B D Bonatto PHD Thesis

EMTP Modelling of Control and
Power Electronic Devices

by
BENEDITO DONIZETI BONATTO
M.A.Sc. in Electrical Engineering, State University of Campinas, Brazil, 1995.
B.A.Sc. in Electrical Engineering, Federal School of Engineering of Itajuba, Brazil, 1991.
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
(Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering)
We accept this thesis as conforming
to the required standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
October 2001
c Benedito Donizeti Bonatto, 2001
Abstract
The quality of the electric power delivered to customers by utilities may not be acceptable
for some types of sensitive loads, which are typically power electronics- and computer-based
loads, particularly in the control of industrial processes. There are cases where the increasing use of power electronics to enhance process eciency and controllability creates power
quality problems. The growing application of shunt capacitors for voltage support, power
factor correction, and system loss reduction, as well as the use of series capacitors (xed
or controlled, for line reactance compensation) will increase the potential risk of transient
disturbance amplications and potential electrical and mechanical resonances in the presence
of more and more power electronic devices, and of steam and gas turbines in distributed and
co-generation power plants. As the natural order of the system grows, so does its ability
to oscillate more! At the same time, new power electronic devices also oer the means for
adequate \power conditioning", to meet the special requirements of electric power quality in
a system.
To evaluate the promising solutions oered with the introduction of more and more power
electronic devices in transmission and distribution systems, such as FACTS (Flexible AC
Transmission Systems) Controllers and Custom Power Controllers, as well as to analyze
their interaction and impact on either the load or the network side, computer programs
based on the EMTP (Electromagnetic Transients Program) are becoming more useful. The
development of new EMTP-based models for representation of controls and power electronic
devices has been the main subject of this Ph.D. thesis project. Its main contributions are
summarized as follows:
development of a \simultaneous solution for linear and nonlinear control and electric
power system equations" (SSCPS) in EMTP-based programs, through the compensation
method and the Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm. This solution method eliminates
not only the one time step delay problem at the interface between the solution of power
and control circuits, but also all the internal delays, which may exist in methods based
on the transient analysis of control systems (TACS) since 1977. A \circuit approach"
was proposed in this thesis, as an innovative alternative to the solution presented by
A. E. A. Araujo in 1993;
R
(the UBC version of the EMTP), based
experimental implementation in MicroTran
on SSCPS, of a \simultaneous solution" for: linear and nonlinear current and voltage
dependent sources; independent current and voltage sources, which can also be connected between two ungrounded nodes; hard and soft limiters; transfer functions; mathematical and transcendental FORTRAN functions; special control devices and some
digital logic gates; transformation of variables (such as the abc to 0 transformation
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ABSTRACT
iii
and its inverse); voltage-controlled switches; nonlinear model of a diode semiconductor;
development of the subroutine \GATE" in MicroTran, allowing the dynamic control

of the turn-on and turn-o times of semiconductor devices (e.g., thyristors, GTO's,
IGBT's, etc.), which are modeled as EMTP-based voltage-controlled switches;
development of power electronics simulation cases in MicroTran, using the simultaneous

solution approach (SSCPS) for the dynamic control of semiconductor switching devices
(as in a three-phase six-pulse thyristor-controlled bridge rectier, and a three-phase
PWM voltage source inverter (VSI)) and evaluation of current and voltage waveforms;
interaction with a Brazilian utility company and industries for the realization and analysis of eld measurements of electromagnetic phenomena aecting the quality of power,
such as voltage sags and voltage swells; harmonic current and voltage distortions; transients, etc., with determination of causes, consequences and investigation of possible
solutions for power quality problems, as for example, the application of Custom Power
Controllers;
synthesis of simulation guidelines for the evaluation of the impact of power electronic
devices on the quality of power, based on realistic eld measurements and EMTP time
and frequency domain simulations.
The assessment of electric power quality, with the use of EMTP-based programs, and the
evaluation of the technical impact of power electronic devices on the quality of power, can
hopefully be performed with the models developed in this Ph.D. thesis project.
Contents
Abstract
ii
List of Tables
vi
List of Figures
vii
Acknowledgements
xii
Quote
xiii
1 Electric Power Quality and Power Electronic Devices: An Overview
1.1 Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices? . . . . .

1.1.1 Computer Analysis and Simulation of Electric Power Quality Phenomena
1.1.2 Electric Power Quality Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Power Quality Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4 Custom Power Related Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Motivation for Thesis Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Contributions of this Research Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2 Simultaneous Solution of Control and Electric Power System Equations

(SSCPS) in EMTP-based Programs
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2.1 Previous Developments on Transient Analysis of Control Systems (TACS) .
2.2 Current and Voltage Dependent Sources in EMTP-based Programs . . . .
2.2.1 Compensation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Dependent Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Ideal Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Independent Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5 Newton-Raphson Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.2.6 Possible Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Development of Control Transfer Functions in EMTP-based Programs . . .
Development of Limiters for Control Systems in EMTP-based Programs . .
Development of Intrinsic FORTRAN Functions in EMTP-based Programs
Development of Control Devices in EMTP-based Programs . . . . . . . . .
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3 Power Electronics Modelling in EMTP-based Simulations

3.1 Modelling Power Electronics in Electric Power Engineering Applications . . .
3.2 Simultaneous Solution for Voltage-Controlled Switches in EMTP-based Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Implementation of Nonlinear Diode Model in EMTP-based Programs . . . .
3.4 Control Modelling Aspects of Power Electronic Devices . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4 Evaluation of the Impact of Power Electronic Devices on the Quality of

Power
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4.1 Dynamic Interaction between Power Electronic Devices and Power Systems .
4.2 Power Quality Assessment through EMTP-based Programs . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Induction Furnace Harmonic Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Voltage Sag Analysis with EMTP-based Simulation . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Welding Industry Voltage Fluctuation Study { A Visual Flicker Case
4.3 EMTP-based Simulation Cases with SSCPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Basic Control and Control Devices Simulation Cases . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Power Electronics Simulation Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Synthesis of Simulation Guidelines for Studies with EMTP-based Programs .
5 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work
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5.1 Conclusions and Main Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

5.2 Recommendations for Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Bibliography
160
List of Tables
3.1 Comparison between voltage and current in a diode as a function of its parametric values.
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4.1 Global harmonic distortion limits for the system voltages recommended in Brazil. . . . . 110
4.2 Comparison between eld measurements and EMTP simulation results for the operating
condition with the harmonic passive lters turned OFF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.3 Comparison between eld measurements and EMTP simulation results for the operating
condition with the harmonic passive lters turned ON. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
vi
List of Figures
1.1 Typical Design Goals of Power-Conscious Computer Manufacturers. (Source: IEEE Std.
446-1987, \IEEE Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power Systems for
Industrial and Commercial Applications." ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 CBEMA curve revised by the Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC). . . . . .
1.3 (a) Thyristor in an industrial power converter. (b) Thyristors in a high voltage direct
current (HVDC) System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19
2.20
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EMTP and TACS interface with 1 time step delay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

M-phase Thevenin equivalent circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Representation of branch equation k as a voltage source in series with a resistance. .
Representation of branch equation k as a current source in parallel with a resistance.
Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Current-controlled current source (CCCS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Symbol for operational amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inverting amplier circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Non-inverting amplier circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Adder circuit with operational amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ideal integrator circuit with operational amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Generalization of inverter amplier circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
First-order lag circuit using ideal operational amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ideal transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Independent current source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Independent voltage source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Newton-Raphson algorithm experimentally implemented in MicroTran. . . . . . . .
Circuit with ideal operational amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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LIST OF FIGURES
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.24
2.25
2.26
2.27
2.28
2.29
2.30
2.31
2.32
2.33
2.34
2.35
2.36
2.37
2.38
2.39
2.40
2.41
2.42
2.43
2.44
2.45
Simulation results of circuit with ideal operational amplier (noninverting amplier circuit).
Transfer function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Observer form block-diagram of transfer function in equation 2.80. . . . . . . . . . . .
Possible computer implementation of the transfer function block-diagram in Fig. 2.23. . .
Block-diagram representation of a rst-order transfer function. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Observer form block-diagram of rst-order transfer function of Fig. 2.25. . . . . . . . .
Possible computer implementation of rst-order transfer function of Fig. 2.25. . . . . . .
Realistic rst-order lag circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time domain simulation of rst-order transfer function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
First-order transfer function with windup (static) limiter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
First-order transfer function with non-windup (dynamic) limiter. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transient response of a rst-order transfer function with windup and non-windup limiter.
Soft limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Zero-order transfer function with soft limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time domain response for a sinusoidal excitation input u(t) illustrating the eects of hard
and soft limits on the output x(t). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Open loop control system with "supplemental devices S 1,S 2 and S 3". . . . . . . . . . .
Nonlinear control block-diagram with a sinusoidal intrinsic FORTRAN function. . . . . .
Circuit implementation for the simultaneous solution of a sinusoidal FORTRAN function.
Transport delay control device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Circuit implementation for the simultaneous solution of a transport delay control device. .
Transient simulation of a transport delay control device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transient simulation of a pulse delay control device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pulse delay control device with arbitrary input signal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Logic gate "NOT". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Circuit implementation of a logic gate "NOT" for simultaneous solution. . . . . . . . .
3.1 Power semiconductor devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2 Voltage-controlled switch in EMTP-based programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Test cases for transient simulation of voltage-controlled, bipolar in voltage and bidirectional
current owing switch, thyristor and GTO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Simulation of a voltage-controlled bidirectional current owing switch. . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Simulation of a simplied model for thyristors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Simulation of a simplied model for GTO's. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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LIST OF FIGURES
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
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Circuit with \simultaneous solution" of a voltage-controlled switch. . . . . . . . . . . .

Simulation with simultaneous solution of a voltage-controlled switch. . . . . . . . . . .
One time step delay in EMTP-based switches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diode symbol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V-I diode characteristic and network Thevenin equivalent circuit equation. . . . . . . .
Circuit implementation for the simultaneous solution of a nonlinear diode model. . . . .
V-I diode characteristic and dierent network Thevenin equivalents. . . . . . . . . . . .
Dc-dc converter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Half-wave rectier with freewheeling diode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electric circuit with a nonlinear diode model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transient simulation of a nonlinear diode model in an EMTP-based program. . . . . . .
Detail of the transient simulation of a nonlinear diode model in an EMTP-based program.
V-I nonlinear characteristic of the diode resulting from the EMTP simulation. . . . . . .
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4.1 Circuit with a single-phase diode-bridge rectier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2 Current drawn from the source by a single-phase diode-bridge rectier. . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the current drawn from the source by a single-phase
diode-bridge rectier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Current through and voltage across the total inductance, and voltage waveform distortion
at the point of common coupling (PCC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the voltage waveform distortion at the point of common
coupling (PCC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Four-wire, three-phase system with \balanced" single-phase diode-bridge rectiers. . . . .
4.7 Current owing through the neutral conductor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8 Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the current owing through the neutral conductor. . . .
4.9 Voltage waveshape measured at the outlet of the Power Electronics Laboratory of the
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at UBC, Vancouver, B.C., Canada. .
4.10 Measured voltage waveshape, its fundamental component and its harmonic distortion. . .
4.11 Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the outlet waveshape voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.12 Phase-angle of the harmonic components of the outlet waveshape voltage. . . . . . . . .
4.13 (a) Metal melting by an induction furnace. (b) Induction furnace operation. . . . . . . .
4.14 Current measurements in a distribution feeder supplying induction furnaces at the time of
maximum voltage distortion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.15 (a) Phase \A" current measured with harmonic passive lters turned o. (b) Phase-to-phase
\A-B" voltage measured with harmonic passive lters turned o. . . . . . . . . . . . .
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LIST OF FIGURES
4.16 (a) Phase \A" current measured with harmonic passive lters turned on. (b) Phase-to-phase
\A-B" voltage measured with harmonic passive lters turned on. . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.17 THD harmonic trend, with harmonic passive lters turned o from 12:00 midnight to 06:00am. 109
4.18 THD harmonic trend, with harmonic passive lters turned on all the time. . . . . . . . 110
4.19 Distribution substation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.20 Current-source, parallel-resonant inverter for induction heating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.21 Amplitude of the positive sequence system impedance at the PCC with harmonic lters. . 114
4.22 Phase angle of the positive sequence system impedance at the PCC with harmonic lters. 115
4.23 (a) Phase \A" current simulated with harmonic passive lters turned o. (b) Phase-tophase \A-B" voltage simulated with harmonic passive lters turned o. . . . . . . . . . 116
4.24 (a) Phase \A" current measured with harmonic passive lters turned o. (b) Phase-to-phase
\A-B" voltage measured with harmonic passive lters turned o. . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.25 (a) Phase \A" current simulated with harmonic passive lters turned on. (b) Phase-tophase \A-B" voltage simulated with harmonic passive lters turned on. . . . . . . . . . 117
4.26 (a) Phase \A" current measured with harmonic passive lters turned on. (b) Phase-to-phase
\A-B" voltage measured with harmonic passive lters turned on. . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.27 Instantaneous ideal compensation current to be \injected" by a shunt active lter. . . . . 118
4.28 Voltage sag measurements (%RMS versus time duration) with an overlay of the CBEMA
curve. For time durations less than 1 cycle the equipment seems to measure peak values. . 122
4.29 (a) Phase-to-phase \A-B" measured voltage sag. (b) Phase-to-phase \A-B" simulated voltage sag. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.30 Instantaneous voltage uctuations causing light ickering eect. . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.31 Modulated voltage and respective amplitude frequency spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.32 Control block diagram of a second order dierential equation with poles on the imaginary
axis of the complex plane. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.33 Solution of system with bounded resonance oscillations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.34 Introduction of a one time step delay in the control block diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.35 Solution of system with unstable resonance oscillations caused by the introduction of one
time step delay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.36 Classical linearized \swing equation", used in power system small-signal stability studies of
a single machine connected to an innite bus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.37 Simulation results of the synchronous machine rotor angle deviation, in the presence of a
positive damping torque coecient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.38 Simulation results of the synchronous machine rotor angle deviation, in the presence of
negative damping torque coecient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.39 Canonical second order transfer function representation of the single-machine innite bus
system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
LIST OF FIGURES
4.40 Circuit for the dynamic control of the ring angle (\") of a thyristor. . . . . . . . . .
4.41 Voltages and currents in a circuit with dynamic control of the ring angle of a thyristor. .
4.42 Circuit for the dynamic control of the ring angles of a three-phase six-pulse thyristor-bridge
rectier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.43 Voltages and currents with dynamic control of the ring angles of a three-phase six-pulse
thyristor-bridge rectier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.44 Dynamic control of the ring angles of a three-phase six-pulse thyristor-bridge rectier. .
4.45 Dynamic voltage control signals at the output of the proportional-integral (PI) and the
limiter control blocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.46 Circuit for the dynamic control of three-phase PWM voltage source inverter (VSI). . . .
4.47 Phase \A" modulation and triangular carrier waveforms for generation of gating signals
through sinusoidal pulse width modulation (PWM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.48 Node voltage \vSA " generated by a three-phase PWM voltage source inverter (VSI). . . .
4.49 Voltage across the load \vSA NEUTR " and current supplied to the load by a three-phase
PWM voltage source inverter (VSI). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.50 Load currents supplied by a three-phase PWM voltage source inverter (VSI). . . . . . .
4.51 Line-to-line voltage generated by a three-phase PWM voltage source inverter (VSI). . . .
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank God for the gift of learning. My most sincere thanks to my parents,
Dorival and Isolina, and to all my relatives for their unconditional love and support. To my
wife, Luciana, and my daughters, Alexa and Aline, my love and my heartfelt thanks for their
strong participation in this life project altogether. I dedicate a very special note of thanks
to our special friends Wany, Fernando, Fulvia, Alexandre, Martha, and Richard for their
careful and kindness personal assistance.
I owe a tremendous debt of gratitude to Dr. Hermann W. Dommel, my Ph.D. thesis
supervisor, for all his personal and professional encouragement, share of wisdom and support
for the development of this thesis. (The responsibility for any remaining errors is solely
mine.) I also thank Dr. Dommel for the honor and opportunities of have being his teaching
assistant.
I also thank Dr. William G. Dunford for kindly accepting to be my Ph.D. thesis cosupervisor, with Dr. Dommel becoming a Professor Emeritus at UBC. I have also learned
with Dr. Jose R. Mart, who has excellent teaching skills. Professor Sandoval Carneiro
Jr. from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Brazil, has gently been very
supportive, right from the start of this Ph.D. program in Canada.
I most specially appreciate the help, acceptance and advice of many individuals without
whom this opportunity would never have become fruitful. Professors, sta members, past
and present colleagues and friends at the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
of the University of British Columbia (UBC) have been the source of inspiration and support
to pursue scientic and personal growth. I also thank my former Brazilian professors and
colleagues at the State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), and at the Federal School of
Engineering of Itajuba (EFEI), for building and enhancing the foundation of my knowledge
in science and engineering.
I would like to sincerely thank the Fundaca~o Coordenaca~o de Aperfeicoamento de Pessoal
de Nvel Superior (CAPES), Braslia - Brazil, for the nancial support to this Ph.D. thesis
project. Without it, my dream would never come true.
I also thank the Brazilian utility company ELEKTRO - Eletricidade e Servicos S.A., with
a special reference to Francisco Alfredo Fernandes, for providing opportunities for a practical
interaction in power quality analysis, through a professional cooperation with the engineer
Ernesto A. Mertens Jr.. I acknowledge and thank students, professors and sta at the ETE
Prof. Armando Bayeux da Silva, a technical high school of the CEETEPS - Centro Estadual
de Educac~ao Tecnologica Paula Souza, S~ao Paulo, Brazil, for all the teaching experiences I
was able to conduct, which enriched my communication and leadership skills.
Last but not least, I thank and acknowledge the contributions of many people, not
mentioned, not forgotten, who certainly have had an impact and in uence on my living and
studying at UBC, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, since August 24, 1997.
Vancouver, B.C., Canada
Benedito Donizeti Bonatto
October 09, 2001.
xii
\Engineering:
engineering is the application of mathematical and scientic principles to practical ends, as
in the design construction, and operation of economical and ecient structures, equipment,
and systems. It's art and communication, politics and nance, modeling and simulation,
invention, approximation, measurement and estimation, and more. It's a way to think
about problems."
http:nnwww.eg3.com
xiii
Chapter 1
Electric Power Quality and Power
Electronic Devices: An Overview
HE PURPOSE of this research project was to develop reasonably accurate models for
control systems and power electronic devices to evaluate their impact on the quality
of power. These models and methods were developed for implementation in the Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) [1], [2], or in similar programs. A \circuit approach" is
used for the simultaneous solution of the control and electric power system equations, thus
eliminating any time step delay in the digital time domain simulation. Such time step delays
can cause inaccuracies or numerical instabilities. The advantages of the circuit approach is
its \generality and exibility" for modelling multi-terminal linear and nonlinear control devices, which are needed in the analysis of electromagnetic phenomena aecting the quality of
power. This chapter presents an introduction to power quality problems and their relation
with power electronics, followed by a description of the motivations for this Ph.D. thesis
research and its relevant contributions.
1.1 Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices?

