy timber structural
members exposed to fire
briefly discuss fire behaviour of connections in timber
structures
TIMBER STRUCTURES
Winter 2003
Design of Wood Structures
8-1
Winter 2003
DESCRIPTION OF TIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
heavy timber structures
light timber/wood frame construction
Heavy timber construction describes all uses of

large-dimension timber framing in buildings
Heavy timber structures are principal structural
elements (beams, columns, decks or truss)
Light timber frame construction uses smaller sizes
of wood framing (studs in walls, joists in floors)
8-3
'Glue laminated timber' (glulam) are members

made from several laminations glued together
Fire tests have shown that glulam members
exposed to fires behave in the same way as solid
sawn-timber members of the same cross section
Winter 2003
Fire Behaviour of Timber

Structures
8-4
Fire-retardant Treatments
Heavy timber members have good fire resistance

When large timber members are exposed to fires
the wood surface initially burns rapidly
The burned wood becomes a layer of char which
insulates the solid wood below and slow down
the burning rate
The char layer does not usually burn
Above 100C, moisture in the wood evaporates
Some of this moisture travels out to the burning
face, but some travels into the wood
Winter 2003
8-2
Glulam
Timber structures are divided into two categories:
Winter 2003
8-5
Fire-retardant chemicals are available for treating

wood to reduce its combustibility
The purpose of the chemical treatments is to
reduce the rate of flame spread
Chemical pressure impregnation is effective
Impregnation can have some negative effects
loss of wood strength
corrosion of fasteners
Fire-retardant chemicals do not significantly

improve the fire resistance of timber members
Winter 2003
8-6
FIRE-RESISTANCE RATINGS
WOOD TEMPERATURES
Design process for fire-resistance requires that:

provided fire-resistance > design fire severity
When heavy timber members are exposed to

severe fires, the outer layer of wood chars
Boundary between the char layer and remaining
wood corresponds to about 300C temp.
Below the char layer there is a layer of heated
wood about 35 mm thick
Layer above 200C is the pyrolysis zone (thermal
decomposition to gases, see Figure below)
Moisture evaporates in the wood above 100C
Structural design of heavy timber members is
based on the rate of charring of the wood surface
Verification is usually in time or strength domain

Temp. domain is not used for timber structures
(no critical temp for fire-exposed timber)
Usually, fire design of heavy timber structures is
by calculation methods
Some countries have generic fire-resistance
ratings for heavy timber construction
There are very few proprietary ratings
Winter 2003
8-7
Winter 2003
8-8
WOOD TEMPERATURES
Temperatures Below the Char
Char layer and pyrolysis zone in a timber beam
Temp. in wood below char layer was measured

For semi-infinite solid wood, temp. T (oC) below
the char layer is given by:
T = Ti + (Tp - Ti)(1 - x/a)2
Ti is the wood initial temp. (oC), Tp is the temp. at
which charring starts (300C), x is the distance
below the char layer (mm), and a is the thickness
of the heat-affected layer (40 mm)
Janssens and White (1994) show that a better fit
to experimental data is obtained with a = 35 mm
Winter 2003
8-9
Winter 2003
8-10
Thermal Properties of Wood
Temp. inside fire-exposed timber members can

be calculated using FEM
Thermal properties are not well defined
(especially at 100C and over 300C)
Wood density varies greatly between species
After 100C, density drops to 90% of its original
and to 20% of its original value above 300C
Thermal conductivity varies greatly between
authors (see Figure below as an example)
Figure below shows specific heat variation with
temp. (spike means moisture evaporation)
Variation of thermal conductivity of wood with

temperature
Winter 2003
8-11
Winter 2003
8-12
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD
Variation of specific heat of wood with temperature
Wood is greatly different from other materials

wood strength is very variable
mechanical properties are different in different
directions
strength and ductility are different in tension
and compression
failure stresses depend on the specimens size
strength reduces under long duration loads
Figure below shows different ways of loading of
wood with different failure modes
Winter 2003
8-13
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

Loading of wood in different directions
Winter 2003
8-15
Figure below shows typical stress-strain curves

for wood specimens with no defects
Parallel to grain vs. Perpendicular to grain
Compression vs. Tension
The wood is ductile in compression
8-14
Mechanical Properties of Wood at

Normal Temperatures
Tension and compression behaviour
Bending behaviour
Design values
Winter 2003
Winter 2003
8-17
Winter 2003
8-16

