A

SEMINAR REPORT
ON

“NANORAM”

In partial fulfillment of
B.TECH IV Year (Computer Science & Engineering)

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Miss. Pooja Saxena Nitesh Kumar Tater
Lecturer Computer Science & Engg.
Computer Science & IV Year
Engineering Department

Department of Computer Science Engineering

JODHPUR INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With great pleasure and gratefulness, I extend my deep sense of gratitude to

Miss.Pooja Saxena for giving me an opportunity to accomplish my seminar under
her guidance and to increase my knowledge.

I also like to thanks Dr.Sugandha Singh (HEAD, Computer Science &

Engineering, Jodhpur Institute of Engineering & Technology) for giving her
precious time & guidance for the successful completion of my seminar.

I would express our sincere gratitude towards “Computer Science &

Engineering Department, Jodhpur Institute of Engineering & Technology” for
providing me excellent research facilities and state-of-the-art technology.

I am indebted to all our elders, lecturers and friends for inspiring me to do my

seminar with immense dedication. Lastly I wish to thank each and every person
involved in making my seminar successful.

Thank You. Nitesh Kumar Tater

VIII Sem.
CSE

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 PREFACE

Seminar is an important constituent of any curriculum and the B.TECH

course is no exception to this general rule. A seminar helps a student in increasing
his knowledge and confidence.
Seminar switches process of learning to process of presenting knowledge.
This provision offers a very good opportunity to the students to supplement their
knowledge and skills by giving presentation. This opportunity should be utilized for
developing and enhancing our skills.
This report describes in detail my seminar in B.TECH 4th year, on topic
NANORAM.

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 INDEX

1. Introduction…………..…………………………………………5
2. Nanotechnology ……..…………………………………………9

2.1 History …………………………………………9

2.2 Fundamental Concept…….…..…………….…10
2.3 Application ……..…………………………....10
3. Nano-Ram……………….………………………………….…18

3.1 Carbon Nano Tube …………….………………18

3.2 Technology…….…………………..…………..19
3.3 Design and Description………..………..……..20
4. Advantages ……………………….…………………………...23

5. Comparison with other proposed systems …………………….24

6. Limitation ………………………………….…………….........24

7. Application………………………………….……………..…..24

8. Conclusion…………………………….…….……………....…25

9. Keyword ………………………………………………...…….25

10. References & Bibliography………………………………..…...25

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 INTRODUCTION:
Today the world is of digital. All the electronic devices are formalized to manipulate the
digital data. The back -bone of today’s research and development “The Computer” is also
a digital device. Digital by name deals with digits and all the gadgets available today (like
PDA’s, laptops, etc…) need to manipulate the digital data. To manipulate first we have to
store it at a place. Thus MEMORY in today’s world plays a key role and a constant
research to improve the memory in today’s electronic gadgets is ON.

RAM (random access memory) is the main storage device in all digital systems. The speed
of the system mainly depends on how speed and vast the RAM is. Today with increasing
power need of man even the POWER consumed is also a major part to look at. By
generations RAM also had under gone many changes. Some of the versions of RAM’s
which are in use are DRAM, SRAM and FLASH MEMORY. DRAM (dynamic RAM)
although has a capability to hold large amounts of data it is slower and volatile.

SRAM (static RAM) even superior to DRAM in speed but less denser. Even this is
volatile in nature. Overcoming the volatile nature of these two FLASH MEMORY is the
latest of today random access memories. Even this fails in power saving. Overcoming all
these failures of above mentioned RAM’s , researchers developed a new RAM which
unlike the semiconductor technology alone used by the former, uses a combination of
NANOTECHNOLOGY and contemporary SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGY and is
given the name NRAM.

NANO +
RAM

Greek prefix which means

dwarf. In science this prefix RAM (Random-Access Memory)
denotes a fraction of 10-9 a is a form of computer data storage.
given unit. It takes the form of integrated
For instance 1nm = 10-9m circuits that allow stored volatile
data to be accessed in random order.

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1.1 RAM (Random Access Memory):
It is a form of computer data storage. It takes the form of integrated circuits that allow stored
volatile data to be accessed in random order. By contrast, storage devices such as magnetic discs
and optical discs rely on the physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head. In
these devices, the movement takes longer than data transfer, and the retrieval time varies based on
the physical location of the next item.

The word RAM is often associated with volatile types of memory (such as DRAM memory
modules), where the information is lost after the power is switched off. Many other types of
memory are RAM, too, including most types of ROM and a type of flash memory called NOR
Flash.

1.2 Types of RAM: There are mainly two types of RAM

1.2.1 DRAM:

Dynamic RAM is the most common type of memory in use today. Inside a dynamic
RAM chip, each memory cell holds one bit of information and is made up of two parts: a
transistor and a capacitor. These are, of course, extremely small transistors and capacitors so that
millions of them can fit on a single memory chip. The capacitor holds the bit of information -- a 0
or a 1. The transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the memory chip read the
capacitor or change its state.