The demand of electricity customers for increased quality of power, at possibly reduced
prices, is forcing governments, regulatory agencies, utility companies, and equipment manufacturers to develop new structures for the electricity market. Deregulation of the electricity
1
1.1. Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices?
industry has been proposed as a solution to make the present utility companies more competitive in oering better services and better quality at lower prices to their customers.
However, as in any business, this may require some investments in the infrastructure of the
power system, to cope with the new demands of the modern types of loads (power electronics and microcomputer based). In this scenario, traditional economic analysis, such as pay
back return or rate of interest, might show that these investments are only feasible with
concurrent increases in electricity taris. The paradox of more quality for less money still
remains a topic for discussion in forums such as government regulatory agencies.
With the growing utilization of automation and control based on the use of microprocessors, of power electronic devices, and of modern manufacturing techniques, industries have
been able to produce goods faster and with increasing quality. However, with such modernization new issues have emerged regarding the quality of electricity. Sensitive loads tend to
shut down if there are small variations in the network voltage. Also, harmonic distortions
caused by nonlinear loads may result in wrong operation or may increase the losses in power
system components. Another problem is capacitor switching in the utility system, which
may cause problems for adjustable speed drives (ASD's), which are used more and more by
industry. All these problems point out that more attention must be paid to power quality problems. Economic losses expressed in terms of interrupted production, of damage to
equipment, and of time delays in the processing of goods and the consequent negative impact
on customers have caused a rising number of complaints about power quality problems in
many electric utility companies. Estimating the cost of poor power quality is a dicult task.
Nevertheless, the annual approximate value would be in the order of hundreds of million
of dollars in damage. As an example, the cost per year to U. S. A. industry in lost time
and revenue due to power related problems were estimated in 1993 as US$26,000,000,000 [3].
The costs tend to grow as the sensitivity and use of microprocessor-based devices tend to
increase. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) stated that in the year 2000, 60%
to 70% of total utility power generated within the U. S. A. would be controlled by power
electronics, compared to 30% in 1995.
Power electronic devices, however, are also able to \guarantee" a certain expected level
of electricity quality to a sensitive or special load, and such devices exist today. Flexible AC
Transmission Systems (FACTS) technology, Custom Power Controllers, active lters, among
other power electronics applications, oer promising solutions for improving the quality of
power in transmission and distribution systems.
The introduction of more and more power electronic devices into the network will create
issues of compatibility of operation not only in steady state, but also under transient conditions. New models for innovative equipment, as well as new philosophies for their control
and operation, will then be required. It is not enough to evaluate the electric quality conditions only at the interface of power electronic systems with the electric power system. The
propagation of electromagnetic phenomena into the industrial or utility network must be
evaluated as well [4]. Therefore, software packages such as the ElectroMagnetic Transients
Program (EMTP), have become important and necessary tools to analyze the impact of large
power electronic devices on the quality of electric power. The aim of this research project
was the development of new EMTP-based models for control and power electronic devices,
thus allowing the accurate evaluation of the impact of high power electronics on the quality
of power. As part of the project, eld tests were conducted in cooperation with a Brazilian
utility company, to provide realistic power quality data measurements.
1.1.1
Computer Analysis and Simulation of Electric Power Quality Phenomena
Digital computer simulation of electromagnetic transients in single- and multiphase networks is well established [1]. Since the publication of [1] in 1969, signicant improvements
have been made in models for electrical power system components such as transmission lines
[5], transformers, turbine-generators and cables [6]. Of particular interest for this research
project are the necessary advances in the simulation of power electronic devices within power
systems.
Although steady-state solutions at fundamental and harmonic frequencies have been proposed to analyze power quality problems, the complexity of periodic switching in power electronic devices can only be studied thoroughly through time-domain simulations, e.g., with
EMTP-based programs [4], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13].
EMTP-type simulation is particularly useful for the analysis of the dynamic interaction
of distributed Custom Power Controllers in a power system. Despite international demonstration projects for some Custom Power Controllers already with some years of operating
experience, how these new devices will interact within each particular power system is still an
open question. The performance obtained from some prototypes, or from simulations with
simplied models, may not be sucient for real applications, where dangerous resonance
and other unforeseen problems may occur. These concerns make more realistic electromagnetic transient program based simulations important when detailed models of Custom Power
Controllers become available. This could avoid more expensive corrective actions after installation. Measurements and simulations also become necessary for performance evaluations
under dierent network and load conditions.
All those facts have encouraged the development of new practical models, methods and
guidelines for the appropriate use of EMTP-based programs as potential tools for power
quality studies.
Nevertheless, good engineering judgment in setting up the power quality problem and
representing the physical phenomena with appropriate models, does still represent the major
challenge, despite the impressive accuracy obtained with the models available today.
1.1.2
Electric Power Quality Monitoring
In recent years, tremendous improvements have also been made in digital measuring instruments, because of the use of microprocessors and digital signal processing techniques
[14], [15]. This made it possible to conduct power quality surveys in many countries around
the world. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) commissioned an extensive survey
of distribution system power quality in the U. S. A. [16]. In Canada, the Canadian Electricity Association (CEA) developed a guideline for the power quality that utility customers
experience, in a three-year project [17]. A quantitative measure of the deterioration of the
ideal sinusoidal waveform from the growing utilization of power electronic devices resulted
from these surveys. In many of the real-world problems, momentary voltage variations have
been the main cause for shutting down microprocessor controlled industrial processes. The
diversity of problems to cope with, and their complex interaction, has created a need for
more research on power quality issues [18]. Moreover, with the present deregulation process
in the electricity industry, power quality has become a key factor for utilities and customers
in a competitive market.
The experience in monitoring power quality phenomena has increased in the latest years,
as reported by the related literature [15], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27]. Well
known power quality problems have been summarized and at the same time new problems
have been discussed in [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35], [3], [36], [37]. The need
for more detailed information on power disturbances, and the search for new techniques to
process the amount of available measured data, have motivated research into applications of
modern theories in the power quality area, as discussed in [38], [39], [40], [41], [42].
According to the author's experience as a \power quality engineer" in a Brazilian utility
company, there are many dierent reasons why electricity customers become dissatised with
the quality of the electric power delivered by utilities, and why they complain. This happen
partly because there may indeed be technical problems. Partly, the motivation comes from
the need to reduce electricity costs in the industrial production process, looking for better
taris and better contracts, as everybody tries to survive in a competitive and aggressive
business environment.
On the technical side, the most common power quality problems are caused by a fatal
combination of sensitive electronic-based loads and a high incidence of voltage sag phenomena [43], [44], [45], [46]. Most of these voltage sags are due to faults in transmission and
distribution systems, caused by lightning phenomena, which cannot be easily avoided or
minimized. It is also common to nd poor voltage regulation within the industry electric
system [45], [46]. This aggravates the impact of voltage sags, causing frequent process malfunction or interruption with nancial losses, which are rarely presented explicitly by the
industry personnel, unless any kind of nancial compensation is legally required. There is a
wide range of alternatives for possible solutions to technical problems in the quality of the
electric power supply. Usually, the immediate most cost-eective measure is to minimize the
cause or eects of the problem close to its origin, depending on the type of electromagnetic
phenomena involved. Typically, voltage sag problems can be minimized by proper adjustments in the sensitivities of the load or load control, whenever this is technically feasible.
However, in some cases compensation through the use of power electronic devices might be
a promising alternative, either for an individual sensitive load or for an entire industrial process. Usually, the utilities comply with the standards of supply set by the regulatory agency,
but the customer process is much more sensitive and some kind of electronic compensation
would be necessary. The potential con ict is sometimes created when a possible technical
solution requires high nancial investments. A cost versus benet analysis usually leads to
a cheap compromise solution; in the absence of clear regulations one needs \to live with the
problem!"
1.1.3
Power Quality Standards
Power quality has become an important issue because of the increasing use of power
electronic devices. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE) has
therefore developed standards to address power quality problems, which are brie y discussed
here.
The problems related to the quality of electricity are not new, since there was never an
ideal sinusoidal waveshape, with frequency and voltage exactly at their rated values. However, with the changes in the type and sensitivity of the loads in recent years, harmonic
current and voltage distortions, short- and long-duration voltage variations, impulse and oscillatory transients, voltage uctuations (causing visual icker), power frequency deviations,
voltage unbalance among the phases in a three-phase system, and other electromagnetic
phenomena are increasingly causing power quality problems.
IEEE Std. 1159-95 [47] denes and characterizes electromagnetic phenomena which may
cause power quality problems. It also provides recommended practices for monitoring electric
power quality.
Most utility regulations dealing with harmonics are based on IEEE Std 519-1992, [48],
[49], [50]. This standard presents recommended practices and requirements for harmonic
control in electric power systems. It addresses most of the issues of harmonic generation
by power electronic converters, arc furnaces, static VAR compensators and power electronic
controlled drives. It also discusses:
system response characteristics;
eects of harmonics;
reactive power compensation and control;
harmonic analysis methods;
harmonic measurements;
recommended practices and harmonic limits for individual customers;
recommended practices and harmonic limits for utilities;
methodology for evaluating new harmonic sources.
In the later task, time-domain simulation can be particularly useful to predict equipment
and power system behaviour. It thus can help engineers to provide some answers in detecting
harmonic related or other power quality problems. The IEEE Std. 519-1992 [48] is currently
been revised to account for interharmonics in power systems and the possible application of
probabilistic approaches in harmonics evaluation.
IEEE Std. 446-1987 [51] covers the recommended practice for emergency and standby
power systems for industrial and commercial applications. A computer \voltage tolerance envelope", shown in Fig. 1.1, also known as the CBEMA curve (Computer Business Equipment
Manufacturing Association curve) is presented in this standard.
The Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC) revised the CBEMA curve, which is
presented in Fig. 1.2. It shows that computer- and power electronics-based loads, properly
designed by the manufacturers, should be able to withstand a complete interruption of
voltage supply for up to 20ms, a voltage sag of 30 percent for 0:5s, 20 percent for 10s or
10 percent in steady state. It also denes the upper limits in the input voltage that should
be tolerated. The CBEMA (ITIC) curve has been widely used as an important \reference"
400%
PERCENT VOLTAGE
300%
200%
VOLTAGE
BREAKDOWN CONCERN
115%
106%
COMPUTER VOLTAGE
TOLERANCE ENVELOPE
100%
87%
LACK OF STORED ENERGY IN
SOME MANUFACTURERS'
EQUIPMENT
0%
0.001
0.01
0.1
30%
0.5 1.0
10.0
TIME IN CYCLES [60Hz]
100.0
1000.0
2s
Figure 1.1: Typical Design Goals of Power-Conscious Computer Manufacturers. (Source: IEEE Std.
446-1987, \IEEE Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power Systems for Industrial and
Commercial Applications." )
for the susceptibility level of computer- and power electronics-based loads. However, due
to the great variety of products and processes, and their response to transient variations in
the supply voltage, there are cases where the load sensitivity is much more strict than the
CBEMA (ITIC) curve, which has to be determined then case-by-case for an adequate power
quality assessment and proposal of solutions.
IEEE Std 1100-1992 [52] presents the recommended practice for powering and grounding
sensitive electronic equipment. It addresses the multidisciplinary area of power quality,
giving practical guidelines on load and source compatibility concerns.
Voltage uctuations causing visual icker are being studied by the Task Force IEEE
P1453 on Light Flicker, which is considering the adoption of existing standards and practices
Percent of Nominal Voltage (RMS or Peak Equivalent)
600
500
400
300
Applicable to SinglePhase
120V Equipment
200
140
120
100
80
70
40
0
Voltage Tolerance
Envelope
10
1us
10
110
90
10
10
10
10
10
1ms 3ms
20ms
0.5s
Duration in Cycles (c) and in seconds (s)
10
10s
10
Steady
State
Figure 1.2: CBEMA curve revised by the Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC).
of the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) and UIE (International Union for
Electroheat) for measuring such types of disturbances. This task force is also reviewing other
IEEE standards and recommendations on this issue. Other IEEE Standards within the IEEE
Color Series Books (http://www.ieee.org) provide useful recommendations about complex
issues on topics associated with the quality of power in utility, industrial and commercial
installations.
1.1.4
Custom Power Related Publications
This section presents a collection of publications related to Custom Power technology

for the improvement of the quality of power. Some of the papers present actual application
examples.
10
High voltage direct current (HVDC) and exible AC transmission systems (FACTS technology) have been used for some time to extend power transfer capability, to improve power
system stability, and for other reasons. Dr. Narain G. Hingorani introduced the acronym
FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) for high power electronics applications in transmission systems [53], [54], [55]. HVDC, static Var compensator (SVC), thyristor controlled
series compensations (TCSC), static synchronous compensator (STATCOM), static synchronous series compensation (SSSC) and unied power ow controller (UPFC) are examples of the so called FACTS devices. Reference [56] provides an annotated bibliography of
HVDC and FACTS devices. It also includes a list of FACTS installations, with data on
manufacturers, utility companies, countries, etc. It shows that, despite the high costs of
these high power electronic devices, they are gaining in acceptability around the world.
The term \Custom Power" was also introduced by Hingorani, to represent power electronics applications designed to mitigate power quality problems in industrial and distribution systems [57], [58], [59]. The distribution static condenser (D-STATCOM), the voltage
sag compensator (also known as DVR - dynamic voltage restorer), the solid-state breaker
(SSB), the solid-state transfer switch (SSTS), among others, are examples of such Custom
Power Controllers. Various manufacturers have proposed shunt, series, or shunt/series dynamic compensation schemes, with dierent acronyms, as solutions to specic power quality
problems. \The D-STATCOM, although based on the STATCOM, has a wider range of
applications. In fact, the D-STATCOM can be designed for reactive power control, or for
voltage control of the fundamental frequency, but it may also include higher frequencies as
in shunt active power lters." The integration of series- and shunt active lters, referred
to as unied power quality conditioner (UPQC) [60], [61], is promising to be the denite
solution for the majority of power quality problems. \However, its high cost may make it
useful only in some special cases. On the other hand, the shunt or series devices such as the
D-STATCOM or the voltage sag compensator will probably play a signicant role in future
distribution systems" 1 .
The ongoing deregulation process in many countries is also fostering competition in the
1 From personal communication with Dr.-Ing. Maurcio Aredes, COPPE/UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ,
Brazil.
11
electric power industry, which accelerates the application of new technologies in the transmission and distribution system. For example, there are applications being developed for
superconducting magnetic energy storage devices (SMES) for low voltage distribution systems, which will provide voltage support for a few seconds to sensitive processing equipment
during times of voltage sags.
Case studies with practical applications of Custom Power Controllers can also be downloaded directly from the web sites of some manufacturers, as for example:
http://www.siemenstd.com/prods/FPQD/dvr.html - case studies for the voltage sag

compensator DVR (dynamic voltage restorer of Siemens);
http://www.siemenstd.com/prods/FPQD/cp.html - general power quality information

on DVR, D-STATCOM, Solid State Breaker, Transfer Switch and Premium Power
Park;
http://sac.sandc.com/products/purewave/ups pubs.asp - for S & C UPS products;
http://www.softswitching.com - for SoftSwitching Technologies products;
and many others.

Figs. 1.3 (a) and (b) present semiconductor power devices, thyristors, used in an industrial
power electronic converter and in a HVDC system, respectively. Thyristors are considered
the \backbone" of the high power electronics revolution. Other types of semiconductors
being used are the gate turn-o thyristor (GTO), the MOS controlled thyristor (MCT), the
static induction thyristor (SITh), and the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT). The so
considered, in 1997, state of the art of these devices can be found in reference [62], along with
a description of the main characteristics of HVDC, static Var compensator (SVC), thyristor
controlled series compensation (TCSC), static synchronous compensator (STATCOM), static
synchronous series compensation (SSSC) and unied power ow controller (UPFC). The
benets of the application of FACTS technology in a power system depend on the reliability
of the specic FACTS device, which in turn depends on the reliability of the semiconductor
1.2. Motivation for Thesis Research
(a)
12
(b)
Figure 1.3: (a) Thyristor in an industrial power converter. (b) Thyristors in a high voltage direct current
(HVDC) System.
devices used. Although the semiconductor power devices act as switches, they are not ideal
switches and many physical limitations do apply.
1.2 Motivation for Thesis Research

The motivations for this thesis research are summarized as follows:
EMTP-based simulations can handle the complexity of electromagnetic phenomena

needed for power quality analysis, once the appropriate models and methods are developed or improved. This research project evaluated the available EMTP models
for power quality studies, and developed new models where the existing ones needed
improvements, especially for the simulation of power electronics-based devices;
To analyze the in uence and interaction of dierent new power electronic devices on
the quality of power is important for electric utilities and their customers. Moreover,
with a worldwide deregulation process in the electricity industry, power quality analysis
1.3. Contributions of this Research Project
13
will rise in importance and urgency. Therefore, as part of this project eld tests were
developed in a Brazilian electric utility company, where realistic power quality cases
were analyzed and simulations were performed;
The diversity of power quality phenomena requires an interdisciplinary approach and

specialized engineering skills. With opportunities available for interaction with other
researchers at The University of British Columbia (UBC), appropriate courses were
attended, especially in the power electronics area, which was helpful for the understanding and development of new models for implementation in MicroTran, the UBC
version of the EMTP;
The opportunity to conduct practical eld tests in cooperation with an electric utility
company was a valuable experience, and necessary for the validation of digital computer
models.
1.3 Contributions of this Research Project

This Ph.D. thesis oers new models for the digital computer simulation of control and
power electronic devices. These models were developed for implementation in EMTP-based
programs or in similar programs. An innovative \circuit approach" was developed for the
simultaneous solution of control and power systems equations, as an alternative to the approach of A. E. A. Araujo [63] developed in 1993. The main dierences and important
advantages are summarized as follows:
With the addition of ideal operational ampliers, transfer functions can be implemented with a \circuit approach", where the circuit elements R, L, C are solved by
the main code of the EMTP. If integration methods are changed in the EMTP, for
example from trapezoidal rule to backward Euler as done in some versions at instants
of discontinuities with the CDA technique, no extra coding is needed. Operational
ampliers are not aected by integration rule changes. Moreover, if ideal operational
ampliers are implemented in steady-state solution, the frequency response of linear
1.3. Contributions of this Research Project
14
control systems could be easily calculated in EMTP-based programs by just using the
frequency scan option.
A. E. A. Araujo [63] uses FORTRAN-like statements for control functions such as

Y = COS (X ) in the input, which are then handled with a FORTRAN interpreter. In
this thesis, this function and similar functions are pre-dened control block types.
The \multi-terminal voltage-controlled voltage source concept" implemented in this

thesis with the compensation method and the Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm is
\general and exible", thus providing an easy EMTP-based modelling of any linear or
nonlinear control device. This is very useful for the dynamic analysis of novel power
electronic controllers, such as distributed FACTS and Custom Power Controllers in
transmission and distribution power systems.
This Ph.D. thesis is organized as follows: Chapter 2 presents the simultaneous solution
method for control and electric power system equations (SSCPS) in EMTP-based programs.
Chapter 3 discusses the developments made for power electronics models in EMTP-based
simulations. Chapter 4 presents simulation cases of power quality assessment with the use
of the existing features of MicroTran, the UBC version of the EMTP. SSCPS simulation
cases with the new models of Chapter 2 and the developments for the dynamic control of
power semiconductors presented in Chapter 3 are illustrated in practical power electronics
controllers. Simulation guidelines for the evaluation of the impact of power electronic devices
on the quality of power are summarized in Chapter 4. Finally, Chapter 5 presents the main
conclusions and contributions made in this Ph.D. thesis, and also points out the author's
recommendations for future work.
Chapter 2
Simultaneous Solution of Control and
Electric Power System Equations
(SSCPS) in EMTP-based Programs
2.1 Previous Developments on Transient Analysis of
Control Systems (TACS)
The computer subroutine TACS (acronym for \Transient Analysis of Control Systems")
was developed in 1977 [64] for the simulation of control systems in the EMTP (acronym
for \Electromagnetic Transients Program"). The general philosophy of the solution method
adopted at that time required a one-time-step delay at the interface between TACS and the
electric network solution 1 . This non-simultaneous approach was probably used because it
was easier to write a code separated from the main program, with a simple interface. The
main program passed information to the TACS program, which then returned information
to the main program for use one time step later, as illustrated in Fig. 2.1. Moreover, control
system equation matrices in TACS are usually unsymmetric, whereas the network elements
in the EMTP result in symmetric matrices. By separating the solution into two parts, the
code for symmetric matrices in the EMTP could be maintained.
The solution in two parts, with a time delay of one t between them, was an expedient
way to implement control system equations, but it proved to be the cause of critical numerical
1 Many other software programs, such as PSIM [65], also require a one-time-step delay between the solution
of control and power systems equations, which makes the solution method non-simultaneous.
15
2.1. Previous Developments on Transient Analysis of Control Systems (TACS)
16
Electric Network
Solution
( EMTP )
Time Delay
1 t
Control System
Solution
( TACS )
Figure 2.1: EMTP and TACS interface with 1 time step delay.
instabilities and inaccuracies in some cases in the time domain simulation of electric and
power electronic system transients [66], [67], [68], [63]. In cases where the EMTP and TACS
elements form a closed loop (or feedback system according to control theory), the eect of
the interface delay cannot always be eliminated by using a small step size t, as stated in
[69].
Besides the time delay between TACS and EMTP, even more time-step delays were
introduced by the internal solution algorithm of TACS, in order to deal with nonlinearities
in feedback control loops. The TACS internal solution is therefore non-simultaneous for
some control cases, and also sequential for its implemented devices. Improvements have
been made through the years in the TACS subroutine of some versions of the EMTP, such
as better ordering of its variables to minimize the number of delays inside TACS [70], using
the compensation method to eliminate the one-time-step delay in the EMTP-TACS interface
[71], development of a new TACS program \MODELS" [72] and its possible applications for
simultaneous solution of power electronics systems equations [73].
In 1993 A.E.A. Araujo proposed a simultaneous solution of both sets of equations, electric
network equations and control systems equations, as a way to eliminate the one-time-step
2.1. Previous Developments on Transient Analysis of Control Systems (TACS)
17
delay problem at the interface, as well as the internal control delays [67], [68], [63]. The augmented matrix with the control equations becomes unsymmetric due to the structure of the
control equations. Most of the equations of both the electric network and the control systems
are usually linear, while some are nonlinear. A proper partition of the system of equations
would allow the solution to be separated into two subsystems, one linear and another nonlinear. A.E.A. Araujo chose to solve the system of linear equations inside the EMTP, and
the system of nonlinear equations (including nonlinearities from the electric network and
from the control system) with the compensation method in an iterative Newton-Raphson
algorithm as in [74]. The control equations, both linear and nonlinear, were developed inside
the subroutine \CONNEC", which is a user-dened subroutine in the MicroTran version of
the EMTP of the University of British Columbia. \Similarly to TACS, the trapezoidal rule
of integration was used to numerically integrate the rst-order dierential equations inside
CONNEC, for example, in the implementation of transfer functions. The code was written
to prove the ideas, but as far as the author knows, was not implemented in a production
version of the EMTP."
In this research project, the simultaneous solution of the electric network and control
equations in EMTP-based programs is achieved with a \circuit implementation" of the control system. With this novel approach for EMTP-based programs, elements of the control
circuit which already exist in the EMTP, such as resistances and capacitances, are solved by
the EMTP proper, while elements missing inside the EMTP, such as ideal operational ampliers 2 and current and voltage dependent sources, are solved in the subroutine CONNEC
with the compensation method. This circuit approach is an alternative to the mathematical
representation adopted by Araujo, and gives some important advantages, such as \generality
and exibility" for control modelling in EMTP-based programs.
The compensation method with an iterative Newton-Raphson procedure is used for the
solution of the added linear and nonlinear control system elements, such as dependent
sources, dierent types of limiters, as well as intrinsic FORTRAN functions and some special
control devices, as explained in the following sections. \Among the added elements, the de2 The author acknowledges the help of Mr. Jesus Calvi~no-Fraga for indicating in 1998 in his technical
report for a graduate course, the need for modeling operational ampliers in MicroTran [75].
2.2. Current and Voltage Dependent Sources in EMTP-based Programs
18
pendent sources are the most important ones for control system modelling." The FORTRAN
code for the added elements in subroutine CONNEC has approximately 5,000 lines of code,
compared to 15,000 lines of code in the main part of the MicroTran version of the EMTP.
2.2 Current and Voltage Dependent Sources in EMTPbased Programs