Stress--strain relationships for clear wood
Winter 2003
8-18
Bending behaviour
Design values
Bending behaviour is a combination of tension

and compression
Some ductility is available in timber beams when
the material is stronger in tension than in
compression
Winter 2003
Structural design calculations require values of

the design strength of the wood material
For limit states design, design stress is 5th
percentile failure stress under short-duration
loading
Due to variations, characteristic stresses are
usually obtained from in-grade tests of large
numbers of representative samples
The 5th percentile value for design in normal
temp. conditions, may be modified to 20th
percentile strength value for fire design
8-19
Winter 2003
Design strength of timber depends on duration of

the applied load as a duration-of-load factor
In limit states design, duration-of-load factor is
1.0 for short-duration loads and 0.8 or 0.6 for
medium- and long-duration loads
In working stress design, duration-of-load factor
is 1.0 for long-duration loads and 1.25 or 1.6 for
medium- and short-duration loads
The duration-of-load factor for fire design should
be the appropriate value for short-duration loads
8-21
Sources
Effect of moisture content
Plasticity
Parallel to the grain properties
Perpendicular to the grain properties
Shear
Derived results
Winter 2003
Sources and general behaviour
8-22
Effect of moisture content
Review on the effect of moisture content (MC)

and temperature on the mechanical properties of
wood is given by Gerhards (1982)
Wood properties are affected by steam at 100C,
wood begins to pyrolyse at about 200C and
turns into char by 300C
The range of interest for fire design is therefore
from room temperature to 300C
Winter 2003
8-20
Mechanical Properties of Wood at

Elevated Temperatures
Design values
Winter 2003
8-23
When testing timber at elevated temp., MC is

sensitive to the test method and specimen size
Some test specimens are maintained at constant
MC throughout the test
Some tests specimen are at a certain MC before
the test and allowed to dry out when heated
If wood is heated to a temperature above 100C
in dry air, all moisture will evaporate after some
time
Winter 2003
8-24
Parallel to the grain properties Modulus of elasticity
Figures below show the modulus of elasticity of

wood at elevated temperatures
The effect of temp. on modulus of elasticity
parallel to the grain is roughly linear up to 200C
There is a scatter over 200C
Figure below is another example of results
derived by Konig and Walleij (2000) from tests of
145 x 45 mm timber studs in insulated walls,
exposed to ISO 834 fire while loaded in bending
Modulus of elasticity of wood parallel to the grain

versus temperature
Winter 2003
8-25
8-27
Parallel to the grain properties Tensile strength
8-26
Below is a Figure showing stress-strain curves

for temp. of 25C and 90C at low and high MC
for samples tested by Ostman (1985)
Failure stress at 90C and 29.5% moisture
content is about 60% of that of dry cool wood
Another Figure shows a comparison among test
data as derived by different researchers
Winter 2003
8-28
Stress-strain relationships for wood in tension

parallel to the grain
Winter 2003
Modulus of elasticity of wood parallel to the grain

versus temperature
Winter 2003
Winter 2003
8-29
Tensile strength parallel to the grain versus

temperature
Winter 2003
8-30
Parallel to the grain properties Compressive strength
Parallel to the grain properties Compressive strength

Figure below shows temp. effect on compressive
strength parallel to the grain
These results are for dry wood except the
marked shaded region (MC > 12%)
The Figure also shows the relationship derived
by Konig and Walleij (2000)
Winter 2003
8-31
Compression strength parallel to the grain versus

temperature
Winter 2003
8-32
Parallel to the grain properties Bending strength
Parallel to the grain properties Bending strength
Figure below shows limited bending test results

collected by Gerhards (1982)
The wood shows different slopes for different test
results
Bending strength of wood versus temperature
Winter 2003
8-33
Perpendicular to the grain properties Modulus of elasticity

For modulus of elasticity perpendicular to the
grain, Gerhards (1982) reports eight studies as
shown in Figure below for temp. up to 100C
Winter 2003
8-34
Perpendicular to the grain properties Modulus of elasticity

Modulus of elasticity perpendicular to grain versus
temperature
The dependence on temperature tends to be

greater for moisture content above 12%, but
there is a lot of overlap between the studies
Winter 2003
8-35
Winter 2003
8-36
Perpendicular to the grain properties Tensile strength
Perpendicular to the grain properties Tensile strength
Temp. effect on tensile strength perpendicular to

the grain is shown in the Figure below
There is a wide range of results for different MC,
but a trend of a greater strength reduction as the
moisture content increases
Effect of temperature on tensile strength

perpendicular to the grain
There are no results of tests over 100C
Winter 2003
8-37
Perpendicular to the grain properties Compressive strength