A capacitor is like a small bucket that is able to store electrons. To store a 1 in the memory cell,
the bucket is filled with electrons. To store a 0, it is emptied. The problem with the capacitor's
bucket is that it has a leak. In a matter of a few milliseconds a full bucket becomes empty.
Therefore, for dynamic memory to work, either the CPU or the memory controller has to come
along and recharge all of the capacitors holding a 1 before they discharge. To do this, the memory
controller reads the memory and then writes it right back. This refresh operation happens
automatically thousands of times per second.

This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name. Dynamic RAM has to be
dynamically refreshed all of the time or it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this
refreshing is that it takes time and slows down the memory.

1.2.2 SRAM:

Static RAM uses a completely different technology. In static RAM, a form of flip-flop holds each
bit of memory. A flip-flop for a memory cell takes 4 or 6 transistors along with some wiring, but
never has to be refreshed. This makes static RAM significantly faster than dynamic RAM.
However, because it has more parts, a static memory cell takes a lot more space on a chip than a
dynamic memory cell. Therefore you get less memory per chip, and that makes static RAM a lot
more expensive. So static RAM is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less expensive and
slower. Therefore static RAM is used to create the CPU's speed-sensitive cache, while dynamic
RAM forms the larger system RAM space.

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There are some other types of RAM:

There are many different types of RAM which have appeared over the years and it is often
difficult knowing the difference between them both performance wise and visually identifying
them. This article tells a little about each RAM type, what it looks like and how it performs.

FPM RAM
FPM RAM, which stands for Fast Page Mode RAM is a type of Dynamic RAM (DRAM). The
term “Fast Page Mode comes from the capability of memory being able to access data that is on
the same page and can be done with less latency. Most 486 and Pentium based systems from 1995
and earlier use FPM Memory.

FPM RAM

EDO RAM
EDO RAM, which stands for “Extended Data Out RAM came out in 1995 as a new type of
memory available for Pentium based systems. EDO is a modified form of FPM RAM which is
commonly referred to as “Hyper Page Mode. Extended Data Out refers to fact that the data output
drivers on the memory module are not switched off when the memory controller removes the
column address to begin the next cycle, unlike FPM RAM. Most early Penitum based systems use
EDO.

EDO RAM

SDRAM
SDRAM , which is short for Synchronous DRAM is a type of DRAM that runs in synchronization
with the memory bus. Beginning in 1996 most Intel based chipsets began to support SDRAM
which made it a popular choice for new systems in 2001.
SDRAM is capable of running at 133MHz which is about three times faster than FPM RAM and
twice as fast as EDO RAM. Most Pentium or Celeron systems purchased in 1999 have SDRAM.

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 SD RAM

DDR RAM
DDR RAM, which stands for “Double Data Rate which is a type of SDRAM and appeared first
on the market around 2001 but didn’t catch on until about 2001 when the mainstream
motherboards started supporting it. The difference between SDRAM and DDR RAM is that
instead of doubling the clock rate it transfers data twice per clock cycle which effectively doubles
the data rate. DDRRAM has become mainstream in the graphics card market and has become the
memory standard.

DDR RAM

Difference between DDR1,DDR2,DDR3 types of

RAM?
In computing, a computer bus operating with double data rate transfers data on both the rising and
falling edges of the clock signal. This is also known as double pumped, dual-pumped, and double
transition.
DDR2 stores memory in memory cells that are activated with the use of a clock signal to
synchronize their operation with an external data bus. Like DDR before it, DDR2 cells transfer
data both on the rising and falling edge of the clock (a technique called "dual pumping"). The key
difference between DDR and DDR2 is that in DDR2 the bus is clocked at twice the speed of the
memory cells, so four words of data can be transferred per memory cell cycle.
DDR3 memory comes with a promise of a power consumption reduction of 30% compared to
current commercial DDR2 modules due to DDR3's 1.5 V supply voltage, compared to DDR2's
1.8 V or DDR's 2.5 V. This supply voltage works well with the 90 nm fabrication technology
used for most DDR3 chips. Some manufacturers further propose to use "dual-gate" transistors to
reduce leakage of current.
The main benefit of DDR3 comes from the higher bandwidth made possible by DDR3's 8 bit deep
prefetch buffer, whereas DDR2's is 4 bits, and DDR's is 2 bits deep.

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2. Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology, shortened to "nanotech", is the study of the controlling of matter on an atomic
and molecular scale. Generally nanotechnology deals with structures of the size 100 nanometers
or smaller in at least one dimension, and involves developing materials or devices within that size.
Nanotechnology is very diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to
completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials
with dimensions on the nanoscale to investigating whether we can directly control matter on the
atomic scale.

There has been much debate on the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology has
the potential to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as
in medicine, electronics and energy production. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many
of the same issues as with any introduction of new technology, including concerns about the
toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials, and their potential effects on global
economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to
a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of
nanotechnology is warranted.

Figure: Rotating view of Buckminster Fullerene C60.