Since the publication of [1] describing the rst version of the EMTP, many others have
contributed to the development of models as documented in [2] and elsewhere. As far as
the author knows, dependent sources of all possible types have not been implemented in
any EMTP-based program. Dependent sources expand the capabilities of EMTP-based
programs considerably for modelling many electric and electronic circuits and devices. With
a voltage-controlled voltage source, for example, it becomes easy to simulate operational
ampliers. These can then be used to set up control circuits with analog-computer blockdiagrams. As long as the equations of the dependent sources are linear, they could be added
directly to the network equations used in EMTP-based programs (with the modied nodal
analysis (MNA) presented in [76] and [77], but the matrix would then become unsymmetric
and a linear equation solver for unsymmetric matrices would have to be used. Another
alternative discussed here in more detail is based on the compensation method, which can
also handle nonlinear eects with a Newton-Raphson algorithm. Nonlinear eects arise with
the inclusion of saturation or limits in the dependent sources. The main motivation for the
use of the compensation method is its \generality and exibility" in modelling linear and
nonlinear devices in EMTP-based programs. This section provides then the fundamental
equations for the implementation of dependent sources in EMTP-based programs, as well as
of independent sources, which can also be connected between two ungrounded nodes.
2.2.1
Compensation Method
The compensation method has long been used in EMTP-based programs for solving
the equations of nonlinear elements with the Newton-Raphson iterative method [74]. If
the nonlinear elements are not too numerous, this approach connes the iterations to a
19
relatively small system of equations, compared to the nodal equations for the entire system.
This approach is used here for solving the equations of dependent sources as a special case
of nonlinear elements. Without limiters, the equations are linear, but with an unsymmetric
matrix.
When there are M nonlinear elements in a circuit, the following system of equations 2.1
to 2.6, allows the simultaneous solution of the nonlinear equations with the rest of the linear
network [2],[78], which is then represented by its M-phase Thevenin equivalent circuit, as
illustrated in Fig. 2.2:
[ vOPEN ]
[ rTHEV ]
[i]
[ v]
i1
i2
i3
i4
...
vOPEN _ 1
iM
vOPEN _ M
ZM
...
vM
...
v4
vs(M)
Z4
v3
vs(4)
Z3
v2
vs(3)
Z2
v1
vs(2)
Z1
vs(1)
Figure 2.2: M-phase Thevenin equivalent circuit.

[vOP EN ] + [rT HEV ] [i] + [v ] = 0
where:
2
6
[vOP EN ] = 6
6
4
vOP EN
vOP EN
..
.
vOP ENM
1
2
(2.1)
3
7
7
7
5
(2.2)

2
[rT HEV ] =
6
6
6
4
r11 r12 r1M

r21 r22 r2M
..
.. . . . ..
.
.
.
rM 1 rM 2 rMM
2
6
[i] = 6
6
4
[v ] =
6
6
6
4
i1
i2
..
.
iM
v1
v2
..
.
vM
20
3
7
7
7
5
(2.3)
3
7
7
7
5
(2.4)
3
7
7
7
5
(2.5)
Equations 2.6 are the branch equations of the nonlinear elements:
vk = fk ([v ] ; [i] ; t; etc::::) k = 1; :::M
(2.6)
If the branch equations in 2.6 are linear, as in the case of dependent sources, they can be
represented in the form of a voltage source behind an impedance, as illustrated in Fig. 2.3,
or in the form of a current source in parallel with an impedance, as shown in Fig. 2.4. It is
assumed here that the branch impedances are not coupled, and that they are resistive (Rk ).
For other types of impedances, the equations would have to be modied.
ck
ik
Rk
vk
vsource(k)
dk
Figure 2.3: Representation of branch equation k as a voltage source in series with a resistance.
21
ik
ck
Rk
vk
isource(k)
dk
isource(k) = vsource(k) / Rk
Figure 2.4: Representation of branch equation k as a current source in parallel with a resistance.
After the two systems of equations 2.1 and 2.6 have been solved in subroutine CONNEC,
the currents [i] of 2.4 are returned to the main program, which adds the eect of the M nonlinear branches to the previously calculated open-circuit solution for all nodes with unknown
voltages,
[e] = [eOP EN ]
[zT ] [i]
(2.7)
where:
[e] is a column vector with the nal solution for the N node voltages;
[eOP EN ] is a column vector with the previously calculated open circuit solution for all the N
nodes with unknown voltages;
[zT ] is a rectangular matrix with N rows and M columns (N = number of nodes with
unknown voltages and M = number of branches solved with the compensation method) 3 ;
[i] = column vector with the M compensating branch currents.
2.2.2
Dependent Sources
This section presents the necessary equations for implementing current and voltage dependent sources in EMTP-based programs by using the compensation method. The following
important assumptions are made:
3 For further details about the compensation method, and the calculation of matrix [zT ], please, see
reference [74].
22
A Thevenin equivalent circuit can be calculated where the dependent source is to

be connected, and also where the controlling current or controlling voltage is to be
measured. In cases where this calculation fails, the connection of large resistors in
parallel may make a Thevenin equivalent circuit possible.
Proper precautions are taken to handle extremely large numbers and zero values.
The following models are derived: Current-Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS), CurrentControlled Current Source (CCCS), Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS) and VoltageControlled Current Source (VCCS). In all cases, the equations from the Thevenin equivalent
circuit are the same, namely, for the controlling branch j
vOP ENj + rj 1 i1 + :::

::: + rjj ij + rjk ik + ::: + rjM iM + vj = 0
(2.8)
and for the dependent source branch k
vOP ENk + rk1 i1 + :::

::: + rkj ij + rkk ik + ::: + rkM iM + vk = 0
(2.9)
where:
vOP ENk = voltage vk for [i] = 0 (open circuit).
rkk = Thevenin resistance (self resistance of branch k).
rkj = Thevenin resistance (coupling or mutual resistance between branches k and j ).
Current-Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)

Assume that the controlling current is measured through a branch between nodes a and
b in a circuit, such that vj is its branch voltage and ij is its branch current, i.e.,
vj = va
vb
ij = iab
(2.10)
(2.11)
and that the dependent source, CCVS, is connected between nodes c and d with branch
voltage
vk = vc
vd
(2.12)
23
and branch current
ik = icd
(2.13)
The necessary equations for the implementation of a current-controlled voltage source as

illustrated in Fig. 2.5 are 2.8 and 2.9, as well as:
ij
vOPEN
[ rTHEV j ]
ik
Rin
Rout
vj
vk
[ rTHEV k ]
ij
vOPEN k
Figure 2.5: Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
vj = Rin ij
(2.14)
vk =
ij + Rout ik
(2.15)
where:
Rin = Input resistance of branch j .
Rout = Output resistance of the dependent source in branch k.
= Gain over the controlling or measured current, applied as voltage dependent source at
branch k.
Inserting equation 2.14 into 2.8 and equation 2.15 into 2.9, results in:
vOP ENj + rj 1 i1 + :::

::: + (rjj + Rin ) ij + rjk ik + ::: + rjM iM = 0
(2.16)

::: + (rkj +
) ij + (rkk + Rout ) ik + ::: + rkM iM = 0
(2.17)
24
Using the two equations 2.16 and 2.17 is preferable to using the four equations 2.8,
2.9, 2.14 and 2.15, because it reduces the number of equations which have to be solved in
subroutine CONNEC from 4 to 2. Whenever possible, the voltages should be eliminated in
this reduction from 4 to 2 equations, because the solution will then produce the currents,
which are the variables that have to be passed back to the main program.
For an ideal current-controlled voltage source, Rin = 0 and Rout = 0, from which results:
vOP ENj + rj 1 i1 + :::

::: + rjj ij + rjk ik + ::: + rjM iM = 0
(2.18)

::: + (rkj +
) ij + rkk ik + ::: + rkM iM = 0
(2.19)
If expressed in matrix form, one can see that the matrix becomes unsymmetric, since matrix
element j k is no longer equal to matrix element k j .
Current-Controlled Current Source (CCCS)

The necessary equations for the implementation of a current-controlled current source as
ij
vOPEN
[ rTHEV j ]
ik
Rin
vj
vk
ij
Rout
[ rTHEV k ]
vOPEN k
Figure 2.6: Current-controlled current source (CCCS).
vj = Rin ij
(2.20)
vk = Rout Bij + Rout ik
(2.21)
25
where:
B = Gain over the controlling or measured current, applied as dependent current source at
branch k.
By inserting equation 2.20 into 2.8 and equation 2.21 into 2.9 one can also obtain, respectively, the following equations:
vOP ENj + rj 1 i1 + :::

::: + (rjj + Rin ) ij + rjk ik + ::: + rjM iM = 0
vOPENk
k1 i + :::
+ Rrout
Rout
1

rkj
kk
::: + Rout + B ij + Rrout
(2.22)
+ 1 ik + ::: + RrkM
out iM = 0
(2.23)
Observe that the division by Rout as done in equation 2.23, allows the use of very large
numbers for Rout without numerical diculties.
For an ideal current-controlled current source, Rin = 0 and Rout ! 1, resulting in:
vOP ENj + rj 1 i1 + :::

(2.24)
Bij + ik = 0
(2.25)
Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)

The necessary equations for the implementation of a voltage-controlled voltage source as
ij
vOPEN
[ rTHEV j ]
ik
Rin
Rout
vj
vk
[ rTHEV k ]
vj
Figure 2.7: Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
vOPEN k
26
vj = Rin ij
(2.26)
vk = Avj + Rout ik = ARin ij + Rout ik
(2.27)
where:
A = Gain over the controlling or measured voltage, applied as dependent voltage source at
branch k.
By inserting equation 2.26 into 2.8 and dividing the resulting equation by Rin to avoid
numerical diculties, results in equation 2.28. In order to eliminate the voltages and keep
only the currents as variables, and also to allow the use of very large numbers for the gain
A, the following calculations are done: (equation 2.26 inserted into 2.8) minus the result of
[(equation 2.27 inserted into 2.9) and divided by the gain A]. This procedure eliminates Rin
in the resulting equation 2.29:

vOPENj
rj 1
+ Rin i1 + :::
R
in

rjj +Rin
::: + Rin ij + Rrjkin ik + ::: + rRjMin iM
k + r
vOP ENj + vOPEN
j1
rkj A
::: + rjj A ij + rjk
::: + rjM rkM
iM = 0
A
=0
rk1 i + :::
1
A
rkk +Rout i + :::
k
A
(2.28)
(2.29)
Based on the equations 2.28 and 2.29 for a voltage-controlled voltage source, if
A ! 1,
Rin ! 1, and
Rout ! 0,
then equations 2.30 and 2.31 are obtained, which can be used to model \ideal operational
ampliers". Note that the use of equation 2.31 only makes sense if there are feedback paths
modelled in the network part, which create the \rjk " coupling resistance. Then equation 2.31
27
will produce the correct current ik , which is returned to the main program for the calculation
of voltages by compensation. Note also that the equation 2.31 is exactly stating that vj = 0.
(Please, see equation 2.8.)
ij = 0
(2.30)
vOP ENj + rj 1 i1 + :::

(2.31)
Ideal Operational Ampliers

The commercially available operational amplier is in reality an integrated-circuit chip,
constructed essentially with many transistors and resistors in an integrated package. Operational ampliers, often called OP AMPS, are frequently used in sensor circuits to amplify
signals, in active ltering and control circuits for compensation purposes and endless applications in analog electronics [79], [80], [81], [82]. Fig. 2.8 presents the symbol used for
representation of an operational amplier. The voltage placed across the two input termi-
Figure 2.8: Symbol for operational amplier.

nals (the non-inverting terminal (+) and the inverting terminal( )), is to be amplied and
to appear at the output terminals (one of which is grounded, but this grounding is usually
omitted on the symbol). Since the gain of the operational amplier is very high, it is necessary to have an external feedback circuit to make it stable. \In practice the input resistance
28
Rin of an OP AMP is usually well in excess of 1M

, the voltage gain A is at least 105 , and
the output resistance Rout is a few tens of ohms " [79], and then it can usually be modelled
as a voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS). Many other electrical properties, which are
temperature and frequency dependent, have to be considered though in realistic applications.
In the ideal operational amplier, no current would ow into the input terminals (Rin =
1 as in an open circuit), the output voltage would not be aected by the load connected
to the output terminal (Rout = 0), and the gain would be innite (A = 1 so that the
voltage at the non-inverting input terminal would be equal to the voltage at the inverting
input terminal). Therefore, the fundamental concepts for the analysis of circuits with ideal
operational ampliers are to assume that the two input terminals of the ideal operational
amplier constitute \at the same time" [77]:
\an open circuit" (equation 2.30), AND
\a virtual short-circuit" (equation 2.31).
\In this thesis, if not otherwise clearly indicated, the assumption is made that all operational ampliers are ideal"!.
There are many variations and combinations of OP AMP circuits. The two basic ones
are the inverting amplier (Fig. 2.9) and the non-inverting amplier circuit (Fig. 2.10), with
the transfer functions are given by equations 2.32 and 2.33 respectively. Fig. 2.11 illustrates
an adder, a special case of the inverting amplier, where the output is a linear sum of the
input voltages, with the transfer function given by equation 2.34. Fig. 2.12 shows an ideal
integrator, with the transfer function as of equation 2.35.
E o ( s)
Ei (s)
Eo (s)
Ei (s)
Eo (s)
R4
R2
R1
= 1 + RR21
Ei1 (s)
R1
(2.32)
Ei2 (s)
R2
(2.33)
Ei3 (s)
R3
(2.34)
29
R2
R1
ei ( t )
eo ( t )
Figure 2.9: Inverting amplier circuit.
eo ( t )
R2
ei ( t )
R1
Figure 2.10: Non-inverting amplier circuit.

R1
R4
R2
ei1 ( t )
R3
eo ( t )
ei2 ( t )
ei3 ( t )
Figure 2.11: Adder circuit with operational amplier.
Eo (s)
Ei (s)
RCs
(2.35)
Fig. 2.13 presents a generalization of the inverting amplier circuit, which is very useful
to obtain Laplace transfer functions by using the impedance approach [81]. With the ideal
operational amplier, a \virtual ground" potential appears at the inverting input terminal,
30
C
R
ei ( t )
eo ( t )
Figure 2.12: Ideal integrator circuit with operational amplier.

since the non-inverting input terminal is grounded. Moreover, no current ows into the
input terminals of the ideal OP AMP. Therefore, the same current owing through the
complex impedance Z1 (s) has to ow through the complex impedance Z2 (s), resulting in
Ei (s) = Z1 (s)I (s) and Eo (s) = Z2 (s)I (s). The transfer function for this generalized
inverter circuit is given by equation 2.36.
I2 ( s )
I1 ( s )
Z2(s)
Z1(s)
Eo ( s )
Ei ( s )
Figure 2.13: Generalization of inverter amplier circuit.

Eo (s)
Ei (s)
Z2 (s)
Z1 (s) :
(2.36)
For example, in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.14, the transfer function is derived with ideal
operational amplier using the impedance approach.
The complex impedances Z1 (s) and Z2 (s) for this circuit are:
Z1 (s) = R1
Z2 (s) =
Cs+ R12
(2.37)
R2
R2 Cs+1
(2.38)
31
R2
C
R1
eo ( t )
ei ( t )
Figure 2.14: First-order lag circuit using ideal operational amplier.
The transfer function is therefore obtained as
Eo (s)
Ei (s)
R2
1
R1 R2 Cs+1 :
(2.39)
Voltage-Controlled Current Source (VCCS)

The necessary equations for the implementation of a voltage-controlled current source as
ij
vOPEN
[ rTHEV j ]
ik
Rin
vj
vk
vj
Rout
[ rTHEV k ]
vOPEN k
Figure 2.15: Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
vj = Rin ij
(2.40)
vk = Rout vj + Rout ik
(2.41)
32
where:
= Gain over the controlling or measured voltage, applied as dependent current source at
branch k.
By inserting equation 2.40 into 2.8 and dividing the resulting equation by Rin to avoid
numerical diculties, results in equation 2.42. In order to eliminate the voltages and keep
only the currents as variables, and also to allow the use of very large numbers for Rout , the
following calculations are done: times (equation 2.40 inserted into 2.8) minus the result
of [(equation 2.41 inserted into 2.9) and divided by Rout ]. This procedure eliminates Rin in
the resulting equation 2.43:

vOPENj
rj 1
+
R
Rin i1 + :::
in

::: + rjjR+inRin ij + Rrjkin ik + ::: + rRjMin iM

k +
rj 1
vOP ENj + vOPEN
Rout

kj i +
::: + rjj Rrout
rjk
j

::: + rjM RrkM
out iM = 0
=0

rk1 i + :::
Rout 1
rkk +Rout i + :::
k
Rout
(2.42)
(2.43)
For an ideal voltage-controlled current source, Rin ! 1 and Rout ! 1, resulting in:
2.2.3
ij = 0
(2.44)
vOP ENj + rj 1 i1 + :::

::: + rjj ij + ( rjk 1) ik + ::: + rjM iM = 0
(2.45)
Ideal Transformers
Even though an ideal transformer model has already been implemented in most EMTPbased programs, with the equations described in [2] , or with similar equations, an ideal
transformer can also be implemented as a special dependent source. The necessary equations
for the implementation of the ideal transformer as illustrated in Fig. 2.16 are 2.8 and 2.9,
as well as:
33
1 :n
ij
ik
vj
vk
Figure 2.16: Ideal transformer.
vj 1
=
vk n
(2.46)
ij
= n
ik
(2.47)
where:
nj
1
n = nk = turns ratio of the ideal transformer.
From the equations above and from 2.8 and 2.9, one can easily obtain:
ij + nik = 0
k + r
vOP ENj + vOPEN
j1
rkj n
::: + rjj n ij + rjk
::: + rjM rkM
n iM = 0
(2.48)
rk1 i + :::
1
rkkn i + :::
k
n
(2.49)
Equations 2.48 and 2.49 can be used to model an ideal transformer. It is important to
mention that, normally, better models for electric transformers, which may include saturation
eects, are used in EMTP-based simulations. For further details, please see, for example,
references [2] and [6].
2.2.4
Independent Sources
It may be useful in a circuit or device model to have an independent current or independent voltage source connected between two ungrounded nodes. This can be accomplished
34
with the same technique used for dependent sources, but using only one equation in this
case.
Independent Current Source

Assuming that the independent current source is connected between nodes c and d with
branch voltage
vk = vc
vd
(2.50)
and branch current
ik = icd
(2.51)
then the necessary equations for the implementation of an independent current source as
illustrated in Fig. 2.17 are:
ik
vk
isource
[ rTHEV k ]
Rout
vOPEN k
Figure 2.17: Independent current source.
where:

::: + rkk ik + ::: + rkM iM + vk = 0
(2.52)
vk = Rout isource + Rout ik
(2.53)
35
isource = independent current source of branch k, which can be constant or a function of

time.
From the equations above, one can also obtain the following equation:
vOPENk
k1 i + :::
+ Rrout
Rout

1
r
+Rout
kk
::: + Rout ik + ::: + RrkM
out iM
(2.54)
+ isource = 0
For the ideal current source, Rout ! 1, resulting in:
ik + isource = 0
(2.55)
Of course, there is a much easier way to represent an independent current source between
nodes c and d directly in the nodal equations of the EMTP: inject the current source into
node c and with a negative sign into node d [2].
Independent Voltage Source

The necessary equations for the implementation of an independent voltage source as
illustrated in Fig. 2.18 are:
ik
Rout
vk
[ rTHEV k ]
vOPEN k
vsource
Figure 2.18: Independent voltage source.