Figure below shows temp. effect on strength in
compression perpendicular to the grain
Winter 2003
8-38
Perpendicular to the grain properties Compressive strength

Effect of temperature on compression strength of
wood perpendicular to the grain
This shows data from five studies reported by

Gerhards (1982) (overlap and scatter)
Winter 2003
8-39
Derived results - Reduction factors

Figure (a), temp. effect on mechanical properties
modulus of elasticity is assumed to drop linearly to
50% of its normal temperature value at 300C
tension strength follows the same relationship to
200C, then drops to zero at 300C (wet or dry)
compression strength for dry wood drops linearly to
zero at 300C
compression strength for wet wood drops to 50% at
100C and remain constant until it reaches 160C,
after which it follows the relationship for dry wood
Winter 2003
8-40
Derived results Reduction factors

(a) Effect of temp. on
mechanical
properties of wood
(b) Temp. profile
below char layer
(c) Reduction in
strength of wood
below char layer
Figure (b) shows temp. profile below char layer

Figure (c) shows drop in wood strength below
char layer (significant reduction below 25 mm)
Winter 2003
8-41
Winter 2003
8-42
Derived results Stress-strain relationship
Derived results Stress-strain relationship

Figure below shows stress-strain curves derived
by Konig and Walleij from computer modelling
The curves are idealized in a simple way
In the tension region, linear elastic behaviour has
been assumed until failure
In the compression region, elasto-plastic
behaviour has been assumed
The curves include the creep effects
Winter 2003
8-43
Derived stress-strain relationships for wood at

elevated temperatures
Winter 2003
DESIGN CONCEPTS FOR HEAVY

TIMBER EXPOSED TO FIRE

Large timber members have good fire-resistance

Fire-resistance can be calculated if charring rate
is predicted on surfaces exposed to standard fire
Figure below shows common fire exposures
(three-/four-sided of rectangular members)
The original cross section b x d is reduced to
residual cross section bf x df after charring
The depth to the char front c (mm) is given by:
c=xt
is the charring rate (mm/min), and t is the fire
exposure time (min)
Design concepts for large timber members
Winter 2003
8-45
Winter 2003
8-44
8-46

Verification
Dimensions of the residual cross section are:

bf = b - 2c
df = d - c (three-sided exposure)
df = d - 2c (four-sided exposure)
Char temperature is about 300C
There is a layer of heated wood about 35 mm
thick below the char layer
Structural design of timber members is based on
the strength and stiffness of the residual member
Verification of strength during fire exposure:

U*fire Rfire
U*fire is the design force and Rfire is the load
capacity
The design force U*fire may be axial force N*fire ,
bending moment M*fire or shear force V*fire
The load capacity is calculated as axial force Nf,
bending moment Mf or shear force Vf
Winter 2003
8-47
Winter 2003
8-48
Verification - Simply supported beams
Charring rate
For a beam under a bending moment:

M*fire Mf
M*fire is the bending moment and Mf is the design
flexural capacity under fire conditions given by:
Mf = Zf ff
ff is the design strength of wood in fire conditions
(MPa) and Zf is elastic section modulus (mm3)
The value of ff should always be the strength
under short-duration loads
For rectangular sections with no corner rounding:
Z f = bf d f 2 / 6
Rate of charring (under standard fires) depends

on the density and moisture content of the wood
Many codes specify a constant charring rate of:
Winter 2003
8-49
0.60 - 0.75 mm/min for softwoods

about 0.5 mm/min for hardwoods
The effect of density, (kg/m3), and MC on the

charring rate is shown in Figure below, given by
the equation below for charring rate (mm/min):
= 0.4 + (280 / )2
Table below shows recommended charring rates
Winter 2003
Charring rate
8-50
Charring rate
Charring rate as affected by density and MC

Charring rates for design
Material
Glue-laminated softwood timber
Solid or glue-laminated hardwood timber
Softwood panel products (plywood, particle
board) minimum thickness 20 mm
Minimum density
(mg/m3)
290
450
450
Char rate
1
(mm/minute)
(mm/minute)
0.64
0.70
0.50
0.55
0.9
for actual cross sections with rounded corners