2.1 History of Nanotechnology

The first use of the concepts found in 'nano-technology' (but pre-dating use of that name) was in
"There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom," a talk given by physicist Richard Feynman at an
American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959. Feynman described a
process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed,
using one set of precise tools to build and operate another proportionally smaller set, and so on
down to the needed scale. In the course of this, he noted, scaling issues would arise from the
changing magnitude of various physical phenomena: gravity would become less important,
surface tension and van der Waals attraction would become increasingly more significant, etc.
This basic idea appeared plausible, and exponential assembly enhances it with parallelism to
produce a useful quantity of end products. The term "nanotechnology" was defined by Tokyo
Science University Professor Norio Taniguchi in a 1974 paper as follows: "'Nano-technology'

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mainly consists of the processing of, separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by
one atom or by one molecule." In the 1980s the basic idea of this definition was explored in much
more depth by Dr. K. Eric Drexler, who promoted the technological significance of nano-scale
phenomena and devices through speeches and the books Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of
Nanotechnology (1986) and Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and
Computation, and so the term acquired its current sense. Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of
Nanotechnology is considered the first book on the topic of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology and
nanoscience got started in the early 1980s with two major developments; the birth of cluster
science and the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). This development led to
the discovery of fullerenes in 1985 and carbon nanotubes a few years later. In another
development, the synthesis and properties of semiconductor nanocrystals was studied; this led to a
fast increasing number of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles and quantum dots. The atomic
force microscope (AFM or SFM) was invented six years after the STM was invented. In 2000, the
United States National Nanotechnology Initiative was founded to coordinate Federal
nanotechnology research and development and is evaluated by the President's Council of
Advisors on Science and Technology.

2.2 Fundamental concepts:-

One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10−9, of a meter. By comparison, typical carbon-carbon
bond lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range 0.12–0.15 nm,
and a DNA double-helix has a diameter around 2 nm. On the other hand, the smallest cellular life-
forms, the bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma, are around 200 nm in length.

To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as
that of a marble to the size of the earth. Or another way of putting it: a nanometer is the amount a
man's beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to his face.

Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the "bottom-up" approach, materials and
devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by
principles of molecular recognition. In the "top-down" approach, nano-objects are constructed
from larger entities without atomic-level control.

Areas of physics such as nanoelectronics, nanomechanics and nanophotonics have evolved during
the last few decades to provide a basic scientific foundation of nanotechnology.

2.3 Application of Nanotechnology:-

2.3.1 Medicine

The biological and medical research communities have exploited the unique properties of
nanomaterials for various applications (e.g., contrast agents for cell imaging and therapeutics for
treating cancer). Terms such as biomedical nanotechnology, nanobiotechnology and
nanomedicine are used to describe this hybrid field. Functionalities can be added to nanomaterials
by interfacing them with biological molecules or structures.

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The size of nanomaterials is similar to that of most biological molecules and structures; therefore,
nanomaterials can be useful for both in vivo and in vitro biomedical research and applications.
Thus far, the integration of nanomaterials with biology has led to the development of diagnostic
devices, contrast agents, analytical tools, physical therapy applications, and drug delivery
vehicles.

1. Diagnostics

Nanotechnology-on-a-chip is one more dimension of lab-on-a-chip technology. Magnetic

nanoparticles, bound to a suitable antibody, are used to label specific molecules, structures or
microorganisms. Gold nanoparticles tagged with short segments of DNA can be used for
detection of genetic sequence in a sample. Multicolor optical coding for biological assays has
been achieved by embedding different-sized quantum dots into polymeric microbeads. Nanopore
technology for analysis of nucleic acids converts strings of nucleotides directly into electronic
signatures.

2. Drug delivery

Nanotechnology has been a boom in medical field by delivering drugs to specific cells using
nanoparticles. The overall drug consumption and side-effects can be lowered significantly by
depositing the active agent in the morbid region only and in no higher dose than needed. This
highly selective approach reduces costs and human suffering. An example can be found in
dendrimers and nanoporous materials. Another example is to use block co-polymers, which form
micelles for drug encapsulation.[1] They could hold small drug molecules transporting them to the
desired location. Another vision is based on small electromechanical systems; NEMS are being
investigated for the active release of drugs. Some potentially important applications include
cancer treatment with iron nanoparticles or gold shells. A targeted or personalized medicine
reduces the drug consumption and treatment expenses resulting in an overall societal benefit by
reducing the costs to the public health system. Nanotechnology is also opening up new
opportunities in implantable delivery systems, which are often preferable to the use of injectable
drugs, because the latter frequently display first-order kinetics (the blood concentration goes up
rapidly, but drops exponentially over time). This rapid rise may cause difficulties with toxicity,
and drug efficacy can diminish as the drug concentration falls below the targeted range.

3. Tissue engineering

Nanotechnology can help to reproduce or to repair damaged tissue. “Tissue engineering” makes
use of artificially stimulated cell proliferation by using suitable nanomaterial-based scaffolds and
growth factors. Tissue engineering might replace today’s conventional treatments like organ
transplants or artificial implants. Advanced forms of tissue engineering may lead to life extension.