::: + rkk ik + ::: + rkM iM + vk = 0
(2.56)
vk = vsource + Rout ik
(2.57)
36
where:
vsource = independent voltage source of branch k, which can be constant or a function of
time.
From the equations above, one can also obtain the following equation:

::: + (rkk + Rout ) ik + ::: + rkM iM + vsource = 0
(2.58)
For an ideal voltage source, Rout = 0, resulting in:
vOP ENk + rk1i1 + :::

::: + rkk ik + ::: + rkM iM + vsource = 0
(2.59)
Another approach for voltage sources between ungrounded nodes frequently used in
EMTP-based programs is the insertion of an ideal transformer between the two ungrounded
nodes, with a voltage source to ground on the other side.
2.2.5
Newton-Raphson Algorithm
The equations for current and voltage dependent sources have been presented in the
previous sections, as well as the equations of independent sources which may be connected
between two ungrounded nodes. The solution of these equations is based on the compensation
method, which is already being used to solve nonlinear equations associated with nonlinear
elements in electric or electronic circuits with Newton-Raphson (N-R) iteration schemes. The
Newton-Raphson algorithm is well known, widely used and has quadratic convergence if the
initial estimate is close to the solution. For completeness, the Newton-Raphson algorithm is
presented in this section as it is in [77] and the reader is referred to mathematical books or
numerical analysis books or network solutions books, if more detailed information is needed.
In the scalar case the N-R iteration to solve
f (x) = 0
(2.60)
is given by
xk+1 = xk + xk = xk
f (xk )=f 0(xk );
(2.61)
37
where the iteration count is denoted by the superscripts.

Consider now the system of M nonlinear equations fi in M variables xi :
f1 (x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xM ) = 0
f2 (x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xM ) = 0
..
.
fM (x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xM ) = 0
(2.62)
Denote, for easy notation, the vector of variables by [x] and the vector of functions by
[f (x)]. Then 2.62 has a compact form:
[f (x)] = 0
(2.63)
Assume that the system has a solution; denote it by [x ] and expand each function in a
Taylor series about [x]:
@f (x x ) + @f (x x ) + + @f (x
f1 (x ) = f1 (x) + @x
xM ) +
1
2
1
2
@x
@xM M
@f
@f
@f

f2 (x ) = f2 (x) + @x (x1 x1 ) + @x (x2 x2 ) + + @xM (xM xM ) +
(2.64)
..
.
@fM (x
fM (x ) = fM (x) + @f@xM (x1 x1 ) + @f@xM (x2 x2 ) + + @x
xM ) +
M M
1
1
2
2
2
Assuming that x is close to x , higher order terms may be neglected and the system may
be written in linearized form:
[f (x )] [f (x)] + [J ] ([x ]
where
[J ] jx =
2 @f1
@x1
6 @f2
6 @x1
6 .
4 ..
@fM
@x1
[x])
@f1
@x2
@f2
@x2

@f1
@xM
@f2
@xM
@fM
@x2
@fM
@xM
..
.
...
..
.
(2.65)
3
7
7
7
5
(2.66)
jx
is the Jacobian matrix of the function [f (x)], which has to be calculated at each iteration
step. If equation 2.65 is set to zero and solved, the result will not be the vector [x ] (because
the higher-order terms have been neglected) but some new value for [x]. Using superscripts
to indicate the iteration count results in:
f xk + [J ] xk+1
k
x =
(2.67)
38
Formally, the solution of 2.67 is obtained by writing

k+1 k
x
= x
[J ]
f xk
(2.68)
In practice, the Jacobian matrix is not inverted. Instead dene

xk = xk+1
k
x :
(2.69)
Then
[J ] xk =
f xk
(2.70)
is solved by LU factorization and the new [xk+1 ] is obtained from

k+1 k k
x
= x + x :
(2.71)
Formulae 2.70 and 2.71 represent the Newton-Raphson algorithm for systems of equations, which reduce the error norm iteratively so that

f
xk+1

f xk

(2.72)
This iterations scheme is repeated until the errors are lower than a specied tolerance.
For the case of a system of linear equations, as in the case of linear dependent sources,
convergence to the solution is achieved with just one iteration step. More iteration steps
are required for the solution of a system of nonlinear equations depending on how close the
initial guess is to the nal solution. For highly nonlinear functions, the standard application
of the iteration scheme of the Newton-Raphson algorithm may cause numerical problems
involving computer over ows.
The solution algorithm experimentally implemented in the MicroTran version of the
EMTP at The University of British Columbia is presented in Fig. 2.19. This method
presents \generality and exibility properties", thus looking promising for future work in
detailed modelling of circuits and devices, as will be explained later in this thesis.

INPUT DATA
INITIAL GUESS
FOR CURRENTS
CALCULATION OF
BRANCH VOLTAGES
[from Eq. (2.6) or (2.1)]
SET VARIABLE
TO ITS LIMIT
CALCULATION OF
RIGHT HAND SIDE
[negative values
of Eq. (2.1)]
IS IT
ACCURATE
ENOUGH?
Yes
Yes
CHECK FOR
LIMITS
Yes
STOP
IS THERE
ANY LIMIT
VIOLATION?
No
MAX. NO. OF
ITERATIONS WAS
EXCEEDED?
No
No
BUILD JACOBIAN MATRIX

[partial derivatives
of Eq. (2.1)]
RETURN CURRENTS
TO MAIN PROGRAM
SOLVE FOR CURRENTS
UPDATE
CURRENTS
Figure 2.19: Newton-Raphson algorithm experimentally implemented in MicroTran.
39

2.2.6
40
Possible Applications
The methodology presented in the previous sections for the implementation of dependent
sources in EMTP-based programs permits the computational development of many practical
applications, such as:
1. Current and voltage sensors;
2. Operational ampliers;
3. User-dened coupled branches in a circuit;
4. Modelling of electronic components, where the physical behavior would need to be
represented by nonlinear equations;
5. User-dened linear and nonlinear functions;
6. User-dened modelling of linear and nonlinear devices, limited only by the creativity
and ingenuity of the user.
Figure 2.20 and Fig. 2.21 illustrate the solution method with an example of a noninverting
amplier circuit, as commonly used in practical analog electronics. It consists of a sinusoidal
voltage source, an ideal operational amplier and 2 resistors (Rf and Rg ). The ideal operational amplier was modelled using equations 2.30 and 2.31, whereas the sinusoidal voltage
source and the resistors are part of the network, represented through a Thevenin equivalent
circuit. If Rf = 2Rg , then voutput = 3vinput , as shown in Fig. 2.21. Alternatively, to get
an amplication of 3 in circuit simulation, one could just use a voltage-controlled voltage
source, with equations 2.28 and 2.29 with the gain A set to a value of 3. In this case a
load resistor should be connected in the output of the dependent source, to avoid numerical
oating subnetwork problems.
Indeed, in theory this noninverting amplier circuit should result in:

voutput
R
= 1+ f
vinput
Rg
(2.73)
41
Rf
voutput
vinput
vinput=1.0 0o [V]
f=60 [Hz]
Rg
Figure 2.20: Circuit with ideal operational amplier.

4
voutput
Voltage ( V )
vinput
4
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Time ( ms )
Figure 2.21: Simulation results of circuit with ideal operational amplier (noninverting amplier circuit).
The next sections will present a technique for the simulation of transfer functions in
EMTP-based programs, some improvements already made for the implementation of saturation or limits for the elements or sources presented in this work, as well as the implementation
of some other special control devices.
2.3. Development of Control Transfer Functions in EMTP-based Programs
42
2.3 Development of Control Transfer Functions in EMTPbased Programs

A transfer function as in Fig. 2.22, is dened in the frequency domain (Laplace transformation of a continuous time system) by the equation 2.74, which represents the output signal
X (s) as a function of the input signal U (s) for a particular linear time-invariant system.
U(s)
H(s)
X(s)
Figure 2.22: Transfer function.

X (s)
b sm + b sm 1 + ::: + b1 s1 + b0
B (s)
H (s) =
=k m n m 1n 1
=k
1
U (s)
an s + an 1 s + ::: + a1 s + a0
A(s)
(2.74)
with n m and an 6= 0.
It is possible to reorganize the terms of equation 2.74 as follows:
(an sn + an 1 sn 1 + ::: + a1 s1 + a0 ) X (s) =
k (bm
sm + b
sm
+ ::: + b1 s + b0 ) U (s)
1 + anan s 1 + ::: + aan s1

1
bm sm n +
an
X (s) = k
+ ab1n s1 n + ab0n s n
bm 1 m
an s
U (s)
n + a0 s n
an
n + ::: + b1 s1 n
an
bm sm n + bm 1 sm
an
an
(2.75)
an 1
an s
+ ::: +
X (s) =
+ abn s
0
(2.76)
U (s)
+ :::
a1 1 n
an s
a0 n
an s
X (s)
(2.77)
43
For m = n, 4 this results in:
X (s) = k
+ ab1n s1 n + ab0n s n
X (s) =
+s1
U (s)
k abnn U (s) + s
n k b1 U (s)
an
::: + s
k abn U (s)
1
+ bnan s 1 + :::
bn
an
an 1
an s
+ ::: +
n
+s
a1 1 n
an s
n k b0 U (s)
an
a1
an X (s)
+s
X (s)
+ :::
i
a0
an X (s)

an 1
X
(
s
)
+ :::
an
an 1
an X (s)
k bnan U (s)

a0 n
an s
k bnan 1 U (s)
i
a1 X (s)
an
X (s) = k abnn U (s) + s

h
k abn U (s)
0
a0
an X (s)
io
(2.78)
(2.79)
(2.80)
A transfer function block-diagram realization of equation 2.80 is presented in Fig. 2.23,

which, according to [79], is called the observer form.
The solution technique proposed in this thesis is based on the fact that a practical
realization of a transfer function block-diagram can be accomplished with the use of circuit
components, such as operational ampliers, resistors and capacitors 5 . In practice, an analog
signal processing scheme is usually designed as the rst step for a digital signal processing
derivation. Moreover, in this work, the derivation of an analog circuit model for the transfer
function implementation takes advantage of all the options already implemented in EMTPbased programs, and redundant computational work is avoided. This way, the equations for
the digital model of a transfer function are automatically constructed inside the EMTP, which
4 If m < n then bn = bn 1 = ::: = bm+1 = 0:
5 Analog computers were commonly used in the past to solve power system control and stability dierential
equations [83].
44
U(s)
...
kb0
___
an
kb1
___
an
1
___
s
a0
___
an
+
+
kbn-1
___
an
1
___
s
...
a1
___
an
kbn
___
an
1
___
s
+
+
X(s)
an-1
___
an
...
Figure 2.23: Observer form block-diagram of transfer function in equation 2.80.

uses the trapezoidal integration rule, or the backward Euler rule whenever CDA technique is
applied [84], [85]. With analog circuit modelling based on operational ampliers, the method
presented here is general and allows an arbitrary design of transfer functions (or many special
control devices) by the users of EMTP-based programs.
A simplication can be made in a computer transfer function implementation, in contrast
to a physical circuit implementation, in order to reduce the number of operational ampliers
needed: resistances and capacitances can assume negative values 6 . As long as the system
eigenvalues (or poles of the transfer function) remain on the left hand side of the complex
plane, the system is stable. Negative values then may be used here for capacitances and
resistances connected on the feedback path of the \ideal operational ampliers", which results in a stable solution for transfer functions of linear systems. Such a possible computer
implementation of the transfer function block-diagram of Fig. 2.23 is presented in Fig. 2.24.
Assume for example, that the rst-order transfer function illustrated in the block-diagram
of Fig. 2.25 is to be implemented with the proposed technique. Equation 2.80 becomes in
6 Proper precautions should be taken, though, whenever the equivalent digital self admittance of a node
becomes equal to zero. The connection of large resistances to the node can easily solve this problem.
45
u(t)
...
an
___ M
kb0 -1 F
an
___ M
kb1
-1 F
1M
an
_ ___ M
a0
an
___ M
kbn-1
an
___ M
kbn
-1 F
1M
...
-1M
1M
an
_ ___M
a1
x(t)
1M
an
_ ___ M
an-1
...
Figure 2.24: Possible computer implementation of the transfer function block-diagram in Fig. 2.23.
10
__________
U(s)
X(s)
0.01 s + 1
Figure 2.25: Block-diagram representation of a rst-order transfer function.

this case, with n = 1:
X (s) = s

1
b
k 0 U (s)
a1
a0
X (s)
a1
(2.81)
where, for illustration purposes,

kb0 = 10,
a0 = 1 and
a1 = 0:01 seconds.
The observer form block-diagram for equation 2.81 is presented in Fig. 2.26, and its
\possible computer implementation" is illustrated in Fig. 2.27. The realization of this rstorder transfer function can also be done with a physically-based realistic rst-order lag circuit
as shown in Fig. 2.28, which requires two inverting amplier circuits 7 , instead of just one
7 The author acknowledges the help of Mr. Jesus Calvi~no-Fraga in a practical laboratory experiment for
46
required in the \more economic" computer implementation. There may be cases where the
realistic implementation is needed, which the proposed method can handle as well without
any restrictions. Fig. 2.29 presents the time domain transient response x(t) of the rst order
transfer function implemented as in Fig. 2.27 and as in Fig. 2.28, for a pulse u(t) of 1V
with a duration of 25ms.
U(s)
kb0
___
a1
X(s)
1
___
s
a0
___
a1
Figure 2.26: Observer form block-diagram of rst-order transfer function of Fig. 2.25.
u(t)
a1
___ M
kb0
- 1 F
- 10 k
- 1 F
x(t)
u(t)
1 k
x(t)
a1
_ ___ M
a0
Figure 2.27: Possible computer implementation of rst-order transfer function of Fig. 2.25.
the circuit of Fig. 2.28, which validated the simulation results presented in Fig. 2.29.
47
10 k
1 F
u(t)
10 k
- x( t )
1 k
x(t)
10 k
Figure 2.28: Realistic rst-order lag circuit.

10
x(t)
Voltage ( V )
u(t)
1
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Time ( ms )
Figure 2.29: Time domain simulation of rst-order transfer function.

This technique can easily be used with the solution for the \ideal operational ampliers"
implemented in subroutine CONNEC. There is no time delay between the electric network
and control equations as in TACS, and the solution of both systems of equations is simultaneous. The modied nodal analysis method (MNA) [76] could also be used for the solution
of operational ampliers and other \linear branch equations" as presented in [77] . However,
2.4. Development of Limiters for Control Systems in EMTP-based Programs
48
with the modied nodal analysis (MNA), the network and control system equation matrix
becomes unsymmetric, and zero diagonal elements may appear, which requires pivoting techniques. Also, as the number of added branch equations increases, requiring extra columns
and extra rows, the dimension of the matrix may become very large, which may eventually
decrease the computational eciency, if proper techniques are not used. Possibily, if the simulation time becomes a very important issue, as in the case of digital real-time simulators,
a combined solution could be investigated, such that all linear control and system equations
could be solved using the MNA with appropriate techniques, and the remaining nonlinear
equations could be solved with the compensation method. The main motivation here in this
thesis for using the compensation method with a Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm is its
\generality and exibility" to model nonlinear (and linear as a special case) control devices
in EMTP-based programs, particularly because the branch Thevenin equivalent circuit is
readily available, as in the CONNEC subroutine of MicroTran.
The implementation of limits associated with rst order transfer functions, as well as
special devices and intrinsic FORTRAN functions, are presented in the following sections.
2.4 Development of Limiters for Control Systems in

EMTP-based Programs
The use of limiters in control loops may introduce extra time delays in the solution
method implemented in TACS. This can result in inaccuracies and instabilities [66], [67].
The technique proposed in this thesis for the solution of limiters overcomes this diculty.
With the Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm in the compensation method, a simultaneous
solution for limiters can be found.
There are two types of limiters associated with rst-order transfer functions : windup
(also referred to as static limiter) and non-windup (dynamic limiter) [66], [2]. "Non-windup
limiters should only be used with rst-order transfer functions. For second and higher-order
transfer functions it is no longer clear which variables should be limited. ... Even for the rstorder transfer function, the meaning of the limiting function is confused if it has any zeros"
49
[2]. Reference [66] presents an appropriate model for a proportional-integral (PI) controller
(which can be represented as a transfer function with one zero) with a non-windup limiter.
In a lead-lag control function block, for example, the way in which a non-windup limiter can
be realized is not unique; the interpretation of the limiting action should therefore be based
on the electronic implementation of the physical device [86].
The main dierence between windup and non-windup limiters is the way in which the
limited variable comes o its limit. To illustrate that, the rst-order transfer function presented earlier in Fig. 2.25 is assumed to have a windup limiter as in Fig. 2.30, and a
non-windup limiter as in Fig. 2.31. The time domain simulation of the output variable x(t)
for both cases, for a pulse input excitation u(t) of 1V, is presented in Fig. 2.32.
+ 5
slope=1
10
__________
U(s)
X(s)
0.01 s + 1
Figure 2.30: First-order transfer function with windup (static) limiter.

+ 5
slope=1
U(s)
10
__________
X(s)
0.01 s + 1
Figure 2.31: First-order transfer function with non-windup (dynamic) limiter.