1 (10% larger notional charring rate) is for no
corner rounding
Winter 2003
8-51
Winter 2003
Charring rate
Charring rate
In North America, recommendations for charring

rate are given by AFPA (White, 1988)
The proposed charring rate is the average
charring rate (mm/min) given by:
= 2.58 n / t0.187
n is a nominal charring rate ( n=0.635 mm/min)
and t is the time (min)
The resulting char layer thickness c (mm) is:
c = t = 2.58 n t0.813
Figure below shows the resulting depth of char
during 4 hours of standard fire exposure
Depth of char from North American

recommendations
Winter 2003
8-53
Winter 2003
8-52
8-54
Corner Rounding
Corner Rounding
All fire tests of large rectangular timber sections

show some rounding of the corners
Figure below shows a typical charred cross section
Most design codes assume the radius of the
rounding as equal to the depth of the charred layer
If corner rounding is considered in beams exposed
to fire on 3 sides, the section modulus Zf,r of the
reduced cross section is given by:
Zf = bf df2 / 6 - 0.215 r2 df
bf is the beam residual width, df is beam residual
depth, and r is the radius of the charred corner
Residual cross section of timber beam exposed to

fire
Winter 2003
8-55
Effect of Heated Wood Below the Char

Line
There are several alternative design methods to
allow for heated wood below the char line
Some codes ignore any reduction of wood
strength below the char, which can lead to
unsafe results for small cross sections
There are two methods to account for variable
temperature inside the unaffected region:
the effective cross section method
the reduced properties method
Winter 2003
8-57
Winter 2003
8-56
Effective cross section method

The effective cross section method accounts for
heated wood below char by removing a nominal
layer of zero strength from the cross section
Wood in the effective cross section is assumed
to have normal temperature properties
The flexural capacity, Mf = Zf ff, is calculated with
no corner rounding, with Zf for 3-sided exposure:
Zf,z = (bf - 2z)(df - z)2 / 6
z is the thickness of zero-strength layer (mm)
The design strength of wood is the strength at
normal temp. fb (MPa) so that ff = fb
Winter 2003
8-58
Effective cross section method
Reduced properties method
In Eurocode, the thickness of zero-strength layer:
The reduced properties method (Eurocode) is

based on a strength reduction factor kf applied to
all of the wood below the char layer
The flexural capacity is Mf = Zf ff, with Zf and ff as
Zf = bf df2 / 6 - 0.215 r2 df
ff = k f f b
Zf includes corner rounding ( from earlier Table)
z = 7 mm for more than 20 min fire exposure

0 < z < 7 mm for less than 20 min fire exposure
(reduced proportionately)
The AFPA North American design method

increases the nominal charring rate by 20% to
allow for the heated wood below the char line
Using the effective cross section method in
accordance with Eurocode, the charring rate 1
should be used (earlier Table)
Winter 2003
8-59
Winter 2003
8-60
10
Characteristic strength of wood
Reduced properties method

kf is strength reduction factor for residual
sections approximated by:
kf = 0.8 for NA design equations (Lie,1977)
kf = 1.0 - 1/g (Ar / p) for Eurocode design equations,
where p is the perimeter of the fire-exposed residual
cross section (m), Ar is the area of the residual cross
section (m2), g is a factor (m-1), with the value of 200
for bending, 125 for compression and 330 for tensile
strength and modulus of elasticity
Winter 2003
8-61
For normal temp. design, characteristic design

strength is taken as the 5th percentile value
In most limit states design, 5th percentile strength
value f0.05, obtained from tests, is listed in codes
For fire design, most codes use 5th percentile
strength value f0.05 so that fb = f0.05
Some codes modify 5th percentile strength f0.05 to
20th percentile for fire design so that design
strength fb for fire conditions is fb = k20 f0.05
k20 is a correction factor to convert 5th percentile
to 20th percentile values (1.25 for solid timber,
1.15 for glulam in Eurocode)
Winter 2003
8-62
Characteristic strength of wood
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
The AFPA method uses the mean value of wood

strength for fire design (working stress design)
In the method, the allowable stress in the code fa
is modified to give an allowable stress in fire
conditions fa,f using
fa,f = kmean fa
fa is the code allowable stress (MPa), kmean is a
correction factor to convert allowable stresses to
mean values (2.85 for tension and bending, 2.58
for compression, 2.03 for buckling failures)
Consider a softwood glulam beam, 130 mm wide

by 720 mm deep, spanning 7.5 m with a dead
load G = 4.0 kN/m (including self weight) and live
load Q = 7.0 kN/m. The beam is laterally
restrained with timber decking nailed to the top
edge. Check the design for normal conditions
and for 60 minutes fire-resistance rating,
exposed to fire on three sides. Use the Eurocode
method with the charring rates from Table 8-52
and the factor k20 = 1.15.
Winter 2003
8-63
Winter 2003
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
8-64
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
The characteristic flexural strength is fb = 17.7 MPa.