For patients with end-state organ failure, there may not be enough healthy cells for expansion and
transplantation into the ECM (extracellular matrix). In this case, pluripotent stem cells are needed.
One potential source for these cells is iPS (induced Pluripontent Stem cells); these are ordinary
cells from the patient’s own body that are reprogrammed into a pluripotent state, and has the
advantage of avoiding rejection (and the potentially life-threatening complications associated with
immunosuppressive treatments).
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 Another potential source of pluripotent cells is from embryos, but this has two disadvantages:
1). it requires that we solve the problem of cloning, which is technically very difficult (especially
preventing abnormalities).

2) It requires the harvesting of embryos. Given that each one of us was once an embryo, this
source is claimed by some to be ethically problematic.

4. Chemistry and environment

Chemical catalysis and filtration techniques are two prominent examples where nanotechnology
already plays a role. The synthesis provides novel materials with tailored features and chemical
properties: for example, nanoparticles with a distinct chemical surrounding (ligands), or specific
optical properties. In this sense, chemistry is indeed a basic nanoscience. In a short-term
perspective, chemistry will provide novel “nanomaterials” and in the long run, superior processes
such as “self-assembly” will enable energy and time preserving strategies. In a sense, all chemical
synthesis can be understood in terms of nanotechnology, because of its ability to manufacture
certain molecules. Thus, chemistry forms a base for nanotechnology providing tailor-made
molecules, polymers, etcetera, as well as clusters and nanoparticles.

5. Catalysis

Chemical catalysis benefits especially from nanoparticles, due to the extremely large surface to
volume ratio. The application potential of nanoparticles in catalysis ranges from fuel cell to
catalytic converters and photocatalytic devices. Catalysis is also important for the production of
chemicals.Platinum nanoparticles are now being considered in the next generation of automotive
catalytic converters because the very high surface area of nanoparticles could reduce the amount
of platinum required.However, some concerns have been raised due to experiments demonstrating
that they will spontaneously combust if methane is mixed with the ambient air. Ongoing research
at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) in France may resolve their true
usefulness for catalytic applications.Nanofiltration may come to be an important application,
although future research must be careful to investigate possible toxicity.

2.3.2 Filtration

A strong influence of nanochemistry on waste-water treatment, air purification and energy storage
devices is to be expected. Mechanical or chemical methods can be used for effective filtration
techniques. One class of filtration techniques is based on the use of membranes with suitable hole
sizes, whereby the liquid is pressed through the membrane. Nanoporous membranes are suitable
for a mechanical filtration with extremely small pores smaller than 10 nm (“nanofiltration”) and
may be composed of nanotubes. Nanofiltration is mainly used for the removal of ions or the
separation of different fluids. On a larger scale, the membrane filtration technique is named
ultrafiltration, which works down to between 10 and 100 nm. One important field of application
for ultrafiltration is medical purposes as can be found in renal dialysis. Magnetic nanoparticles
offer an effective and reliable method to remove heavy metal contaminants from waste water by
making use of magnetic separation techniques. Using nanoscale particles increases the efficiency
to absorb the contaminants and is comparatively inexpensive compared to traditional precipitation
and filtration methods.
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Some water-treatment devices incorporating nanotechnology are already on the market, with more
in development. Low-cost nanostructured separation membranes methods have been shown to be
effective in producing potable water in a recent study.

2.3.3 Energy

The most advanced nanotechnology projects related to energy are: storage, conversion,
manufacturing improvements by reducing materials and process rates, energy saving (by better
thermal insulation for example), and enhanced renewable energy sources.

1. Reduction of energy consumption

A reduction of energy consumption can be reached by better insulation systems, by the use of
more efficient lighting or combustion systems, and by use of lighter and stronger materials in the
transportation sector. Currently used light bulbs only convert approximately 5% of the electrical
energy into light. Nanotechnological approaches like light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or quantum
caged atoms (QCAs) could lead to a strong reduction of energy consumption for illumination.

2. Increasing the efficiency of energy production

Today's best solar cells have layers of several different semiconductors stacked together to absorb
light at different energies but they still only manage to use 40 percent of the Sun's energy.
Commercially available solar cells have much lower efficiencies (15-20%). Nanotechnology
could help increase the efficiency of light conversion by using nanostructures with a continuum of
bandgaps.The degree of efficiency of the internal combustion engine is about 30-40% at the
moment. Nanotechnology could improve combustion by designing specific catalysts with
maximized surface area. In 2005, scientists at the University of Toronto developed a spray-on
nanoparticle substance that, when applied to a surface, instantly transforms it into a solar
collector.

3. The use of more environmentally friendly energy systems

An example for an environmentally friendly form of energy is the use of fuel cells powered by
hydrogen, which is ideally produced by renewable energies. Probably the most prominent
nanostructured material in fuel cells is the catalyst consisting of carbon supported noble metal
particles with diameters of 1-5 nm. Suitable materials for hydrogen storage contain a large
number of small nanosized pores. Therefore many nanostructured materials like nanotubes,
zeolites or alanates are under investigation. Nanotechnology can contribute to the further
reduction of combustion engine pollutants by nanoporous filters, which can clean the exhaust
mechanically, by catalytic converters based on nanoscale noble metal particles or by catalytic
coatings on cylinder walls and catalytic nanoparticles as additive for fuels.