Note that the output variable x(t) reaches its limit at the same time for both cases, but
x(t) backs o the limit rst for the non-windup (dynamic) limiter. The reason is that for the
windup limiter the output variable is just clipped at the limit, whereas in the non-windup
limiter the dierential equation is actually modied [66], [87], [2].
50
10
x(t) without limiter
Voltage ( V )
x(t) with
windup limiter
(static)
x(t) with
nonwindup limiter
(dynamic)
u(t)
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Time ( ms )
Figure 2.32: Transient response of a rst-order transfer function with windup and non-windup limiter.
The implemented solution for limiters uses the methodology proposed in Section 2.2.1.
As indicated in the algorithm illustrated in Fig. 2.19 of Section 2.2.5, a simultaneous system
solution is rst found without considering any of the limits. Then, each limit violation is
veried in the sequence of the input data given by the user. If a particular limit has been
reached, all previous indications of limit violations are cleared, and a solution is found for this
particular limiter and all of its consequences on the other limiters. This cause-consequence
iterative process has been found to be a very \robust method" in all cases tested, and has
given the correct solution for all limiters, \independent of the ordering of the input data given
by the user". Also, because the compensation method is properly applied 8 , the solution for
limiters is simultaneous without time delays.
The maximum (xmax ) and minimum (xmin ) limiting values are part of the input data. For
8 TACS seems to use a pseudo-compensation method to solve limiters [2].
51
example, in the case of the rst order transfer function with a non-windup limiter illustrated
in Fig. 2.31, with a computer model as in Fig. 2.27, it is possible to represent the non-windup
hard limiting action with a simple change in the equations for the ideal operational amplier,
such that equations 2.30 and 2.31 are replaced by equations 2.82 and 2.83, respectively:
vOP ENj + rj 1 i1 + :::

::: + rkj ij + rkk ik + ::: + rkM iM + vk
where vk
limit
= xmax , or vk
limit
limit
(2.82)
=0
(2.83)
= xmin .
By using these equations it becomes easy to observe the limits accurately. In practice,
in a realistic rst order lag circuit, as in Fig. 2.28, the clamping action is done with the use
of Zener diodes connected in parallel with the capacitor in the feedback loop of the rst OP
AMP for a non-windup (dynamic) limiter, or with Zener diodes connected in parallel with
the resistor in the feedback loop of the \second" OP AMP for a windup (static) limiter 9 .
Another example is the simple limiter control block. In this case, one could use the
equations for an \ideal voltage-controlled voltage source" including the limiting values in
the output voltage, as follows:
ij = 0
::: + rkj ij + rkk ik + ::: + rkM iM + vk
where vk
limit
= xmax , or vk
limit
(2.84)
limit
=0
(2.85)
= xmin .
Implementation of soft limits

The limiters presented in the previous section assume xed values (hard limits) for the
maximum and minimum of the output variable. It may be useful to allow soft limits as
well, as recommended in [2]. With soft limits, the slopes in the limited region are nonzero.
9 The author acknowledges the help of Mr. Jesus Calvi~no-Fraga in a practical laboratory experiment,
which validated the simulation results presented in Fig. 2.32.
52
Hard limits are then just a special case of soft limits when the slopes are set to zero. The
equations for soft limits, with the notation from Fig. 2.33, are:
8
if xmin < Ku(t) < xmax ,
< Ku(t);
x(t) = xmin + Kmin[u(t) umin]; if Ku(t) xmin,
(2.86)
:
xmax + Kmax[u(t) umax]; if Ku(t) xmax .
x(t)
slope=Kmax
x max
SLOPE = GAIN "K"
u min
u max
slope=Kmin
u( t)
x min
Figure 2.33: Soft limits.
Consider, for example, the zero-order transfer function (constant gain) in Fig. 2.34. The
time domain response for a sinusoidal excitation input u(t) of 1V is presented in Fig. 2.35,
illustrating the eects of hard and soft limits on the output x(t).
In this thesis project, soft limits (and hard limits as a special case) have been implemented
for all the current and voltage dependent sources presented in Section 2.2. Limits can also
be easily implemented for all the FORTRAN functions and special devices which will be
discussed in the following sections.

K max= + 0.1
( 10% )
+ 2
K=4
U(s)
53
X(s)
- 2
K min= + 0.1
( 10% )
Figure 2.34: Zero-order transfer function with soft limits.
x(t) with soft limit

3
Voltage ( V )
u(t)
x(t) with
hard limit
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Time ( ms )
Figure 2.35: Time domain response for a sinusoidal excitation input u(t) illustrating the eects of hard
and soft limits on the output x(t).
2.5. Development of Intrinsic FORTRAN Functions in EMTP-based Programs
54
2.5 Development of Intrinsic FORTRAN Functions in

EMTP-based Programs
\Supplemental variables and devices", as dened by the EMTP Rule Book, dier in
TACS from the transfer function blocks, as follows:
1. they are not solved with the matrix of the set of linear equations in TACS.
2. they are calculated sequentially, instead of simultaneously (so that the data cards must
be ordered accordingly).
Supplemental variables, such as intrinsic FORTRAN functions and special devices, are
solved in TACS in a sequential way. \In Fig. 2.36, the special device S 1 would be solved
after G2 has been solved, and S 2 would be solved after G3 has been solved. The solution
would still be simultaneous in this case. In general, the sequence of calculations is more
complicated, with non-simultaneous solutions through time delays. For details, the reader
should consult the EMTP Rule Book" [2]. The sequential solution requires a denition by
the user of \input (e.g. S 1 in Fig. 2.36", \output (e.g. S 3 in Fig. 2.36)" and \inside (e.g.
S 2 in Fig. 2.36)" groups of devices. A special ordering of these device blocks is necessary
to minimize the time delays introduced by this sequential solution method. \To make the
solution as much simultaneous as possible, the user should keep the number of internal
devices as low as possible, and use input and output devices instead whenever possible" [2].
S1
G1 ( s )
G2 ( s )
S2
G3 ( s )
S3
Figure 2.36: Open loop control system with "supplemental devices S 1,S 2 and S 3".
In this research project a \truly simultaneous solution" is achieved for intrinsic FORTRAN functions, and no special ordering is necessary, i.e., the input of data by the user is
arbitrary. The solution technique applies the compensation method in a similar way as done
in Section 2.2 for the implementation of current and voltage dependent sources. Assume, for
55
example, the control block-diagram of Fig. 2.37, with a nonlinear relationship between the
output voltage vk (t) and the input voltage vj (t).
vj
vk
K2 SIN ( K1 vj )
Figure 2.37: Nonlinear control block-diagram with a sinusoidal intrinsic FORTRAN function.
A simultaneous solution can be obtained for this nonlinear function by representing the
block-diagram of Fig. 2.37 in the form of an electric circuit as shown in Fig. 2.38. The necessary equations are 2.87 and 2.88 and the branch equations 2.89 and 2.90. These equations
resemble those of a voltage-controlled voltage source presented in Section 2.2.
ij
vOPEN
[ rTHEV j ]
ik
Rin
Rout
vj
vk
[ rTHEV k ]
vOPEN k
K2 sin ( K1 vj )
Figure 2.38: Circuit implementation for the simultaneous solution of a sinusoidal FORTRAN function.
For the controlling branch, the equation is
vOP ENj + rj 1 i1 + :::
(2.87)
and for the dependent source branch it is
(2.88)
where:
vj = Rin ij
(2.89)
vk = K2 (sin (K1 vj )) + Rout ik = K2 (sin (K1 Rin ij )) + Rout ik
56
(2.90)
where:
K1 = Gain over the controlling or measured voltage.
K2 = Gain applied to the dependent source in branch k.
From the equations above, one can also obtain the following equations:

vOPENj
rj 1
+
R
Rin i1 + :::
in

=0

::: + [rkj ij + K2 (sin (K1 Rin ij ))] + (rkk + Rout ) ik + ::: + rkM iM = 0
(2.91)
(2.92)
If a large number is used for Rin 10 , then the solution for the current ij will be very small
but not exactly equal to zero. This allows the convergence to a non trivial solution for the
current ik , and of course, for the input and output voltages of this nonlinear control block
of a sine function.
These equations can then be solved with the implemented Newton-Raphson algorithm
illustrated in Fig. 2.19, of Section 2.2. Note that for the proper application of the compensation method there must always be possible a Thevenin equivalent circuit. Therefore, in
cases where there is a oating subnetwork, i.e., a node without connection to ground (as for
example if the output of an intrinsic FORTRAN function has no circuit elements connected
to ground), then the insertion of a big resistance between this node and ground easily overcomes this problem, as is usually done in some versions of the EMTP for the solution of
nonlinear elements [2].
Applying this technique, the following nonlinear intrinsic FORTRAN functions were implemented,
SIN
10 In theory Rin
! 1, making ij = 0, which would result in a trivial solution for equation 2.92. Rout is
obviously assumed to be equal zero.
COS
TAN
COTAN
SINH
COSH
TANH
ASIN
ACOS
ATAN
EXP
LOG
LOG10
SQRT,
57
as well as the mathematical operations 11 :
multiplication ()
division (=)
exponentiation ().
Proper precautions were taken to handle mathematical and computational problems such
as division by zero, square root of negative number, exponentiation of negative number
with non-integer exponent, logarithm of zero or of negative values, etc.. The evaluation of
trigonometric functions accepts the argument in degrees, which is then converted to radians
internally. The inverse of trigonometric functions gives the answer already converted to
degrees.
11 Addition (+) and subtraction ( ) can be implemented with the use of just one ideal operational amplier.
2.6. Development of Control Devices in EMTP-based Programs
58
2.6 Development of Control Devices in EMTP-based

Programs
A simultaneous solution is also obtained for special control devices, by using the same
approach presented in the previous section. Their input can be in arbitrary order dened
by the user. To illustrate the potential of this technique, the detailed development of some
useful special devices will be presented.
Transport Delay
Assume, for example, the time delay control block-diagram of Fig. 2.39, (also called
"transport delay" in TACS), where the input voltage vj (t) only aects the output after the
elapsed time t + , or conversely, the output voltage vk (t) only depends on the past history
value of the input voltage, i.e., vj (t ).
vj
DELAY
vk
Figure 2.39: Transport delay control device.

The transport delay of Fig 2.39 can be represented in the form of an electric circuit 12
as in Fig. 2.40, with circuit equations 2.93 and 2.94, and branch equations 2.95 and 2.96.
If not otherwise indicated, all the current and voltage variables are the instantaneous values
at the present time t.
For the controlling branch, the equation is
vOP ENj + rj 1 i1 + :::

(2.93)
and for the dependent source branch

(2.94)
12 For generality reasons, the equations are derived including Rin and Rout , however the ideal equations
are used in the computer implementation.
ij
vOPEN
ik
Rin
[ rTHEV j ]
59
Rout
vj
vk
[ rTHEV k ]
vOPEN k
K2 vj ( t - )
Figure 2.40: Circuit implementation for the simultaneous solution of a transport delay control device.
where:
vj = Rin ij
(2.95)
vk = K2 vj (t ) + Rout ik
(2.96)
where:
K2 = Gain applied to the controlling or measured past history voltage vj (t
an independent source at time t, in branch k.
), to create
From the equations above, one can also obtain the following equations:

vOPENJ
rj 1
+
Rin
Rin i1 + :::

=0

::: + rkj ij + (rkk + Rout ) ik + ::: + rkM iM + K2 vj (t ) = 0
(2.97)
(2.98)
If Rin ! 1 and Rout ! 0, then
ij = 0
(2.99)
vOP ENk + rk1i1 + :::

::: + rkj ij + rkk ik + ::: + rkM iM + K2 vj (t ) = 0
(2.100)
60
which can be solved with the implemented Newton-Raphson algorithm illustrated in Fig.
2.19, of Section 2.2.
Considering that the delay time is not usually an integer multiple of the simulation
time step t, some type of interpolation must be used. Linear interpolation has been chosen
for that purpose, in a way similar to the transient time domain simulation of a transmission
line model [1], [2]. Fig. 2.41 illustrates the time response of a transport delay control device
where = 4:1667ms, t = 166:6667s, K 2 = 1; the input voltage signal vj (t) is a sinusoidal
source of 1V. Note in Fig. 2.41 that the output voltage signal vk (t) is actually equal to the
input voltage signal vj (t), but delayed in time in 4.1667ms.
2
delayed signal
1.5
Voltage ( V )
0.5
delay
4.1667ms
0.5
1.5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Time ( ms )
Figure 2.41: Transient simulation of a transport delay control device.
Pulse Delay
Applying the same technique used for the implementation for a transport delay, it is
possible to develop a model for a pulse delay control device. In a pulse delay, the negative to
61
positive and positive to negative zero crossings of the input signal are detected and a pulse is
created with the specied delay and with the width of respective time between the two zero
crossings of the input signal. This way there is no need to store all the past history values of
the input signal, just the respective times of zero crossing, which is a \more computational
economic" delay if the output signal will always have to be a pulse, irrespective of the shape
of the input signal. Fig. 2.42 illustrates the time response of a pulse delay control device
where = 20ms, K 2 = 1, and the input voltage signal vj (t) is a 1V pulse source. Fig. 2.43
shows the time response of a pulse delay control device where = 20ms, K 2 = 1, and the
input voltage signal vj (t) is an arbitrary signal source.
2
delayed pulse
1.5
Voltage ( V )
0.5
20ms delay
0.5
1.5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Time ( ms )
Figure 2.42: Transient simulation of a pulse delay control device.
50
62
delayed pulse
1.5
Voltage ( V )
0.5
20ms delay
0.5
1.5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Time ( ms )
Figure 2.43: Pulse delay control device with arbitrary input signal.
Logic Gate "NOT"

The necessary equations for the simultaneous solution of a logic gate NOT, as illustrated
in Fig. 2.44 and Fig. 2.45, are 2.93, 2.94, 2.95 and
vk = K2 (1 vj ) + Rout ik
(2.101)
where:
K2 = 1 is the gain over the controlling or measured voltage (with either vj = 0 or vj = 1),
being applied as a dependent source in branch k.
vj
vk
Figure 2.44: Logic gate "NOT".
ij
vOPEN
[ rTHEV j ]
63
ik
Rin
Rout
vj
[ rTHEV k ]
vk
vOPEN k
K2 ( 1 - vj )
Figure 2.45: Circuit implementation of a logic gate "NOT" for simultaneous solution.
From equations 2.93, 2.94, 2.95 and equation 2.101, one can also obtain the following
equations:

vOPENJ
rj 1
Rin +
Rin i1 + :::
=0

vOPENK
r
k
1
vOP ENj
+ 1 + rj 1 + K2 i1 + :::
K

2

::: + rjj + rKkj2 ij + rjk + rkk +KR2 out ik + :::

::: + rjM + rKkM2 iM = 0
(2.102)
(2.103)
If Rin ! 1, Rout ! 0 and K2 = 1, then the following equations are obtained:
ij = 0
(2.104)
vOP ENj vOP ENK + 1 + (rj 1 + rk1 ) i1 + :::

::: + (rjj + rkj ) ij + (rjk + rkk ) ik + :::
::: + (rjM + rkM ) iM = 0
(2.105)
Other logic gates, such as "AND", "NAND", "OR", "NOR", etc. can be implemented
in a similar way.
Chapter 3
Power Electronics Modelling in
EMTP-based Simulations
\The application of semiconductor devices in the electric power eld has been steadily
increasing, and a study of power electronics (as it is commonly called) is now a feature
of most electrical and electronics engineering courses. The power semiconductor devices,
such as the diode, thyristor, triac, and power transistor, are used in power applications as
switching devices. The development of theory and application relies heavily on waveforms
and transient responses, which distinguishes the subject of power electronics from many
other engineering studies" [88].
\Computer simulation can greatly aid in the analysis, design and education of Power
Electronics. However, simulation of power electronics systems is made challenging by the
following factors: 1) extreme nonlinearity presented by the switches, 2) time constants within
the system may dier by several orders of magnitude, and 3) a lack of models. Therefore, it is
important that the objective of the computer analysis be evaluated carefully and appropriate
simulation packages be chosen" [89].
\In system level investigation, it is often adequate to represent semiconductor switches
within converters by ideal switches. This is important in order to minimize the overall
simulation time. But, it is very desirable if the same simulation package has the detailed
device models to design snubbers and gate drives. The simulation package should also be
able to represent the controller portion of the converter system by its functional features
64
3.1. Modelling Power Electronics in Electric Power Engineering Applications
65
in as simplied a manner as possible. Yet, it should be able to model the controller on a

component level if needed" [89].
The preceding quotations show the need for the development and implementation of
simplied as well as detailed nonlinear models of semiconductor devices in EMTP-based
programs. Such models can be used for the transient simulation of electromagnetic phenomena in low and high power circuit networks. They are especially useful for the detailed
evaluation of the impact of power electronic devices on electric power quality, which is the
main emphasis of this thesis. For power quality studies, transient phenomena have to be
evaluated not only at the interface between power electronic devices and the power system,
but the propagation of transients through the supply network and neighboring systems, and
the impact of transients coming from the supply power system on the electronic devices have
to be analyzed as well. The following sections discuss some of the IEEE recommendations
for power electronics modelling, the simultaneous solution of voltage-controlled switches in
EMTP-based programs, the implementation of a nonlinear diode model, and some aspects
of control of power electronic devices.
3.1 Modelling Power Electronics in Electric Power Engineering Applications

Fig. 3.1 presents the major power semiconductor devices: Diode, Thyristor, Gate
Turn-O (GTO) Thyristor and Gate-Controlled Thyristor (GCT), MOS Turn-O Thyristor
(MTO), Emitter Turn-O Thyristor (ETO), MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT), Transistor,
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT), and Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Eect
Transistor (MOSFET) [90]. Some of these semiconductor devices are already well known.
High-power semiconductor devices with increasing switching and power capabilities appear
on the market every year (such as the Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristors (IGCTs)),
which extend the potential applications of modern power electronics techniques to basically
all voltage levels in utility companies and industrial sites. Models for the existing and new
power electronics devices are therefore necessary for analyzing existing or future applications.
DIODE
THYRISTOR
Cathode
GTO and GCT
Cathode
Cathode
Gate
( turn-on &
turn-off )
Gate
( turn-on )
Anode
66
Anode
Anode
MTO
ETO
MCT
Cathode
Cathode
Cathode
Turn-off Gate
Turn-on
Gate
Turn-off
Gate
Gate
( turn-on &
turn-off )
Turn-on Gate
Anode
Anode
Anode
TRANSISTOR
IGBT
MOSFET
Emitter
Emitter
Source
Base
Collector
Gate
Collector
Figure 3.1: Power semiconductor devices.
Gate
Drain
67
Guidelines for modeling power electronics in electric power engineering applications, especially for use in EMTP-based programs, can be found in [91], [92]. These guidelines can
also be useful when using other digital simulation tools. The approximately 60 test cases in
the computer exercise collection of Dr. N. Mohan [93], [94], [89] which are available for both
R
EMTP and PSpice
simulations, are also useful for power electronics digital simulations.
In particular, the dierences between existing EMTP and PSpice models may give hints for
the improvement of EMTP models. Dr. Ned Mohan also presents in [89] a power electronics
library with special sub-circuits, which are used to represent switching electronic devices
and some control devices. According to [89] \in case of extreme nonlinearity, PSpice uses
extremely small time steps and is also prone to problems of voltage convergence. To avoid
this problem of extreme nonlinearity such as that associated with diodes, R-C snubbers are
connected across them. The values of R and C in these snubbers are not optimized, rather
these are based on speeding up the simulation without distorting the system voltage and
current waveforms signicantly."
As stated in [91], [92], power electronics modelling depends on the objectives of the
study. Depending on the type of study, dierent software tools and solution techniques can
be applied. In steady-state or harmonic analysis, the main concern is the injection and
propagation of harmonic currents into the transmission and distribution system, which may
cause unacceptable voltage distortions and dangerous resonances. The power electronic subsystem is then modelled as \known" harmonic current sources. These currents are assumed
to be independent of voltage variations at the point of common coupling (PCC), where the
power electronics load is connected. However, in many applications such as adjustable speed
drives, active power conditioning, FACTS and Custom Power Controllers, etc., the operation
of a power electronics device closely depends on and can aect the dynamics and the electric
transient behavior of the connected system. Variations of the system parameters, such as
voltage and current amplitude, frequency, phase-angle displacement among the phases in
a three-phase system, instantaneous or average power, etc., need to be used by the power
electronics control, to properly adjust the ring time of the semiconductors, which in turn
might have a feedback eect on the system. Therefore, for transient analysis, a more complex
and detailed representation of the power electronics devices as well as of the supplying power
68
system is required. Some model simplication and system reduction [92] might be necessary
for practical reasons. This can be acceptable, provided that the equivalent model is validated
against practical measurements, and that it ts the study investigation needs.
The representation of semiconductor switching devices is commonly simplied in power
level application studies. Therefore, the nonlinear characteristic of a diode is usually represented in a simplied form as a two-terminal uncontrollable unidirectional current owing
switch, or in some programs as a voltage-controlled switch. Series on-state and parallel ostate resistances can be added to represent the semiconductor losses. In some EMTP-based
programs, such as MicroTran, series resistances must be included to allow multiple switch
connections on the same circuit node. Parallel resistances can provide a resistive connection
between the DC sides of rectiers and inverters and the AC local ground, thus avoiding
oating sub-network problems [95].
The use of simplied switch models for power electronics devices may be justied to
speed up the simulation time for system level studies, but it may also give wrong and
misleading results, especially related to semiconductor commutation phenomena. Also, the
EMTP solution at xed discrete time intervals t may result in inaccurate turn-on or turno switching times, causing unrealistic high frequency transients in the simulation of power
electronic devices. Backtracking techniques [67] and/or resynchronization techniques ([96]
pages 185, 204, 207), or even the Clock Synchronized Structure Changing Concept (CSSC)
[97] can be used to minimize the problem. Interpolation and/or extrapolation as well as
resynchronization techniques seem to be more and more applied even in the EMTP-based
solution of modern control for power electronics systems, as in the software PSCAD/EMTDC
[98], [99]. Therefore, for EMTP-based simulations of power electronics, it is much more
important to use such techniques than to reduce the time step size.
Numerical oscillations caused by the trapezoidal rule of integration in solving the system
of equations may also be a problem for EMTP-based simulations. The use of techniques
such as CDA (\Critical Damping Adjustment" [84], [85]) is eective in the elimination of
numerical oscillations. MicroTran has CDA implemented, but other EMTP versions may
not, or may use dierent approaches.
69
If the gating circuit is not considered in the study, three-terminal, controllable, unidirectional current owing semiconductor devices can be represented by simplied switches
with gate turn-on and turn-o controls. Dierent ring controls can be applied to represent
thyristors, GTO's, IGBT's, etc. However, \in many actual power electronics applications, in
order to provide a continuous current ow path for an inductive load, a reversal diode (free
wheeling diode) is used in parallel with a controllable switching device to form the basic
power electronic unit" [91]. The implementation of a \basic power electronic unit" in digital programs requires special care with respect to \instantaneous commutation phenomena"
[95], [96], [88], [97].
The UBC version MicroTran of the EMTP, up to now, only allows pre-dened timing
for the closing and opening of switches representing semiconductor devices. This is done
through the denition of a modied ring angle (\ ") and of a \switching frequency" for
each semiconductor. The frequency is needed to calculate the switching period and the time
of switching from , which assumes a xed reference at time t = 0. This implementation with
xed opening and closing times has limitations, because it does not use the real ring angle
(\") dened from a zero crossing detection related to the voltages at the semiconductor
terminals, and because it ignores the dynamics of the control circuits. MicroTran users could
write their own ring control subroutine based on an available ALPHA subroutine, but only
a few users have used this option. Also, sensing voltages and currents from the main program
would introduce a one time step delay with this approach, and users must be aware of that.
For PWM control techniques, the auxiliary program \PWM" can be useful to calculate and
dene the closing and opening times, which would then be read in as a switching table. The
dynamics of the control circuit would be ignored, which limits the application of \PWM" to
steady-state behavior.
As part of this thesis project, a subroutine \GATE" was developed to simulate power
electronics dynamic control schemes with more accuracy and exibility. As its name indicates, the subroutine GATE allows a simplied gate ring control of a semiconductor, i.e,
it can control its turn-on time, and, for some devices, also its turn-o time. The control
signal is assumed to be a gate voltage signal, dened for simplicity, between the gate node
and ground. This subroutine was derived from the subroutine ALPHA (which can be user
70
dened), to implement new four-terminal, dynamically controlled semiconductor devices as