The strength reduction factor is = 0.8 for normal
design and f = 1.0 for fire design. The durationof-load factor is kd = 0.8 for cold design and kd =
1.0 for fire design.
Check design for normal conditions
Design load
wc = 1.2G+1.6Q = 1.2x4.0+1.6x7.0 = 16.0 kN/m
Bending moment
M* = wcL2/8 = 16.0x7.52/8 = 112 kNm
Section modulus:
Z = bd2/6 = 130x7202/6 = 11.2x106 mm3
Winter 2003
8-65
Nominal strength
Mn = kd f0.05 Z = 0.8x17.7x11.2 = 159 kNm
Design strength
Mn = 0.8x159 = 127 kNm
M* Mn so design is OK.
Loads for fire conditions
Design load
wf = 1.0G+0.4Q = 1.0x4.0+0.4x7.0 = 6.8 kN/m
Bending moment
M*fire = wfL2/8 = 6.8 x 7.52/8 = 47.8 kNm
Winter 2003
8-66
11
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Method I (effective cross section, no corner

rounding)
Rate of charring: 1 = 0.7 mm/min
Depth of char: c = 60 x 0.7 = 42 mm
Reduced breadth: bf = 130-2x42 = 46 mm
Reduced depth: df = 720-42 = 678 mm
Thickness of zero-strength layer: z = 7 mm
Effective breadth: be = 46-2x7 = 32 mm
Effective depth de = 678-7 = 671 mm
Section modulus:
Zf = be de2/6 = 32x6712/6 = 2.40 x 106 mm3
Winter 2003
Flexural strength:
Mf = kd ff Zf = kd k20 f0.05 Zf = 1.0x1.15x17.7x2.4
Mf = 48.9 kNm
M*fire Mf so design is OK.
Method II (reduced properties, no corner rounding)
Rate of charring: 1 = 0.7 mm/min
Depth of char: c = 60 x 0.7 = 42 mm
Reduced breadth: bf = 130-2x42 = 46 mm
Reduced depth: df =720-42 = 678 mm
8-67
Winter 2003
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
8-69
Method III (reduced properties, corner rounding)

Rate of charring: = 0.64 mm/minute
Depth of char: c = 60 x 0.64 = 38.4 mm
Reduced breadth: bf = 130-2 x 38.4= 53.2 mm
Reduced depth: df =720-38.4=682 mm
Section modulus:
Zf = bfdf2/6-0.215c2df
Zf =53.2x6822/6-0.215x38.42x682=3.90x106 mm3
Beam area: A =bf df = 53.2x682/106 = 0.0363 m2
Winter 2003
Beam perimeter:
p =bf+2df =(53.2+2x682)/103 = 1.42 m
Reduction factor:
kf = 1-p/200A = 1-1.42/(200x0.0363) = 0.805
Flexural strength:
Mnf = kfkdk20f0.05Zf = 0.805x1.0x1.15x17.7x3.9
Mnf = 63.9 kNm
8-70
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Winter 2003
8-68
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Section modulus:
Zf = bf df2/6 = 46x6782/6 = 3.52x106 mm3
Beam area: A = bf df = 46x678/106 = 0.0312 m2
Beam perimeter:
p = bf + 2df = (46+2x678)/103 = 1.40 m
Reduction factor:
kf = 1-p/200A = 1-1.40/(200x0.0312) = 0.775
Flexural strength:
Mf = kfkdk20f0.05Zf = 0.775x1.0x1.15x17.7x3.52
Mf = 55.6 kNm
Winter 2003
8-71
Repeat Example 1 using the NA charring rate in the

working stress design format. The allowable
stress under long duration loading in flexure is
fa = 8.0 MPa. The factor to convert allowable
stress to mean failure stress is kmean = 2.85.
Check design for normal conditions
Design load: w = G+Q = 4.0+7.0 = 11.0 kNm
Bending moment:
M*w = wL2/8 = 11.0x7.52/8 = 77.3 kNm
Winter 2003
8-72
12
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Section modulus:
Z = bd2/6 = 130x7202/6 = 11.2x106 mm3
Flexural stress:
f*b = M*w/Z = 77.3x106/11.2x106 = 6.91 Mpa
f*b fb so design is OK.
Fire design (NA char rate, no corner rounding)
Time of calculation: t = 60 minutes
Depth of char:
c = 2.58 n t0.813 = 2.58x0.635X600.813 = 45.7 mm
Winter 2003
8-73
Reduced breadth: bf = 130-2x45.7 = 38.6 mm