2.3.4 Recycling of batteries

Because of the relatively low energy density of batteries the operating time is limited and a
replacement or recharging is needed. The huge number of spent batteries and accumulators
represent a disposal problem. The use of batteries with higher energy content or the use of
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rechargeable batteries or supercapacitors with higher rate of recharging using nanomaterials could
be helpful for the battery disposal problem.

2.3.5 Information and communication

Current high-technology production processes are based on traditional top down strategies, where
nanotechnology has already been introduced silently. The critical length scale of integrated
circuits is already at the nanoscale (50 nm and below) regarding the gate length of transistors in
CPUs or DRAM devices.

2.3.6 Memory Storage

Electronic memory designs in the past have largely relied on the formation of transistors.
However, research into crossbar switch based electronics have offered an alternative using
reconfigurable interconnections between vertical and horizontal wiring arrays to create ultra-high
density memories. Two leaders in this area are Nantero which has developed a carbon nanotube
based crossbar memory called Nano-RAM and Hewlett-Packard which has proposed the use of
memristor material as a future replacement of Flash memory.

2.3.7 Novel semiconductor devices

An example of such novel devices is based on spintronics.The dependence of the resistance of a

material (due to the spin of the electrons) on an external field is called magneto resistance. This
effect can be significantly amplified (GMR - Giant Magneto-Resistance) for nano sized objects,
for example when two ferromagnetic layers are separated by a nonmagnetic layer, which is
several nanometers thick (e.g. Co-Cu-Co). The GMR effect has led to a strong increase in the data
storage density of hard disks and made the gigabyte range possible. The so called tunneling
magneto resistance (TMR) is very similar to GMR and based on the spin dependent tunneling of
electrons through adjacent ferromagnetic layers. Both GMR and TMR effects can be used to
create a non-volatile main memory for computers, such as the so called magnetic random access
memory or MRAM.

2.3.8 Novel optoelectronic devices

In the modern communication technology traditional analog electrical devices are increasingly
replaced by optical or optoelectronic devices due to their enormous bandwidth and capacity,
respectively. Two promising examples are photonic crystals and quantum dots. Photonic crystals
are materials with a periodic variation in the refractive index with a lattice constant that is half the
wavelength of the light used. They offer a selectable band gap for the propagation of a certain
wavelength, thus they resemble a semiconductor, but for light or photons instead of electrons.
Quantum dots are nano scaled objects, which can be used, among many other things, for the
construction of lasers. The advantage of a quantum dot laser over the traditional semiconductor
laser is that their emitted wavelength depends on the diameter of the dot. Quantum dot lasers are
cheaper and offer a higher beam quality than conventional laser diodes.

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2.3.9 Displays

The production of displays with low energy consumption could be accomplished using carbon
nanotubes (CNT). Carbon nanotubes are electrically conductive and due to their small diameter of
several nanometers, they can be used as field emitters with extremely high efficiency for field
emission displays (FED). The principle of operation resembles that of the cathode ray tube, but on
a much smaller length scale.

2.3.10 Quantum computers

Entirely new approaches for computing exploit the laws of quantum mechanics for novel quantum
computers, which enable the use of fast quantum algorithms. The Quantum computer has
quantum bit memory space termed "Qubit" for several computations at the same time. This
facility may improve the performance of the older systems.

2.3.11 Heavy Industry

An inevitable use of nanotechnology will be in heavy industry.

2.3.12 Aerospace

Lighter and stronger materials will be of immense use to aircraft manufacturers, leading to
increased performance. Spacecraft will also benefit, where weight is a major factor.
Nanotechnology would help to reduce the size of equipment and thereby decrease fuel-
consumption required to get it airborne.

Hang gliders may be able to halve their weight while increasing their strength and toughness
through the use of nanotech materials. Nanotech is lowering the mass of supercapacitors that will
increasingly be used to give power to assistive electrical motors for launching hang gliders off
flatland to thermal-chasing altitudes.

2.3.13 Construction

Nanotechnology has the potential to make construction faster, cheaper, safer, and more varied.
Automation of nanotechnology construction can allow for the creation of structures from
advanced homes to massive skyscrapers much more quickly and at much lower cost.

2.3.14 Refineries

Using nanotech applications, refineries producing materials such as steel and aluminium will be
able to remove any impurities in the materials they create.

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2.3.15 Vehicle manufacturers

Much like aerospace, lighter and stronger materials will be useful for creating vehicles that are
both faster and safer. Combustion engines will also benefit from parts that are more hard-wearing
and more heat-resistant.

2.3.16 Consumer goods

Nanotechnology is already impacting the field of consumer goods, providing products with novel
functions ranging from easy-to-clean to scratch-resistant. Modern textiles are wrinkle-resistant
and stain-repellent; in the mid-term clothes will become “smart”, through embedded “wearable
electronics”. Already in use are different nanoparticle improved products. Especially in the field
of cosmetics, such novel products have a promising potential.