voltage-controlled switches, as illustrated in Fig. 3.2.
i
vgate
VoltageControlled
Bidirectional
Switch
Figure 3.2: Voltage-controlled switch in EMTP-based programs.
With the subroutine GATE, most of the three-terminal controllable power semiconductor
devices can be represented. Fig. 3.3 presents some test cases for the transient simulation of:
voltage-controlled, \bipolar in voltage" (i.e., may conduct irrespective if it is forward

or reverse biased) and bidirectional current owing switch;
Thyristor (simplied model, as a voltage-controlled, \unipolar in voltage" (i.e., may

only conduct when forward biased), and unidirectional current owing switch);
GTO (simplied model, as a voltage-controlled, \unipolar in voltage", unidirectional

current owing switch, with turn-o capabilities).
Figs. 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6 illustrate the controlling properties of the bidirectional switch, thyristor and GTO, respectively. Since the solution for switches follows the algorithm already
implemented in most EMTP-based programs [1], including MicroTran, the change of switch
position (\status" on or o) only happens one time step after the enabling gate signal [100].
If it becomes necessary to avoid this delay problem for certain types of simulations, an
alternative implementation for a \simultaneous" solution for voltage-controlled switches is
presented in the next section of this chapter.
71
i
VoltageControlled
Bidirectional
Switch
vsource
vgate
i
THYRISTOR
vsource
vgate
i
GTO
vsource
vgate
vsource = 10 sin ( t ) [ V ]
vgate = 1 [ V ]
f = 60[ Hz ]
Figure 3.3: Test cases for transient simulation of voltage-controlled, bipolar in voltage and bidirectional
current owing switch, thyristor and GTO.
Switch Current
10
Current ( A )
Source Voltage
Gate Voltage
Voltage ( V )
10
10
12
14
16
Time ( ms )
Figure 3.4: Simulation of a voltage-controlled bidirectional current owing switch.
Source Voltage
Thyristor Current
Current ( A )
10
Gate Pulse
Voltage ( V )
10
10
12
14
Time ( ms )
Figure 3.5: Simulation of a simplied model for thyristors.
16
72
Source Voltage
GTO Current
Current ( A )
10
Gate Pulse
Voltage ( V )
10
10
12
14
Time ( ms )
Figure 3.6: Simulation of a simplied model for GTO's.
16
73
3.2. Simultaneous Solution for Voltage-Controlled Switches in EMTP-based Programs
74
3.2 Simultaneous Solution for Voltage-Controlled Switches

in EMTP-based Programs
The implementation of voltage-controlled bidirectional current owing switches in EMTPbased programs, in such a way that a simultaneous solution is found at each time step for
the controlling gate voltage and the voltage-controlled switch, can be done with the compensation method presented in Section 2.
The necessary equations are, for the controlling branch with the gate voltage,
vOP ENj + rj 1 i1 + :::

(3.1)
and for the voltage-controlled switch branch

(3.2)
where:
It is possible to assume as branch equations:
vj = Rin ij
(3.3)
and
vk = [vj (Ron
Roff ) + Roff )] ik
where:
Ron = On-state resistance, and
Roff = O-state resistance, for the voltage-controlled switch connected at branch k.
From equation 3.4 it is easy to verify that:
if vj = 1, then vk = Ronik ;
(3.4)
75
else if vj = 0, then vk = Roff ik .
Moreover,
if Ron = 0, then vk = 0;

else if Roff
! 1, then ik = 0.
In order to sense the gate control voltage, assume Rin ! 1, which results in
ij = 0
(3.5)
vOP ENk + rk1i1 + ::: + rkj ij + rkk ik + ::: + rkM iM +

+ [vj (Ron Roff ) + Roff )] ik = 0
(3.6)
which then can be solved with the implemented Newton-Raphson algorithm illustrated in
Fig. 2.19. Observe, however, that the voltage signal vj is calculated using equation 3.1 (i.e.,
vj = vOP ENj rj 1 i1 ::: rjj ij rjk ik ::: rjM iM ) in the solution algorithm, which is
always correct and less prone to numerical problems.
Assume, for example, the simple circuit with a simultaneous solution for a voltagecontrolled switch presented in Fig. 3.7. Applying an enabling control voltage signal (1V) at
the node gate, the switch turns on at the same time the enabling signal is received. When
the gating signal becomes zero (0V), the switch turns o at the corresponding same time,
as illustrated in Fig. 3.8. In the case of a conventional switch, as it is implemented in most
EMTP-based programs, the turn-on and turn-o would occur 1 time step later, as illustrated
in Fig. 3.9.
A similar approach has been proposed in [100] and [73] for the simultaneous solution
(also called "synchronized solution" in [73]) of voltage-controlled switches in EMTP-based
programs. Every time a switch changes its status, special computer techniques, such as, for
example, the Critical Damping Adjustment (CDA) [84], [85], would have to be triggered to
avoid numerical oscillation problems in the simulation of power electronic devices.
"Simultaneous"
VoltageControlled
Bidirectional
Switch
vsource
vgate
vsource = 10 sin( t ) [ V ]
vgate = 1 [ V ]
f = 60[ Hz ]
Figure 3.7: Circuit with \simultaneous solution" of a voltage-controlled switch.
Source Voltage
"Simultaneous" Switch Current
Current ( A )
10
Gate Pulse
Voltage ( V )
10
10
12
14
16
Time ( ms )
Figure 3.8: Simulation with simultaneous solution of a voltage-controlled switch.
76
12
"Simultaneous" Switch Current

10
EMTP Switch Current
Voltage ( V )
Current ( A )
Source Voltage
8
Gate Pulse
2
Time ( ms )
Figure 3.9: One time step delay in EMTP-based switches.
77
3.3. Implementation of Nonlinear Diode Model in EMTP-based Programs
78
3.3 Implementation of Nonlinear Diode Model in EMTPbased Programs

The use of simplied models for diodes, as for example, voltage-controlled switches and
piecewise linear representation, usually gives simulation results with acceptable accuracy for
most of the power system studies. However, according to [89], detailed nonlinear modelling
of semiconductors is needed to design snubbers and gate drive circuits. A detailed nonlinear
model for a diode is also needed in the synthesis of equivalent networks to represent, for
example, a bipolar transistor with the Ebers-Moll model [77], [101]. The semiconductor
diode, with its symbol shown in Fig. 3.10, is therefore, the most common nonlinear element
in power electronics.
ANODE
i (t)
v (t)
CATHODE
Figure 3.10: Diode symbol.

The terminal behavior of a diode [77], with respect to current and voltage as shown in
3.10, is described by
h
qv t
i(t) = Is e( kT )
( )
(3.7)
where:
i(t) is the current through the diode, from anode to cathode,
v (t) is the voltage across the diode, i.e., the potential dierence between the anode and
cathode terminals,
79
Is is a constant which depends on the physical properties of the diode, and is usually in the
range of 10 6 [A] to 10 9[A] 1 ,
q = 1:6022 10 19 C is the charge of an electron,
k = 1:3806 10 23 J= K is the Boltzmann's constant, and
T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin (273:16 K = 0 C ).
When the polarity of v (t) is as shown in Fig. 3.10, the diode is in the conducting region.
At 17 C 290 K , the constant VT kT=q 25mV . For v (t) < 3VT ( 75mV ),
i(t) Is . The value Is is usually referred to as the saturation current. If the diode
is forward biased with v (t) > 4VT (over 100mV ), equation 3.7 may be approximated by
i(t) = Is e(qv(t)=kT ) . Table 3.1 expresses the relationship between v (t)=VT and i(t)=Is , which
are derived from
i(t) =

v(t)
Is e VT
(3.8)
When a constant voltage V0 is applied to the diode, a constant current I0 ows through
it. The pair of values (V0 ; I0 ) is called the operating point of the diode. For each operating
point along the characteristic curve of the diode, one could dene a dynamic resistance of the
diode, which relates increments of the voltage to the increments of the current (dv (t)=di(t)
for v (t) = V0 and i(t) = I0 ). For higher frequencies, additional physical eects come into
play and the diode may no longer be treated as a simple nonlinear resistor. Charges stored
in the semiconductor material will also require the inclusion of \dynamic capacitive eects"
in the nonlinear model of a diode. The value of the capacitance is, in general, a function of
the voltage across the diode. The reader is referred to [77], [101] and other references for
further details. Reference [89], (pp. 71-1 to 71-7), discuss the PN junction diode switching
characteristics, including a sub-circuit for a diode model with reverse recovery.
In this thesis project, the compensation method presented in Section 2.2, with a NewtonRhapson solution algorithm, is used for the solution of the nonlinear model of a diode. Inversion of the diode characteristic curve from equation 3.8 and inclusion of a series resistance
Rout results in branch equation 3.10, which is solved together with the linear network equa1 Actually, Is is temperature dependent and may assume default values of 10 14[A] at 27C [101].
80
Table 3.1: Comparison between voltage and current in a diode as a function of its parametric values.
v(t)
VT
i(t)
Is
..
.
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
..
.
..
.
1095.633
402.429
147.413
53.898
19.086
6.389
1.718
0
-0.632
-0.865
-0.950
-0.982
-0.983
-0.998
-0.999
..
.
tion 3.9 to determine the operating point of the diode for a particular network condition, as
illustrated in Fig. 3.11:
vOP ENk + rk1 i1 + : : : + rkk ik + : : : + rkM iM + vk = 0

vk = VT ln
h
ik
Is
+1
i
+ Rout ik
(3.9)
(3.10)
where:
vk = voltage of branch k, i.e., voltage across the diode (the potential dierence vanode
vcathode ) plus the voltage drop across the series resistance Rout .
ik = current through the diode, i.e., the current owing from the anode to the cathode
terminal.
Rout = series resistance for the diode model (which may be assumed to be equal zero).
81
Linear Network Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

2
vOPEN (t)
Nonlinear Diode Characteristic
Voltage ( V )
iSC (t)
SC
(t) = vOPEN (t) / (rkk + Rout )
Resulting nonlinear equation to be solved

with the NewtonRaphson method
3
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
Current ( A )
Figure 3.11: V-I diode characteristic and network Thevenin equivalent circuit equation.
Inserting equation 3.10 into equation 3.9 results in:
vOP ENk + rk1 i1 + : : :

h
i
: : : + [rkk + Rout ] ik + VT ln Iiks + 1 + : : : + rkM iM = 0
(3.11)
A general circuit representation of equation 3.11 is illustrated in Fig. 3.12.

Equation 3.11 is solved iteratively at each time step. Note that the Thevenin equivalent
circuit equation changes from step to step, with a change in vOP EN (t), and in general with a
change in the Thevenin equivalent resistance (slope dv=di). Fig. 3.13 illustrates this, where
it is assumed, for simplicity, that the Thevenin equivalent resistance does not change along
the simulation time.
The iterative solution with the Newton-Raphson algorithm requires an initial guess. Depending on how close the initial guess is to the nal solution, convergence can be very fast or
82
ik
[ rTHEV k ]
vOPEN k
Rout
vk
vT ln ( ik / Is + 1 )
Figure 3.12: Circuit implementation for the simultaneous solution of a nonlinear diode model.
3
Network Thevenin
equivalent at time "t"
v
OPEN
(t)
VI Diode nonlinear
characteristic
Voltage ( V )
i
1
SC
(t)
3
3
Current ( A )
Figure 3.13: V-I diode characteristic and dierent network Thevenin equivalents.
83
on the contrary, convergence can be very slow for some cases, or numerical problems such as
computer over ow may even arise. Therefore, it is important to derive a heuristic computer
technique for initial guesses, to accommodate the highly nonlinear exponential characteristic
of a diode, and speed up the convergence of the solution. A robust rule should be general
and insensitive to the network or diode parameters. The detailed development of such a
technique for implementation in EMTP-based programs is presented in the following.
A simple inspection of Fig. 3.11 reveals some \physical" candidates for the initial guess of
the nonlinear diode current, associated with the network conditions, i.e., with the particular
linear network Thevenin equivalent circuit:
ik =
ik =
vOPENk
rkk +Rout )
v
OPENk
Is e VT
(3.12)

ik = Is
(3.13)
(3.14)
Equation 3.12 is the short circuit current ikSC , which becomes the initial guess for the
diode current ik in the conduction mode. Then,
if vOP ENk 0 and vOP ENk > VT ln
h
ikSC
Is
i
+ 1 , the initial current is assumed to be

equal to ikSC , as calculated with equation 3.12.
If vOP ENk 0 and vOP ENk VT ln
h
ikSC
Is
i
+ 1 , then the voltage across the diode is

rst estimated to be equal to vOP ENk , and a better estimate for the current is calculated
with equation 3.13 (Another simple alternative would be just to assume ik = 0);
On the other hand, if vOP ENk < 0 and vOP ENk 6:0VT , then again the voltage
across the diode is rst estimated to be equal to vOP ENk , and the initial current is then
calculated with equation 3.13;
If vOP ENk < 0 and vOP ENk < 6:0VT , then the diode current is assumed to be as
calculated with equation 3.14. Alternatively, one could use a linear function instead of
using equation 3.14.
84
There are other possibilities for the initialization of the variables when a Newton-Raphson
method is being used [77]. For example, piecewise linear approximations could be used rst
to determine the initial guess (either for the current or for the voltage across the diode) and
then, the linear characteristic would be replaced by the detailed nonlinear equation. This
approach might be useful for speeding up the solution of networks with multiple nonlinear
elements, such as diodes, transistors, etc.
A two-slope piecewise linear approximation of the diode characteristic is accurate enough
in many cases. Even though the equations are linear in that case it is not known a priori
on which segment the solution ends up. This is particularly true if there are many diodes
to be solved. The production code of MicroTran still uses the Newton-Raphson method for
the two-slope piecewise linear representation, which will then decide, iteratively, the solution
points for the N diodes. Theoretically, there is no guarantee that the iterations will converge
in such cases, but by limiting the new voltages and currents to technically reasonable values,
the method has so far converged in all tested cases, with up to 6 diodes.
The use of linear piecewise or detailed nonlinear models of electronics semiconductors
might also be a requirement for the correct solution of commutation phenomena in power
electronics circuits. \In circuits with gate turn-o thyristors (GTO's), commutation of the
current into a diode must often be instantaneous, without any current interruption. An
example for such situation is the buck-boost (step-down/up dc-dc) converter shown in `Fig.
3.14 [93]' and the half-wave rectier circuit with a freewheeling diode in `Fig. 3.15'. ... If
the diode is represented as a switch which closes when the voltage from anode to cathode
becomes positive (either built into the code as in MicroTran, or controlled in this way
through TACS), then the positive voltage àcross the diode' will only be seen in the next
time step immediately following the time step in which the GTO turned o. This is one time
step too late, because the current in the GTO would already have dropped to zero." [95],
[78]. Therefore, EMTP-type simulation of \instantaneous commutation" with simple switch
models might give wrong results in the case of switching converters. User knowledge of the
commutation process can be used to pre-dene the switches which will have simultaneous
commutation [78], but it may not work for all cases. A better option is the compensation
method used in this work, which assures a simultaneous solution of all equations [95].

GTO
85
DIODE
Figure 3.14: Dc-dc converter.

DIODE 1
v = 155 sin( t ) [ V ]
DIODE 2
- 50 [ V ]
Figure 3.15: Half-wave rectier with freewheeling diode.

To illustrate the solution method presented here, assume, for example, the simple electric
circuit with a nonlinear diode as in Fig. 3.16, where the basic parameters for the diode are:
Is = 10 12 [A] and VT = 0:026[V ]. The time response solution for this circuit is presented
in Fig. 3.17. Fig. 3.18 shows the detail of the diode current at the zero crossing 2 , whereas
Fig. 3.19 presents the V-I nonlinear characteristic of the diode resulting from the EMTP
simulation. The average number of iterations with the Newton-Raphson algorithm, and
using the proposed heuristic technique for initial guess, was 1 for this case, assuming a
convergence tolerance error of less than 10 10 for the resulting nonlinear equation, and also
forcing at least 1 iteration in the algorithm.
Detailed modelling of other semiconductor devices, such as bipolar transistors, eld ef2 The modelling of the reverse recovery current would require improvements in the nonlinear diode model,
as for example the inclusion of the junction capacitance, which is also nonlinear and voltage dependent [77],
[101].
86
1
iDIODE
Vmax = 2 [V]
f = 60 [Hz]
vDIODE
Figure 3.16: Electric circuit with a nonlinear diode model.