Reduced depth: df = 720-45.7 = 674 mm
Section modulus:
Z = bf df2/6 = 38.6x6742/6 = 2.92x106 mm3
Flexural stress:
fb,f = M*w/Z = 77.3x106/2.92x106 = 26.4 MPa
Allowable stress:
fa,f = kmean fa = 2.85x8.0 = 22.8 Mpa
f*b,f fa,f so the beam fails in fire.
Winter 2003
Design for Real Fires
8-75
Char rate, char time and char depth for parametric

fire exposure
Opening
factor
(ml/2)
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.12
0.20
0.30
Char rate
bar
(mm/min.)
0.39
0.70
0.85
0.95
1.05
1.15
1.20
Winter 2003
Empirical Equations
a uniform charring rate of 0.6 mm/min

section remains rectangular and the residual core has
80% of initial strength under char layer
For beams, the time to failure tf (min) is given by:

tf = 0.1 z b (4 -b/d) (3-sided exposure)
tf = 0.1 z b (4 -2b/d) (4-sided exposure)
z = 0.7 + 0.3 / Ra
Ra is ratio of actual to allowable load at normal
temp. and dimensions are in mm
80
24
12
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.4
1.6
Initial char time to (min)

Fuel load (MJ/m2 total area)
160
240
320
400
24
16
12
8.0
4.8
3.2
36
24
18
12
7.2
4.8
32
24
16
10
6.4
40
30
20
12
8.0
80
19
17
14
11
8.4
5.5
3.8
Total char depth c (mm)

Fuel load (MJ/m2 total area)
160
240
320
400
34
27
23
17
11
7.7
50
41
34
25
16
11
55
45
34
22
15
68
57
42
27
19
8-76
Empirical Equations
Most NA codes include equations to calculate

fire resistance of beams and columns (Lie, 1977)
Lies simple equations assumed:
Winter 2003
8-74
Design for Real Fires
For realistic fires the Eurocode gives charring

rates and strength reduction factors for a
particular class of real fires
This method is based on the work of Hadvig
(1981)
Table below shows values of char rate for real
fires
More details are given in the textbook
Winter 2003
8-77
For columns, the time to failure tf (min) is:

tf = 0.1 z b (3 - d/2b) (3-sided exposure)
tf = 0.1 z b (3 - d/b)
(4-sided exposure)
For long columns, z is calculated by trial and
error (see textbook)
For short columns, z is based on better fitting
with experimental results for columns of low
slenderness ratio, given by:
z = 0.9 + 0.3 / Ra
Winter 2003
8-78
13
DESIGN OF HEAVY TIMBER

MEMBERS EXPOSED TO FIRE
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Calculate the time to failure for the beam in Worked
Example 1 using NA empirical design equation.
Design bending moment: M* = 112 kNm
Design strength: Mn = k1 fb Z = 127 kNm
Load ratio: Ra = M* / Mn = 112/127 = 0.882
z factor: z = 0.7 +0.3/Ra = 0.7+0.3/0.882 = 1.04
Time to failure:
tf = 0.1 z b (4-b/d)
tf = 0.1x1.04x130 (4-130/720) = 50.1 min
Time to failure is less than 60 minutes, so the
beam fails in the fire.
Winter 2003
8-79
Beams
Tension Members
Columns
Beam-columns
Decking
Timber-concrete Composite Structures
Winter 2003
Beams
Beams
Beams can be designed using the same design

equations as for normal temperature conditions,
with modifications for strength and cross section
It is important to determine which surfaces of the
beam are exposed to fire (see Figure below)
In addition to flexural strength calculations,
lateral torsional buckling must also be checked
Shear stresses are not a concern for rectangular
beams, but should be considered for I-beams
Deflections are not usually of concern
Three-/four-sided beam exposure
Winter 2003
8-81
Winter 2003
Tension members are not affected by the

possibility of buckling
The tensile load capacity of a fire-reduced cross
section can be calculated using one of the
design methods
effective cross section
Reduced properties
8-82
Columns
Tension Members
Winter 2003
8-80
8-83
Short columns strength depends on material