2.3.17 Foods

Complex set of engineering and scientific challenges in the food and bioprocessing industry for
manufacturing high quality and safe food through efficient and sustainable means can be solved
through nanotechnology. Bacteria identification and food quality monitoring using biosensors;
intelligent, active, and smart food packaging systems; nanoencapsulation of bioactive food
compounds are few examples of emerging applications of nanotechnology for the food industry.
Nanotechnology can be applied in the production, processing, safety and packaging of food. A
nanocomposite coating process could improve food packaging by placing anti-microbial agents
directly on the surface of the coated film. Nanocomposites could increase or decrease gas
permeability of different fillers as is needed for different products. They can also improve the
mechanical and heat-resistance properties and lower the oxygen transmission rate. Research is
being performed to apply nanotechnology to the detection of chemical and biological substances
for sensanges in foods.

2.3.18 Nano-foods

New foods are among the nanotechnology-created consumer products coming onto the market at
the rate of 3 to 4 per week, according to the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies (PEN), based
on an inventory it has drawn up of 609 known or claimed nano-products.

On PEN's list are three foods -- a brand of canola cooking oil called Canola Active Oil, a tea
called Nanotea and a chocolate diet shake called Nanoceuticals Slim Shake Chocolate.

According to company information posted on PEN's Web site, the canola oil, by Shemen
Industries of Israel, contains an additive called "nanodrops" designed to carry vitamins, minerals
and phytochemicals through the digestive system and urea.

The shake, according to U.S. manufacturer RBC Life Sciences Inc., uses cocoa infused
"NanoClusters" to enhance the taste and health benefits of cocoa without the need for extra sugar.

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2.3.19 Household

The most prominent application of nanotechnology in the household is self-cleaning or “easy-to-

clean” surfaces on ceramics or glasses. Nanoceramic particles have improved the smoothness and
heat resistance of common household equipment such as the flat iron.

2.3.20 Optics

The first sunglasses using protective and anti-reflective ultrathin polymer coatings are on the
market. For optics, nanotechnology also offers scratch resistant surface coatings based on
nanocomposites. Nano-optics could allow for an increase in precision of pupil repair and other
types of laser eye surgery.

2.3.21 Textiles

The use of engineered nanofibers already makes clothes water- and stain-repellent or wrinkle-
free. Textiles with a nanotechnological finish can be washed less frequently and at lower
temperatures. Nanotechnology has been used to integrate tiny carbon particles membrane and
guarantee full-surface protection from electrostatic charges for the wearer. Many other
applications have been developed by research institutions such Textiles Nanotechnology
Laboratory at Cornell University

2.3.22 Cosmetics

One field of application is in sunscreens. The traditional chemical UV protection approach suffers
from its poor long-term stability. A sunscreen based on mineral nanoparticles such as titanium
dioxide offer several advantages. Titanium oxide nanoparticles have a comparable UV protection
property as the bulk material, but lose the cosmetically undesirable whitening as the particle size
is decreased.

2.3.23 Agriculture

Applications of nanotechnology have the potential to change the entire agriculture sector and food
industry chain from production to conservation, processing, packaging, transportation, and even
waste treatment. NanoScience concepts and Nanotechnology applications have the potential to
redesign the production cycle, restructure the processing and conservation processes and redefine
the food habits of the people.

Major Challenges related to agriculture like Low productivity in cultivable areas, Large
uncultivable areas,Shrinkage of cultivable lands, Wastage of inputs like water, fertilizers,
pesticides, Wastage of products and of course Food security for growing numbers can be
addressed through various applications of nanotechnology.

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3. NANO RAM
The proprietary NRAM design, invented by Dr.Thomas Rueckes, Nantero’s Chief Technology
Officer, Uses carbon nanotubes as active memory element. Nano-RAM is a proprietary computer
memory technology from the company Natero. It is a type of nonvolatile random access memory
based on the mechanical position of carbon nanotubes deposited on a chip-like substrate. It can
replace DRAM, SRAM, flash and ultimately hard disk storage. In other word a universal memory
chip suitable for countless existing and new application in the field of electronics.

3.1 Carbon Nano Tube:-

Carbon nanotubes (CNT) are allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical nanostructure.

Nanotubes have been constructed with length-to-diameter ratio of up to 132,000,000:1, which is
significantly larger than any other material.CNT developed by Sumio Iijima. These cylindrical
carbon molecules have novel properties. This property is useful in many applications in
nanotechnology, electronics, optics and other fields of science.

Figure: CARBON NANOTUBES

Nanotubes are members of the fullerene structural family. It has ability to conduct electricity as
well as copper.it is stronger than steel and as hard as diamond. The wall of a single-walled carbon
nanotube is only one carbon atom thick and the tube diameter is approximately 100,000 times
smaller than a human hair. Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube
is on the order of a few nanometers (approximately 1/50,000th of the width of a human hair),
while they can be up to several millimeters in length (as of 2008). Nanotubes are categorized as
single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs).