3
Current ( A )
Diode Current
Diode Voltage
Volltage ( V )
10
12
14
16
Time ( ms )
Figure 3.17: Transient simulation of a nonlinear diode model in an EMTP-based program.

fect transistors, etc. can be accomplished with the \synthesis of equivalent networks" (subcircuits) using nonlinear diodes, dependent sources, voltage-dependent capacitances and resistances [101], [77]. The Ebers-Moll model of a bipolar transistor, or more complex models
(Gummel-Poon) could be used as well, but their description is beyond the scope of this
thesis project. The use of macromodels, based on functional terminal conditions, can also
be derived with the interconnection of circuit elements, especially with the use of the dependent sources presented in Section 2.2. Piecewise linear approximations can also be used
to model device characteristics, but one should be aware of the fact that even though the
12
x 10
Is=1.0E12 [A]
Diode Current
8.5
Time ( ms )

2
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
2
7.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
2
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
Current ( A )
0.8
1.2
9.5
1.4
Figure 3.19: V-I nonlinear characteristic of the diode resulting from the EMTP simulation.
87
Figure 3.18: Detail of the transient simulation of a nonlinear diode model in an EMTP-based program.
Current ( A )
Voltage ( V )
3.4. Control Modelling Aspects of Power Electronic Devices
88
approximations are continuous from segment to segment, the derivatives are discontinuous.
Spline tting techniques can then be used to approximate the device characteristic by separate low-order polynomials between adjacent segments, with the cubic spline being the most
popular one [77].
3.4 Control Modelling Aspects of Power Electronic Devices

The digital simulation of control devices for power electronics applications, such as rectiers, inverters, DC-DC converters, AC-AC converters, motor drives, etc. is made challenging
because of the more frequent use of mixed analog and (real-time) digital signal processing
(DSP) control techniques.
The derivation of reliable system references requires a growing number of digital and
analog components. Their modelling can, in general, not be simplied without compromising the simulation accuracy and stability. For example, signal sensoring and zero crossing
prediction or detection usually requires an appropriate use of signal ltering, either through
analog design (operational ampliers, resistances and capacitances) or its respective digital
implementation. However, in the simulation of DSP controls it is important to pay attention
to the digital sampling frequency with respect to the selection of the time step size (t).
System frequency tracking requires the use of appropriate phase-locked loop (PLL) controls, which are of fundamental importance for the control of high power electronics applications, such as FACTS and Custom Power Controllers [90].
Pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques, which are commonly used in voltage-sourced
and current-sourced converters, require particular attention in digital implementations, due
to the discrete nature of computer simulation programs, where the time step size may aect
the results of discrete binary comparators, thus in uencing the simulation results.
Special transformation of variables into other reference systems (e.g., abc to 0 transformation, which is used in active lter control), requires a simultaneous solution of control and
system equations. Digital simulation of hysteresis eects, limits (windup and non-windup)
3.4. Control Modelling Aspects of Power Electronic Devices
89
and various non-linearities in the control system also requires appropriate models for a successful computer simulation.
Moreover, with variations in the supply voltage caused by power system disturbances,
the control, ideally, should be able to actively withstand and support its primary regulation
functions without disrupting the electric supply to the controlled load. However, in most
practical power quality cases, typically related to voltage sag problems, power electronicsbased loads (i.e., their control) are either extremely sensitive to momentary voltage variations
causing frequent shut-downs in industrial process operation, or improper designs may become
the cause of many power quality problems.
As part of this thesis project, \basic control devices" were experimentally implemented
in MicroTran. The main advantage of this development, compared to TACS (Transient
Analysis of Control System) used by many other EMTP versions, is that a \true simultaneous solution" is found through the compensation method using a Newton-Raphson iteration
scheme. Therefore, provided that appropriate computer techniques are used to allow convergence in the solution, this method has been shown to be very robust for the cases simulated
up to now, and does not have the 1 time step delay present in the interface of EMTP and
TACS and also does not have any internal delays in the linear and non-linear control solution.
With graphical user-interfaces for MicroTran, it would become easy to dene libraries of
control devices as well as of power components (and sub-circuits, similarly as in [65], [102],
[103]), in such a way that no dierentiation between power and control circuit will then
be necessary, since a unique simultaneous solution approach would be used, based on the
method and algorithm presented in this Ph.D. thesis.
Chapter 4
Evaluation of the Impact of Power
Electronic Devices on the Quality of
Power
HE analysis of the dynamic interaction between power electronic devices and power
systems and the assessment of electric power quality phenomena can be thoroughly
done with EMTP-based programs. The objective of this Ph.D. thesis research project was
to develop reasonably accurate models for EMTP-based programs, with which one could
evaluate the impact of high power electronic devices on the quality of power. To make the
thesis results more valuable to utilities and industries, the following practical tasks were
carried out:
Cooperation with a utility company in Brazil, ELEKTRO - Eletricidade e Servicos

S. A. 1 , which kindly agreed to provide data and real power quality problem cases
to validate simulation results. Financial support for this cooperation was provided
by CAPES 2 , a federal agency of the Brazilian Government, for a eld activity at
ELEKTRO with the duration of three months.
Appropriate models for time-domain simulations using EMTP-based programs were

applied to simulate some of the real power quality problems experienced by ELEKTRO.
1 ELEKTRO - Eletricidade e Servicos S. A. , Rua Ary Antenor de Souza, 321 - Jardim Nova America,
CEP 13053-024, Campinas-S. P. , BRAZIL.
2 CAPES - Fundac~ao Coordenac~ao de Aperfeicoamento de Pessoal de Nvel Superior, Esplanada dos
Ministerios, Anexo I, Sala 215, Caixa Postal 00365, CEP 70047-900, Braslia - D. F. , BRAZIL.
90
4.1. Dynamic Interaction between Power Electronic Devices and Power Systems
91
Based on the power quality monitoring and simulations, a synthesis of simulation

guidelines for power quality evaluation was developed, with emphasis to determine the
dynamic interaction between power electronic devices and the power systems, through
the use of time and frequency-domain techniques with EMTP-based programs.
This chapter presents some simulation cases of power quality assessment with the use of
the existing features of MicroTran, the UBC version of the EMTP. The simultaneous solution of control and electric power system equations (SSCPS), with the new circuit approach
presented in Chapter 2 and with the models developed for the dynamic control of power
semiconductor devices presented in Chapter 3, are illustrated through practical control and
power electronics controllers simulation cases. Important simulation guidelines for the evaluation of the impact of power electronic devices on the quality of power are also summarized
in this Chapter.
4.1 Dynamic Interaction between Power Electronic Devices and Power Systems
The interaction between the utility supply system and power electronics-based loads,
(such as electronic converter controlled electric motor drives), depends on a variety of factors
[104], as for example:
1. the type of \front-end" electronic converter, which converts line-frequency AC into DC
(diode-bridge rectiers (which are unidirectional in power ow), switch mode converters
(in which, power ow can be reversed), thyristors converters (which can be made
bidirectional in power ow);
2. the number of phases (single-phase, three-phase) from the supply system used by the
converter, and the converter conguration (e.g., 6, 12, 24, 48, etc. pulses converters),
which also aects the waveform current distortion;
3. the \strength" (or \stiness") of the utility system, determined by its \short-circuit
power";
92
4. the number of power electronics based loads, the point of their connection in the
network, and the electric power of electronic converters, which will in uence their
impact on the electric supply system and vice-versa;
5. the design and control of the electronic converter. The choice of parameters and components, particularly in cases where low-cost choices are made, can cause a deterioration
on the quality of power of the utility system. On the other hand, the converter operation (i.e., its control) can easily be disrupted by power system disturbances travelling
through the utility network, as is very common in the case of sensitive loads.
The most common lower-power electronics based load uses a single-phase diode-bridge
rectier [94], [104] which draws highly distorted waveshape current from the utility system,
and may cause harmonic associated problems, such as:
overheating in neutral conductors due to the ow of high third harmonic currents;
voltage distortion along the distribution circuits;
increase in power losses;
risk of resonances with utility or industry power factor correction capacitor banks, etc.
This type of rectier only draws current close to the maximum peak of the \assumed sinusoidal" utility voltage source, in order to recharge the capacitor lter on the DC side of the
rectier. To illustrate that, Fig. 4.1 presents a typical single-phase diode bridge rectier [93],
[94], [95], [104] 3 , where Ls1 represents the system Thevenin equivalent inductance (resistance
ignored here) and Ls2 represents any series inductance added in the AC side of the rectier.
Assume that the diodes are ideal and the circuit has been energized a long time ago, such
that the DC capacitor lter has already been charged (i.e., the transient energization has
gone and \stead state waveforms" are present). Note, from Fig. 4.2 , that the current is
(and consequently id ) only starts to ow during the positive semicycle of the source voltage,
when vSA is greater than the voltage vdc (i.e., when diodes 1 and 2 are forward biased at
3 Reference [95] presents useful guidelines on power electronics applications using the EMTP.
93
time t1 ). Conversely, during the negative subcycle, when vSA is less than vdc , the current is
starts to ow (i.e., when diodes 3 and 4 are forward biased at time t4 ), with id = is owing
in the same direction, corresponding then to the electronic current rectication process).
Fig.4.3 presents the harmonic amplitude spectrum of the current drawn from the source by
a single-phase diode-bridge rectier.
id
vSA
Ls1
vPCC
D1
Ls2
is
0.5 mH
D3
vA
0.5 mH
vdc
Vmax = 169.7 [V]

f = 60 [Hz]
D4
1000 F
20
D2
-
Figure 4.1: Circuit with a single-phase diode-bridge rectier.
To better understand the waveform voltage distortions caused by a single-phase diodebridge rectier, one can apply the Kirchho's second law to the circuit of Fig. 4.1, and
derive the following equations,
vSA
vL
vA = 0
(4.1)
vL = vL1 + vL2 = Ls1 didt + Ls2 didt

= (Ls1 + Ls2 ) didts = L didts
1
where:
vL = voltage across the total inductance L = Ls1 + Ls2 ,
i1 = i2 = is .
(4.2)
200
150
100
50
50
100
150
200
t1
t4
10
SA
15
is
20
25
vdc
Time ( ms )
vA = vSA
Ls1
30
dis
dt
35
40
vA
45
50
94
(4.3)
(4.4)
input, vA , and in the point of common coupling (PCC), vP CC , where many other loads may
4 As a matter of fact, many DC-DC electronic converters rely on the inductor physical properties during
switching transients, to either step voltages up (boost) or step voltages down (buck).
From Fig. 4.4 it can be seen that the inductances in uence the rate of change (and consequently the waveshape) of the current, such that is starts to grow exponentially, reaching a
maximum peak value when the voltage across the inductance is zero, after which vL changes
its polarity (because the derivative of the current changes its signal 4 ) physically trying to
keep the current owing until the current nally becomes zero. Following the equations 4.3,
4.4 and Fig. 4.4 one can easily understand the voltage waveforms distortions in the rectier
vP CC = vSA
dis
dt
Therefore, the following voltages can be dened:
Figure 4.2: Current drawn from the source by a single-phase diode-bridge rectier.
Current ( A )
Voltage ( V )
95
30
25
RMS Current ( A )
20
15
Third Harmonic Component

10
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Harmonic Order
Figure 4.3: Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the current drawn from the source by a single-phase diodebridge rectier.
be connected and may be aected by the waveform voltage distortion. Fig.4.5 presents the
harmonic amplitude spectrum of the voltage at the PCC.
In a four-wire, three-phase system with \well balanced" loads, composed by single-phase
diode bridge rectiers, as illustrated in Fig. 4.6, the current owing through the neutral
conductor has mainly third harmonic components (i.e, 180Hz, for a 60Hz fundamental) as
shown in Fig. 4.7 and Fig. 4.8. Observe that the third harmonic component of the neutral
current in Fig.4.8 is approximately 3 times the third harmonic component of the current of
a single-phase diode-bridge rectier as illustrated in Fig.4.3. These high currents may cause
overheating in the neutral conductor (usually designed with a smaller cross section than the
phase conductors), thereby creating a potential hazardous risk, such as re.
The widespread use of this type of inexpensive rectier, usually as the front end of low
power appliances, such as television sets, computers and compact uorescent lamps (CFL)
200
150
100
50
50
100
150
200
vSA
vLs1
vA
vPCC
Time ( ms )
10
12
14
5 The help of Mr. Kenneth Wicks in doing this measurement is gratefully acknowledged.
16
96
(which are used more and more because of its higher energy eciency), can have a cumulative
negative eect on the quality of power supplied to residential, commercial and industrial
customers [105] . For example, Fig. 4.9 and Fig. 4.10 present the voltage waveshape
measured with a digital oscilloscope at the outlet of the Power Electronics Laboratory of
the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at UBC, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
5
. The waveshape distortion is probably caused by the large number of computers in the
building, as well as in the entire university. It also aects, presently with minor consequences,
all the other loads in the building supplied from the same common bus, and eventually, also
propagates through the BC Hydro electric supply system. Fig. 4.11 and Fig. 4.12 show
the results of a Fourier analysis of the outlet voltage curve (the DC component present in
the harmonic amplitude spectrum at Fig. 4.11 might be caused by inaccuracies or dc osets
in the measuring equipment). Although, according to the present standards [48], [49], such
Figure 4.4: Current through and voltage across the total inductance, and voltage waveform distortion at
the point of common coupling (PCC).
Current ( A )
Voltage ( V )
97
100
90
Percentage of Fundamental ( % )
80
70
60
Fund = 119.6844 Volts

RMS = 119.9200 Volts
Creast Factor = 1.3851
Min = 166.1000 Volts
Max = 166.1000 Volts
THD = 6.2778 %
HRMS = 7.5136 Volts
TIF / IT = 121.8154
50
40
30
20
10
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Harmonic Order
Figure 4.5: Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the voltage waveform distortion at the point of common
coupling (PCC).
isa
Vmax = 169.7 [V]
10 -6
f = 60 [Hz]
isc
diode
bridge
diode
bridge
iNEUTRAL
diode
bridge
isb
vSB
vSA
vSC
Figure 4.6: Four-wire, three-phase system with \balanced" single-phase diode-bridge rectiers.
harmonic voltage distortions are usually within acceptable limits, other sensitive equipment
may be aected, and better alternatives for power conversion are actually available.
200
150
100
50
50
100
150
200
5
10
vSA
15
20
30
Neutral
25
Time ( ms )
35
40
Figure 4.7: Current owing through the neutral conductor.
45
50
98
The choice of a power electronic converter is based on its intended application and on the
price. With the introduction of more strict standards for power quality, and with growing
concerns about the dynamic interaction between power electronic devices and the power
system, new technologies with less impact and/or less susceptibility to power disturbances
are gaining market acceptance. Examples are active lters and other dynamic compensating
Single- or three-phase controlled thyristor converters can also adversely aect the quality of power, due to their distorted current waveforms, the notching of the input voltage
waveform caused by the commutation among the thyristors, and the poor power factor.
By using, for example, step-up (boost) DC-DC converters (consisting of IGBT's switching at high frequency with PWM control techniques, free wheeling diodes and inductors),
in connection with diode-bridge rectiers, power factor corrected (PFC) interfaces can be
designed. Such PFC circuits are able to draw almost sinusoidal currents at close to unity
power factor.
Current ( A )
Voltage ( V )
99
30
Third Harmonic Component

25
RMS Current ( A )
20
15
10
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Harmonic Order
Figure 4.8: Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the current owing through the neutral conductor.
devices.
For a proper identication and solution of power quality problems, transient and steadystate analysis are needed, which include models not only for the power electronics but also
the power system part, because of the dynamic interaction between them. Power electronics
based loads can either be the cause of problems in the power system, or they can be adversely
aected by electromagnetic transient phenomena coming from the power system. Reference
[24] presents the fundamental denition of electromagnetic phenomena aecting the electric
power quality, with realistic cases and practical monitoring results and examples of power
disturbances, such as:
Voltage sags and interruptions;
Transient overvoltages;
Harmonics;
100
Phase Voltage
200
150
100
Voltage ( V )
50
50
100
150
200
10
12
14
16
time ( ms )
Figure 4.9: Voltage waveshape measured at the outlet of the Power Electronics Laboratory of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at UBC, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
Long duration voltage variation;
Wiring and grounding practices.
Voltage sags are by far the most common cause of disruption of operation of power electronics based loads, such as electronically controlled motor drives. Many industrial processes
(e.g. pulp and paper, textile, automotive, etc.) rely on accurate speed and torque control
through the use of power electronics, and thus become more or less vulnerable and susceptible to power quality problems depending on the sensitivity of these devices. This is actually
at the heart of many power quality problems!
It is also common that utility capacitor switching creates high frequency transients,
which may propagate through the distribution system and cause amplied transient voltage
oscillations in low voltage power factor capacitor banks in industry [106]. The commutation
of thyristors in current source inverter (CSI) adjustable speed drives (ASD) in industrial
101
Phase Voltage
200
Measured Phase Voltage
150
100
Voltage ( V )
50
Fundamental Voltage
50
Harmonic Distortion
100
150
200
10
12
14
16
time ( ms )
Figure 4.10: Measured voltage waveshape, its fundamental component and its harmonic distortion.
plants may excite natural resonance modes of weak distribution and other industrial systems,
causing high frequency oscillations in the voltages and, consequently, \nuisance tripping" of
sensitive loads. [107].
Resonances tend to occur more frequently as more power factor and voltage support
capacitor banks are used in the system, mainly to control voltage on transmission or distribution lines. Typically, the 5th order harmonic current commonly \injected" into the power
system by traditional power electronics converters, has the potential to cause problems, such
as capacitors failures. The importance of power quality then depends on its economic impact on the industry, the utility, the society, and the country. Appropriate means to predict
problems in the early design stage or to diagnose and mitigate problems in existing systems
becomes a very important task of \power quality engineers".
EMTP-based programs, because of many available computer models for power systems
and power electronics, have become a necessary engineering tool for the evaluation of the
102
Harmonic Amplitude Spectrum

2.5
Fundamental = 100%
Percent of Fundamental ( % )
1.5
0.5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Harmonic Order
Figure 4.11: Harmonic amplitude spectrum of the outlet waveshape voltage.

impact of power electronic devices on the quality of power. An extensive literature survey
about EMTP-based models for time and frequency domain analysis of electric and electronic
power systems can be found in [92], [6], [2], and elsewhere. Specialized conferences, such as
the International Power System Transients Conference (IPST) held every two years, provide
opportunities to exchange information about new techniques and practical experiences in
the use of EMTP-based programs.
103
Harmonic Phase Angle

150
100
degrees ( )
50
50
100
150
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Harmonic Order
Figure 4.12: Phase-angle of the harmonic components of the outlet waveshape voltage.
4.2. Power Quality Assessment through EMTP-based Programs
104
4.2 Power Quality Assessment through EMTP-based

Programs
This section presents some real cases of power quality assessment through EMTP-based
simulations. Field test measurements made by the author and comparisons with time and
frequency domain computer analysis are also shown for some of the cases. Section 4.2.1
presents a harmonics case study. Section 4.2.2 presents a voltage sag case study. Section 4.2.3
is concerned with visual light icker caused by voltage uctuations.
4.2.1
Induction Furnace Harmonic Study
The problem of harmonic analysis in power systems is usually studied with steady-state
solution techniques, which use linear solutions at the harmonic frequencies. The characteristic harmonic spectra of non-linear loads are assumed to be known, and are modeled
as current sources at the respective harmonic frequency. In reality, the harmonic current
sources are not exactly known, because they depend on the behaviour of the power system
as well. For example, harmonics from transformer saturation clearly depend on the voltage
magnitude and waveform at the transformer terminal. Only time domain simulations of
the EMTP type can address the interaction between the system and the harmonic sources,
which can result in non-characteristic harmonics as well. Time domain simulations can also
be useful to develop other types of power quality studies, such as fault analysis, transient
impulses caused by switching utility capacitor banks, diagnosing the eects of special loads
into the system, troubleshooting the failure of sensitive loads, evaluating the application of
\Custom Power" devices as solutions to power quality problems, etc.
This section presents an application of the EMTP in a distribution system study, where
the harmonics injected into a distribution feeder by induction furnaces were the prime concern for power quality. It is taken from a harmonic problem experienced by ELEKTRO Eletricidade e Servicos S. A. 6 , an electric utility in the southeast of Brazil. The three-phase
power system with a digital model of the induction furnace as a power electronic load was
6 ELEKTRO - Eletricidade e Servicos S. A. , Rua Ary Antenor de Souza, 321 - Jardim Nova America,
CEP 13053-024, Campinas, S. P. , BRAZIL.
105
simulated with the EMTP over a time span which was long enough to reach steady state.
Voltage and current waveforms were then analyzed with a Fourier analysis program to obtain
the harmonic content of the distorted waveforms. Field measurements at the point of common coupling between the utility and the industry are presented as well. Electromagnetic
transients programs are more accurate in representing nonlinear eects of the supply system,
and allow more detailed modelling of power electronic loads and devices, than steady-state
harmonic programs. Power electronics and power quality have such a strong correlation that
can only be fully described and analyzed with the use of time domain simulation techniques.
Induction heating has gained wide acceptance in industry because this type of heating process is considered clean, quick and ecient. On the other hand, the use of power
electronic devices for induction heating introduces harmonic currents, causing voltage distortions in the electric supply network. The dynamic interaction of these harmonics with the
electric system in terms of system conguration, loading and other conditions, may result
in linear resonances, or even in undesirable steady-state conditions, which all can result in
misoperation, failure and life reduction of equipment, with consequent economical losses.
Induction furnaces are power electronics-based loads, where the heat in the electrically
conducting workpiece to be melted is produced by circulating currents through electromagnetic induction. Series or parallel-resonant inverters are typical congurations used to supply
energy to the induction coil, at a selected frequency, which can be in a range varying from
the power system frequency to a few hundred kilohertz [94]. Figs. 4.13 (a) and (b) illustrate
an induction furnace in operation.
The operation of these induction furnaces has produced distortions in the current and
voltage waveforms, and has created incompatibility problems between these special loads and
other sensitive loads connected on the same distribution feeder. Changes in the conguration
of the power supply system as well as application of passive lters, have minimized the
eects, but have not completely eliminated the harmonics power quality problem. Field
measurements have been made for dierent operating conditions to evaluate the eectiveness
of the already installed harmonic passive lters.
(a)
106
(b)
Figure 4.13: (a) Metal melting by an induction furnace. (b) Induction furnace operation.
(a) History of the Induction Furnace Harmonic Problem