crushing strength and reduced cross section
Long columns strength (buckling increases with
time) depends on moment of inertia and modulus
of elasticity of reduced cross section
Lateral stability is very important for columns
Columns built into walls may have better fire
resistance (less charring and lateral restraint)
Tests on 16 columns (Malhotra et al. 1970)
achieved fire-resistance ratings between 30 and
90 min, depending on load and slenderness ratio
Winter 2003
8-84
14
Beam-columns
Decking
A 'beam-column' is a member subjected to

combined bending and axial loading
The design approach is to check the general
interaction formula including both flexural
strength and axial load capacity, such as:
(N/Nu)2 + M/Mu 1
N = applied axial load (kN), Nu = axial load
capacity with buckling effects (kN), M = applied
bending moment (kN-m), and Mu = flexural
capacity with lateral buckling effects (kN-m)
Winter 2003
8-85
Assessment of fire resistance of decking must

consider all three possible failure criteria of
stability, integrity and insulation
Solid wood decking includes solid timber or
glulam timber planks laid flat and butted together
with tongue and groove edges, and timber
planks set on edge and nailed together (see
details in textbook)
Winter 2003
8-86
Decking - Stability
Decking - Integrity
The stability criterion can be assessed in the

same way as for beams and columns
Janssens (1997) proposed an empirical design
formula for structural performance of solid decks
(based on a temperature and charring model)
The time to structural failure tsf (min) is given by:
tsf = 1.25 d (1 - 0.4Ra) - 11.3
d is the thickness of the deck (mm), and Ra is the
ratio of the applied load to the allowable design
load
The integrity criterion may be the most difficult to

satisfy for wood deck systems
The difficulties arise at the junctions between the
planks, which may increase in width due to
shrinkage of wood which often occurs during the
life of a building
Tongue and groove joints between the planks
are the best solution
Winter 2003
8-87
Winter 2003
If the integrity and stability criteria are satisfied,

there will be no problem meeting the insulation
criterion, because the thickness of remaining
wood required to carry applied loads will be
greater than that required to prevent excessive
temperature rise on the top surface
8-88
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Decking - Insulation
Winter 2003
8-89
A solid timber deck consists of 150 mm thick

planks joined with central splines as shown in
Figure 10.35(c). The deck spans 5 m with a
superimposed dead load of 1.25 kN/m2 and live
load 5.0 kN/m2. Calculate the failure time using
Janssen's formula. Use the Eurocode reduced
properties method to calculate if the deck has a
90 minute fire-resistance rating.
Winter 2003
8-90
15
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
The characteristic flexural strength of the decking

timber is fb = 25.0 MPa. The density of the wood
is 5.0 kN/m3. The strength reduction factor is
0.8 for normal design and f = 1.0 for fire design.
The duration of load factor is kd = 0.8 for cold
design and kd = 1.0 for fire design. The factor kf
is 1.15 for fire design.
Check for normal conditions

Thickness of deck: d = 150 mm
Self weight of deck: ws = d =5x0.15=0.75 kN/m2
Total dead load: G = 0.75+1.25 = 2.0 kN/m2
Design load:
wc = 1.2G+1.6Q = 1.2x2.0+1.6x5.0 = 10.4 kN/m2
Design a strip 1 m wide. Uniformly distributed
load = 1.0 x 10.4 = 10.4 kN/m
Bending moment:
M* = wcL2/8 = 10.4x52/8 = 32.5 kNm
Winter 2003
8-91
Winter 2003
Section modulus:
Z = bd2/6 = 1000x1502/6 = 3.75x106 mm3
Design strength:
Mn = k1 fb Z = 0.8x0.8x25x3.75 = 60.0 kNm
M* Mn so design is OK.
Janssen's formula
Load ratio: Ra = M* / Mn = 32.5/60 = 0.54
Time to failure:
tsf = 1.25 d (1-(0.4Ra))-11.3
tsf = 1.25x150 (1- (0.4 X 0.54))-11.3 = 89 min
8-93
Eurocode reduced properties method

Design load:
wc = 1.0G+0.4Q = 1.0x2.0+0.4x5.0 = 4 kN/m2
Design a strip 1 m wide. Uniformly distributed
load = 1.0 x 4.0 = 4.0 kN/m
Bending moment:
M*fire = wc L2/8 = 4x52/8 = 12.5 kNm
Rate of charring: = 0.64 mm/min
Depth of char: c = 90 x 0.64 = 57.6 mm
Winter 2003
Reduced depth: df = 150-57.6 = 92.4 mm