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Advantages
 Very small in size.
 Low power consumption
Disadvantage
 High cost
 Requirement of high precision
 Occurrence of impurities

3.2 Technology:-

Nantero's technology is based on a well-known effect in carbon nanotubes where crossed

nanotubes on a flat surface can either be touching or slightly separated in the vertical direction
(normal to the substrate) due to Van der Waal's interactions. In Nantero's technology, each
NRAM "cell" consists of a number of nanotubes suspended on insulating "lands" over a metal
electrode. At rest the nanotubes lie above the electrode "in the air", about 13 nm above it in the
current versions, stretched between the two lands. A small dot of gold is deposited on top of the
nanotubes on one of the lands, providing an electrical connection, or terminal. A second electrode
lies below the surface, about 100 nm away.

Fig: STORAGE IN NRAM

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Normally, with the nanotubes suspended above the electrode, a small voltage applied between the
terminal and upper electrode will result in no current flowing. This represents a "0" state.
However if a larger voltage is applied between the two electrodes, the nanotubes will be pulled
towards the upper electrode until they touch it. At this point a small voltage applied between the
terminal and upper electrode will allow current to flow (nanotubes are conductors), representing a
"1" state. The state can be changed by reversing the polarity of the charge applied to the two
electrodes.

What causes this to act as a memory is that the two positions of the nanotubes are both stable. In
the off position the mechanical strain on the tubes is low, so they will naturally remain in this
position and continue to read "0". When the tubes are pulled into contact with the upper electrode
a new force, the tiny Van der Waals force, comes into play and attracts the tubes enough to
overcome the mechanical strain. Once in this position the tubes will again happily remain there
and continue to read "1". These positions are fairly resistant to outside interference like radiation
that can erase or flip memory in a conventional DRAM.

NRAMs are built by depositing masses of nanotubes on a pre-fabricated chip containing rows of
bar-shaped electrodes with the slightly taller insulating layers between them. Tubes in the
"wrong" location are then removed, and the gold terminals deposited on top. Any number of
methods can be used to select a single cell for writing, for instance the second set of electrodes
can be run in the opposite direction, forming a grid, or they can be selected by adding voltage to
the terminals as well, meaning that only those selected cells have a total voltage high enough to
cause the flip.

Currently the method of removing the unwanted nanotubes makes the system impractical. The
accuracy and size of the epitaxy machinery (Epitaxy refers to the method of depositing a
monocrystalline film on a monocrystalline substrate. The deposited film is denoted as epitaxial
film or epitaxial layer. The term epitaxy comes from the Greek roots epi, meaning "above", and
taxis, meaning "in ordered manner". It can be translated "to arrange upon".) is considerably
"larger" that the cell size otherwise possible. Existing experimental cells have very low densities
compared to existing systems; some new method of construction will have to be introduced in
order to make the system practical.

2.3 DESIGN and DESCRIPTION:

The design is quite simple. Nanotubes can serve as individually addressable electromechanical
switches arrayed across the surface of a microchip, storing hundreds of gigabits of information
may be even a terabit. An electric field applied to a nanotubes would cause it to flex downward
into depression etched onto the chip’s surface, where it would contact rather another nanotube or
touch a metallic electrode.Once bent, the nanotubes can remain that way, including when the
power is turned off, allowing for non-volatile operation. Vanderwaals forces, which are weak
molecular forces of attractions, would hold the switch in place until application of fields of
different polarity causes the nanotube to return to its straightened position.

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 Fig: simple construction of NRAM showing its
Various components.

As shown in fig sagging and straightening represent ’1’ and ‘0’ states, respectively, for a random
access memory. In its ‘0’state, the nanotube fabric remains suspended above the electrode. When
the transistor below the electrode is turned on, the electrode is turned on, the electrode produces
an electric field that causes the nanotubes fabric to bend and touch the electrode - a configuration
that denotes ‘1’ state. This is the principle of a switching device.

A nanotube memory is faster much smaller while consuming little power. Due to their
extraordinary tensile strength, resilience and very high conductivity, nanotubes can be flexed up
and down million times without any damage and can make a very good switching contact.

Fig: suspended nanotube switched connection

Nanotubes purchased from bulk suppliers are a form of high -tech carbon soot that contains a
residue of about 5 percent iron a containment that must be removed before further processing. It
requires a complex filtration process to reduce the amount of iron to the parts per billion levels.
The purified carbon nanotubes are deposited as a film on the surface of a silicon wafer without
interfering with adjoi ning electrical circuitry from which chips are carved.

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 Figure: When reading an OFF state no current flows from the carbon
nanotube ribbon to the electrode

Figure: When reading an ON state a current passes from the carbon nanotube
to the electrode

Deposition of nanotubes onto the wafer using a gas vapour requires temperatures so high that the
circuitry already in place would be ruined. It is therefore done by spraying a special solvent
containing nanotube on the top of the silicon disk spinning like a phonograph record. The thin
film of nanotubes left after the solvent is evaporated, is subjected to standard semiconductor
lithography and etching, which leave the surface groupings of nanotubes with interconnecting
wires. Thereafter, chips are cut from the wafer and encapsulated by the standard IC technology

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3. ADVANTAGES:
NRAM has a density, at least in theory, similar to that of DRAM. DRAM consists of a number of
capacitors, which are essentially two small metal plates with a thin insulator between them.
NRAM is similar, with the terminals and electrodes being roughly the same size as the plates in a
DRAM, the nanotubes between them being so much smaller they add nothing to th e overall size.
However it seems there is a minimum size at which a DRAM can be built, below which there is
simply not enough charge being stored to be able to effectively read it. NRAM appears to be
limited only by the current state of art in lithography. This means that NRAM may be able to
become much denser than DRAM, meaning that it will also be less expensive, if it becomes
possible to control the locations of carbon nanotubes at the scale the Semiconductor Industry can
control the placement of devices on SILICON.

Additionally, unlike DRAM, NRAM does not require power to "refresh" it, and will retain its
memory even after the power is removed. Additionally the power needed to write to the device is
much lower than a DRAM, which has to build up charge on the plates. This means that NRAM
will not only compete with DRAM in terms of cost, but will require much less power to run, and
as a result also be much faster (write speed is largely determined by the total charge needed).
NRAM can theoretically reach sp eeds similar to SRAM, which is faster than DRAM but much
less dense, and thus much more expensive.

In comparison with other NVRAM technologies, NRAM has the potential to be even more
advantageous. The most common form of NVRAM today is Flash RAM, which combines a
bistable transistor circuit known as a flipflop (also the basis of SRAM) with a high-performance
insulator wrapped around one of the transistor's bases. After being written to, the insulator traps
electrons in the base electrode, locking it into th e "1" state. However, in order to change that bit
the insulator has to be "overcharged" to erase any charge already stored in it. This requires high
voltage, about 10 volts, much more than a battery can provide. Flash systems thus have to include
a "charge pump" that slowly builds up power and then releases it at higher voltage. This process is
not only very slow, but degrades the insulators as well. For this reason Flash has a limited
lifetime, between 10,000 and 1,000,000 "writes" before the device will n o longer operate
effectively.

NRAM potentially avoids all of these issues. The read and write process are both "low energy" in
comparison to Flash (or DRAM for that matter), meaning that NRAM can result in longer battery
life in conventional devices. It ma y also be much faster to write than either, meaning it may be
used to replace both. A modern cellphone will often include Flash memory for storing phone
numbers and such, DRAM for higher speed working memory because flash is too slow, and
additionally some SRAM in the CPU because DRAM is too slow for its own use. With NRAM all
of these may be replaced, with some NRAM placed on the CPU to act as the CPU cache, and
more in other chips replacing both the DRAM and Flash.

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4. Comparison with other proposed systems:

NRAM is one of a variety of new memory systems, many of which claim to be "universal" in the
same fashion as NRAM -- replacing everything from Flash to DRAM to SRAM.

The only system currently ready for commercial use is ferroelectric random access memory
(FRAM or FeRAM). FeRAM adds a small amount of a ferro–electric material in an otherwise
"normal" DRAM cell, the state of the field in the material encoding the bit in a non-destructive
format. FeRAM has all of the advantages of NRAM, although the smallest possible cell size is
much larger than for NRAM. FeRAM is currently in use in a number of applications where the
limited number of writes in Flash is an issue, but due to the massive investment in Flash factories
(fabs), it has not yet been able to even replace Flash in the market. Other more speculative
memory systems include MRAM and PRAM. MRAM is based on a magnetic effect similar to
that utilized in modern hard drives, the memory as a whole consisting of a grid of small magnetic
"dots" each holding one bit. Key to MRAM's potential is the way it reads the memory using the
magneto -restrictive effect, allowing it to read the memory both non -destructively and with very
little power. Unfortunately it appears MRAM is already reaching its fundamental smallest cell
size, already much larger than existing Flash devices. PRAM is based on a technology similar to
that in a writable CD or DVD, using a phase -change material that changes its magnetic or
electrical properties instead of its optical ones. PRAM appears to have a small cell size as well,
although current devices are nowhere near small enough to find if there is some practical limit.

5. LIMITATION:-

 Over supply of DRAM

 Is relatively costly
 NRAM is still in research phase

6. APPLICATION:-

 Computer and Laptops

(Enabling instant –on performance, with no for boot up)
 Mobile devices
(Faster storage of more data for PDA’s and handhelds)
 Embedded memory
(More powerful microprocessor, microcontroller, other logic device)
 High speed network server
 Faster and denser

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5. CONCLUSION:
Though this technology today is limited to laboratories and not economically viable, some new
method of construction will have to be introduced in order to make the system practical.one we
can see the enabling of instant-on computers, which boot and reboot instantly with un-imaginable
memory sizes, as well as high density portable memory - MP3 players with 1000s of songs, PDAs
with 10 gigabytes of memory, high-speed network servers and much more.

6. KEYWORDS:
RAM — Random Access Memory
NRAM — Nano Random Access Memory
DRAM — Dynamic Random Access Memory
SRAM — Static Random Access Memor y
MRAM — Magnetic Random Access Memory
Fe RAM — Ferro Electric Random Access Memory
PDA — Personal Digital Assistant

7. REFERENCES:

1. Nanotube RAM could displace silicon memory

-J. Eric smith
2. www.wikipedia.com
3. www.nerdshit.com
4. The incredible shrinking Nanotube Memory
-E.F.Y magazine.

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