Section modulus:
Zf = bdf2/6 = 1000x92.42/6 = 1.42 x 106 mm3
Section area:
A = b df = 1000x92.4/106 = 0.00924 m2
Exposed perimeter: p = b = 1.0 m
Reduction factor:
kf = 1-p/200A = 1-1.0/(200x0.00924) = 0.46
Design strength: Mf = kf kd k20f0.05 Zf
Mf = 0.46x1.0x1.15x25x1.42 = 18.8 kNm
8-94
BEHAVIOUR OF TIMBER
CONNECTIONS IN FIRE
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Winter 2003
8-92
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Winter 2003
The ability of a structure to carry loads depends

on the strength and stiffness of the structural
members and connections between members
Under fire, both members and connections must
perform throughout the fire exposure
Most connections are either metal fasteners or
adhesives (very different fire performance)
Little research has been done on performance of
connections in timber structures exposed to fire
8-95
Winter 2003
8-96
16
Nails and Screws
Metal Fasteners
The behaviour of metal fasteners depends on the
temperature of the metal because:
it affects the strength of the fastener itself
high temperatures lead to charring or loss of strength
of wood in contact with the metal
Geometry and protection of metal fasteners are

explained in more details in the textbook
Winter 2003
8-97
Nails are one of the best types of connection in

timber structures because they penetrate wood
and do not weaken the wood with drilled holes
Screws have many of the advantages of nails
including better gripping capacity than nails
Noren tested nailed splice joints in tension
exposed to the ISO 834 standard test fire
Time to failure was inversely proportional to
applied load, varying from 6 to 21 min
Winter 2003
8-98
Bolted Connections
Truss Plates
Bolted connections are widely used in timber

structures with excellent results
Fire behaviour of bolted connections depends on
the amount of heat able to enter the wood
through the bolts
The theory for nails could be applied to bolted
connections but no comprehensive studies have
been published
Truss plates have been shown to have a poor

reputation for fire resistance
Tests (White et al. 1994) on truss plates under
ASTM E-119 standard fire exposure up to 300C
In the tests, unprotected plates failed in less than
6 min compared with 13 min for solid timber
with no connection
Various combinations of protection increased the
fire resistance, the best gave over 30 min fire
resistance when all 4 sides of the member were
protected with 13 mm Type X gypsum plaster
Winter 2003
8-99
Winter 2003
8-100
Glued Connections
Many timber structures and timber members are
connected with adhesive
When exposed to fire, glued wood members
generally behave in the same way as solid wood
provided that thermosetting adhesives are used
Some adhesive such as epoxies are sensitive to
elevated temperatures and should not be relied
on in fire conditions
Winter 2003
8-101
17

Timber Structures - 10

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Descrição original:

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Timber Structures - 10

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

OVERVIEW

This section will:

Design of Wood Structures

Heavy timber construction describes all uses of

'Glue laminated timber' (glulam) are members

Fire Behaviour of Timber

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Heavy timber members have good fire resistance

Timber structures are divided into two categories:

Design of Wood Structures

Fire-retardant chemicals are available for treating

Fire-retardant chemicals do not significantly

Design of Wood Structures

Design process for fire-resistance requires that:

When heavy timber members are exposed to

Verification is usually in time or strength domain

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Temperatures Below the Char

Char layer and pyrolysis zone in a timber beam

Temp. in wood below char layer was measured

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Thermal Properties of Wood

Thermal Properties of Wood

Temp. inside fire-exposed timber members can

Variation of thermal conductivity of wood with

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Thermal Properties of Wood

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

Variation of specific heat of wood with temperature

Wood is greatly different from other materials

Design of Wood Structures

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

Design of Wood Structures

Figure below shows typical stress-strain curves

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Mechanical Properties of Wood at

Tension and compression behaviour

Design of Wood Structures

Tension and compression behaviour

Design of Wood Structures

Bending behaviour is a combination of tension

Design of Wood Structures

Structural design calculations require values of

Design strength of timber depends on duration of

Sources and general behaviour

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Effect of moisture content

Review on the effect of moisture content (MC)

Mechanical Properties of Wood at

Design of Wood Structures

When testing timber at elevated temp., MC is

Design of Wood Structures

Parallel to the grain properties Modulus of elasticity

Parallel to the grain properties Modulus of elasticity

Figures below show the modulus of elasticity of

Modulus of elasticity of wood parallel to the grain

Design of Wood Structures