This section summarizes the actions taken by ELEKTRO - Eletricidade e Servicos S. A. ,
in assisting an industrial customer to deal with the harmonic problem created by the operation of induction furnaces in a distribution system. The problem emerged after a customer
complained that its sensitive loads (computer-based loads) were suering from the poor quality of the utility-supplied power. Coincidentally, this customer was connected to the same
feeder where one of the industrial plants of the same customer had been operating induction furnaces. At that time, a harmonic problem was detected and the sensitive load was
connected to a feeder from another substation. It was also recommended to the customer
to provide corrective ltering of the injected harmonic currents from the induction furnaces.
Since there was no clear regulation about this issue at that time, and because of the economic
costs involved, the solution was postponed by the customer.
Two years later, the utility installed a 9.0 MVAr capacitor bank in the same substation
supplying this customer. Resonance eects caused overcurrents in this capacitor bank, which
led the utility to change the capacitor digital overcurrent protection relays to electromechanical relays. After that, the protection fuses of the customer's capacitor banks started to blow.
The utility's capacitor bank was turned o until another 25/30 MVA-138/13.8kV transformer
was later installed in the substation. Then, measurements were made after the utility capac-
107
itor bank was connected to a dierent bus bar from the feeder that supplies the induction
furnaces customer.
In August 1995, new measurements were made at the substation, especially on the feeder
supplying the induction furnaces [108]. Fig. 4.14 shows the feeder current at the moment
of maximum harmonic distortion. Sometimes later, the customer installed 4th and 5th order
harmonic tuned passive lters, with an economic motivation imposed by a new Brazilian
power factor legislation, which essentially changed from a minimum monthly average power
factor of 0.85 to a minimum hourly average of 0.92 (inductive limit from 06:00am to 12:00
midnight and capacitive limit from 12:00 midnight to 06:00am). Measurements were made in
1998 to verify the system overall performance on this feeder and in the respective distribution
substation.
LIM_IV
August 29, 1995 at 20:40:49 GMT
Phase B Current
SS Wave
600
Fund
192.7
RMS
235.6
400
200
CF
Amps
0
-200
Min
-400
-600
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Time (mSeconds)
2.091
-492.6
Max
487.2
THD
70.41
HRMS
135.7
TIF/IT 101821
120
100
80
Amps
60
40
20
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Harmonic
BMI/Electrotek
Figure 4.14: Current measurements in a distribution feeder supplying induction furnaces at the time of
maximum voltage distortion.
(b) Harmonic Measurements

Harmonic measurements were made at the point of common coupling (PCC) between
the utility and the induction furnace customer, with modern monitoring equipment of the
type \Dranetz/BMI-PQNode 8010 and 8020", which acquires 256 samples per cycle (60Hz)
in each of the voltage channels, and 128 samples per cycle (60Hz) in each of the current
108
channels. With this equipment, it is possible to monitor power quality phenomena such as
voltage sags, voltage swells, outages, cold load pick-up, transient impulses, waveshape faults,
harmonic distortions and frequency deviations [15], [108], [43].
The following gures illustrate some of the harmonic measurements made in March/April
1998. Fig. 4.15 (a) shows the phase \A" measured current and Fig. 4.15 (b) shows the measured voltage between phases A and B, with their respective harmonic amplitude spectrum.
Both measurements were taken at a particular time when the induction furnace operation
was with the 4th and 5th order harmonic passive lters turned o (see Fig. 4.17).
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
10
20
30
40
50
Time (mSeconds)
60
70
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
20000
10000
0
-10000
-20000
-30000
% Fund
Amps
Fund 198.9
204.8
RMS
1.531
CF
Min -308.5
313.4
Max
18.89
THD
HRMS 37.58
TIF/IT52660
April 01, 1998 at 03:58:49 Local

M_V
Phase A-B Voltage
SS Wave
Volts
Amps
April 01, 1998 at 03:58:49 Local

M_V
Phase A Current
SS Wave
10
15
20
Harmonic
(a)
25
30
BMI/Electrotek
10
20
30
40
50
Time (mSeconds)
60
70
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
15
20
Harmonic
25
Fund 13557
13592
RMS
1.489
CF
Min -20237
Max
19805
THD
7.172
HRMS 972.3
TIF/IT 234.9
30
BMI/Electrotek
(b)
Figure 4.15: (a) Phase \A" current measured with harmonic passive lters turned o. (b) Phase-to-phase
\A-B" voltage measured with harmonic passive lters turned o.
Figs. 4.16 (a) and (b) illustrate the same measurements, but during an operating condition when the 4th and 5th harmonic passive lters were turned on (see Fig. 4.18).
The melting process inside the induction furnaces aects the total harmonic distortion
(THD) of the measured voltage at the point of common coupling very strongly. Fig. 4.17
shows the THD historic trend during one regular day of work, with the 4th and 5th harmonic
passive lters turned o from about 12:00 midnight to 06:00am. This THD trend presents a
characteristic variation along the day, depending on the load cycle at the industry. During
the time when the harmonic lters were turned o (from about 12:00 midnight to 06:00am)
10
20
15
20
Harmonic
30
40
50
Time (mSeconds)
10
60
25
70
Fund 198.7
RMS
199.0
CF
1.515
Min -301.5
Max
294.2
THD
5.585
HRMS 11.10
TIF/IT24637
BMI/Electrotek
30
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
-5000
-10000
-15000
-20000
-25000
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
10
(b)
15
20
Harmonic
30
40
50
Time (mSeconds)
10
20
25
60
Fund 14011
RMS
14037
CF
1.431
Min -20083
Max
19896
THD
2.589
HRMS 362.7
TIF/IT 115.1
109
BMI/Electrotek
30
70
April 09, 1998 at 03:30:40 Local

M_V
Phase A-B Voltage
SS Wave
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
(a)
Volts
13:19:03
14:29:04
15:39:04
17:58:59
19:08:59
20:19:00
21:29:01
22:38:53
23:48:54
00:58:55
02:08:56
03:18:48
04:28:49
05:38:50
06:48:51
07:58:51
09:08:45
10:18:46
11:28:46
THD (%)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
12:09:10
From these charts it is possible to conclude that passive lters can minimize the harmonic
voltage distortions, but not eliminate them completely. New power electronic devices such
Figure 4.17: THD harmonic trend, with harmonic passive lters turned o from 12:00 midnight to 06:00am.
16:49:05
it is easy to see a substantial increase in the THD values. Fig. 4.18 presents the THD historic
trend for another operating condition, with the 4th and 5th harmonic lters turned on during
all the time.
Figure 4.16: (a) Phase \A" current measured with harmonic passive lters turned on. (b) Phase-to-phase
\A-B" voltage measured with harmonic passive lters turned on.
% Fund
April 09, 1998 at 03:30:40 Local

M_V
Phase A Current
SS Wave
Amps
Amps
16:40:48
17:50:49
19:00:50
20:10:42
21:20:43
22:30:44
23:40:44
00:50:38
02:00:39
03:10:39
04:20:40
05:30:41
14:20:54
15:30:47
THD (%)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
13:10:54
06:40:33
07:50:34
09:00:35
10:10:36
11:20:28
Voltage < 69kV : THD

= 6%
max
Odd
Even
Order
Value % Order Value %
3, 5, 7
5
2, 4, 6
2
9, 11, 13
3
8
1
15 to 25
2
27
1
Voltage 69kV : THD

= 3%
max
Odd
Even
Order
Value % Order Value %
3, 5, 7
2
2, 4, 6
1
9, 11, 13
1.5
8
0.5
15 to 25
1
27
0.5
Table 4.1: Global harmonic distortion limits for the system voltages recommended in Brazil.
110
As far as the author knows, new Brazilian legislation about harmonics and other power
quality phenomena are currently under development. Some recommendations have been used
to guide utility system planners and operators in supplying power to special loads. Reference [50] for example, presents some criteria and global voltage harmonic limits (Table 4.1),
based on the experience of Brazilian power utilities, as well as on standards from CIGRE
(Conference Internationale des Grands Reseaux Electriques a Haute Tension - International
Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Systems), IEC (International Electrotechnical
Commission) and IEEE (The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers).
as active lters, might be able to dynamically compensate the distortions and improve the
quality of power at the interface of industrial and power systems.
Figure 4.18: THD harmonic trend, with harmonic passive lters turned on all the time.
12:00:53
111
(c)Digital Modelling of Induction Furnaces in Distribution Networks

A three-phase detailed modelling of the distribution system, including the linear and nonlinear loads, transformer saturation eects, unbalanced conditions, power electronic loads,
automatic control devices, frequency dependent characteristics of the system and of the loads,
and so on, would be the ideal and recommended database for an electromagnetic transient
simulation, in order to analyze power quality phenomena. This would require a complete and
well-organized database of the system and load parameters, which is rarely available in practice. For distribution system planning and operation, such details are usually not required,
unless some specic power quality problem emerges as urgent and important. Typically, neither some important data is available, nor appropriate models exist to represent the physical
behaviour by digital simulation. One must therefore use simplications, which may make
the simulations unrealistic. Therefore, the development of more accurate models is needed
for power quality studies.
For this case study, some realistic data was available, and some simplications had to
be made for other data. The actual system under study is shown in Fig. 4.19. A Thevenin
equivalent circuit with a series connection of coupled resistances and inductances was used
to represent the 138kV transmission system, based on the given three-phase short-circuit
power (2881.3 MVA, angle of - 78 degrees) and single-line-to-ground short-circuit power
(1734.1 MVA, angle of - 77.7 degrees) from which the positive and zero sequence impedances
at the frequency of 60Hz can be calculated (assuming 100MVA as a base power, 138kV
as base voltage, and zero fault resistance for a single-line-to ground fault, one obtains:
Zposp:u: = 1=Ssc3php:u:, Zzerop:u: = 3=Ssc1phg p:u: 2 Zposp:u ). In reality, the resistance
and inductance derived from these impedances are frequency-dependent, which was ignored
in this study.
The transformer model used was based on three single-phase coupled impedances (\INVERSE" option in MicroTran). The distribution line was modelled as a three-phase coupled -circuit, with positive and zero sequence parameters at 60Hz. For the frequencies of
interest here, a -circuit representation is reasonably accurate. For higher frequencies, a
distributed-parameter line model would have to be used, either with constant parameters or
112
with frequency-dependent parameters.

The data for all the distribution feeders with their respective loads, and for the capacitor banks for power factor correction were available. Not enough information was available
though for the induction furnaces. A digital model based on [93], [94] was therefore used:
a current-source, parallel-resonant inverter for induction heating, as shown in Fig. 4.20.
The resonant inverter is used to create variable frequency at the induction coil. The sixpulse controlled rectier on the AC side of each induction furnace was supplied through a
13.8/0.48kV - 3.0MVA - 5.9% three-phase unit transformer in delta/wye-grounded connection. Saturation eects were not considered in this simulation. Realistic parameter values
of resistance, inductance and capacitance were available for the 4th and 5th order harmonic
passive lters.
EMTP-based programs can perform time-domain transient analysis or frequency-domain
analysis. A frequency-domain analysis was done for this case to nd the system impedance
as a function of frequency, seen from the point of common coupling (PCC) of the induction
furnace, as shown in Fig. 4.21 and Fig. 4.22. Not only the impedance at multiples of the
fundamental frequency was evaluated, but over the continuous frequency range as well, by
using a small step increment (f) in the frequency variation input parameter. It was small
enough to allow linear interpolation between calculated points. The two minimum impedance
values at 240Hz and 300Hz shown in Fig. 4.21 correspond to the eects of the 4th and 5th
order harmonic lters. Fig. 4.22 also shows the zero crossings of the phase angle of the system
impedance, from inductive to capacitive and vice-versa, thus indicating parallel (maximum
impedance) or series (minimum impedance) resonant conditions, respectively.
Next, the three-phase distribution system with the digital model of the induction furnace
as a power electronics load was simulated as a transients case (t = 16:6667s), using the
MicroTran version of the EMTP, until a time when steady state was reached. Voltage and
current waveforms were then processed through a Fourier analysis program to obtain the
harmonic content of the distorted waveforms. For this simulation case, all the distribution
feeders were represented. The induction furnace operating condition selected for this case
corresponds to the time of maximum total harmonic distortion (THD) measured at the point
Ssc 3ph = 2,881.3 / -78.0 o MVA

Ssc 1phg = 1,734.1 / -77.4 o MVA
113
138 kV
25/30MVA
138/13.8kV
10.2% (25MVA)
25/30MVA
138/13.8kV
9.72% (25MVA)
Bus I - 13.8kV
Bus II - 13.8kV
9.0MVAr
13.8kV
477.0 ACSR - 2km
336.4 ACSR 0.5km
PCC
3.0MVA
13.8/0.48kV
5.9%
0.48kV
Harmonic
Passive Filters
Induction
Furnaces
4th
5th
Figure 4.19: Distribution substation.

of commom coupling (PCC), without the harmonic lters (see Fig. 4.17).
Figs. 4.23 (a) and (b) show the current and voltage waveforms respectively, with their
harmonic contents, at the point of common coupling (PCC) between the utility electric
system and the customer facilities, for the induction furnaces operation with the 4th and 5th
order harmonic passive lters turned o. Fig. 4.15 is repeated here as Fig. 4.24 to facilitate

POS
114
Ld
Lc
VA
INVA
VB
Lr
Cr
VC
Rload
INVB
4
INDUCTION
FURNACE
NEG
Figure 4.20: Current-source, parallel-resonant inverter for induction heating.

50
Impedance Magnitude ( Ohms )
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
frequency ( Hz )
Figure 4.21: Amplitude of the positive sequence system impedance at the PCC with harmonic lters.
the comparison between the simulated and the measured results.
Figs. 4.25 (a) and (b) show the current and voltage waveforms, but for induction furnace
115
100
80
Phase Angle ( Degrees )
60
40
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
frequency ( Hz )
Figure 4.22: Phase angle of the positive sequence system impedance at the PCC with harmonic lters.
operation with the 4th and 5th order harmonic passive lters turned on. This operating
condition corresponds to the time of minimum total harmonic distortion (THD) measured
at the point of common coupling (PCC), but in this case with the harmonic passive lters
turned on (see Fig. 4.18). Both operating conditions have approximately the same value
of fundamental current (199A RMS at the phase-to-phase RMS voltage of 13.8kV). Again,
Fig. 4.16 is repeated here as Fig. 4.26 to facilitate the comparison between the simulated
and the measured results.

3
Voltage ( V )
0
200
10
20
30
40
50
60
Peak Amplitude ( A )
Time ( ms )
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Harmonic Order
x 10
2
1
0
1
2
3
0
70
Peak Amplitude ( % Fund )
Current ( A )
200
400
0
Phasetophase "AB" Voltage
Phase "A" Currrent

400
116
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Time ( ms )
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Harmonic Order
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.23: (a) Phase \A" current simulated with harmonic passive lters turned o. (b) Phase-to-phase
\A-B" voltage simulated with harmonic passive lters turned o.
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time (mSeconds)
60
70
20000
10000
0
-10000
-20000
-30000
% Fund
Fund 198.9
204.8
RMS
1.531
CF
Min -308.5
313.4
Max
18.89
THD
HRMS 37.58
TIF/IT52660
April 01, 1998 at 03:58:49 Local

M_V
Phase A-B Voltage
SS Wave
Volts
Amps
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
Amps
April 01, 1998 at 03:58:49 Local

M_V
Phase A Current
SS Wave
10
15
20
Harmonic
(a)
25
30
BMI/Electrotek
10
20
30
40
50
Time (mSeconds)
60
70
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
15
20
Harmonic
25
Fund 13557
13592
RMS
1.489
CF
Min -20237
Max
19805
THD
7.172
HRMS 972.3
TIF/IT 234.9
30
BMI/Electrotek
(b)
Figure 4.24: (a) Phase \A" current measured with harmonic passive lters turned o. (b) Phase-to-phase
\A-B" voltage measured with harmonic passive lters turned o.

3
Voltage ( V )
100
0
100
200
10
20
30
40
50
60
Peak Amplitude ( A )
Time ( ms )
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Harmonic Order
x 10
2
1
0
1
2
3
0
70
Peak Amplitude ( % Fund )
Current ( A )
200
300
0
Phasetophase "AB" Voltage
Phase "A" Currrent

300
117
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Time ( ms )
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Harmonic Order
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.25: (a) Phase \A" current simulated with harmonic passive lters turned on. (b) Phase-to-phase
\A-B" voltage simulated with harmonic passive lters turned on.
Some care must be taken when dening the time step size (which corresponds to the
inverse of the sampling frequency), for the transient simulation. Relatively large step sizes
introduce errors into the results of a time-domain simulation and consequently into the post-
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
10
20
30
40
50
Time (mSeconds)
60
70
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
-5000
-10000
-15000
-20000
-25000
% Fund
Amps
Fund 198.7
RMS
199.0
CF
1.515
Min -301.5
Max
294.2
THD
5.585
HRMS 11.10
TIF/IT24637
April 09, 1998 at 03:30:40 Local

M_V
Phase A-B Voltage
SS Wave
Volts
Amps
April 09, 1998 at 03:30:40 Local

M_V
Phase A Current
SS Wave
10
15
20
Harmonic
25
30
10
20
30
40
50
Time (mSeconds)
70
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
10
15
20
Harmonic
BMI/Electrotek
(a)
60
25
Fund 14011
RMS
14037
CF
1.431
Min -20083
Max
19896
THD
2.589
HRMS 362.7
TIF/IT 115.1
30
BMI/Electrotek
(b)
Figure 4.26: (a) Phase \A" current measured with harmonic passive lters turned on. (b) Phase-to-phase
\A-B" voltage measured with harmonic passive lters turned on.
118
processing frequency-domain analysis. The explanation is that the dierential equations

of inductances and capacitances in EMTP-based programs are solved with the trapezoidal
integration rule, thus producing errors which are a function of the frequency and the time
step size (t) [2], [12]. Moreover, It is also recommended that the time step size be such
that the period of the fundamental frequency is an integer multiple of t, in order to avoid
the generation of non-characteristic harmonics in the post processing Fourier analysis. For
example, if the system nominal frequency is 60:0Hz and the maximum frequency expected in
the transient simulation is in the order of fmax = 6kHz , then the step size can be calculated
as t = 1=(10 fmax ) = 16:66666s;
New solutions to this harmonic problem could be investigated using EMTP-based simulations, as for example the possible use of active lters [60], [61] to minimize harmonic
distortions. Such power electronic device should be able to inject a shunt compensated current, as shown in Fig. 4.27, at the point of common coupling, thus improving the quality of
power at the interface of industrial and utility power systems.
Phase "A" Currrent
Current ( A )
400
200
0
200
400
0.05
40
0.052
0.054
0.056
0.052
0.054
0.056
0.058
0.06
0.062
0.064
0.066
0.058
0.06
0.062
0.064
0.066
Time ( ms )
Ideal Compensation Current for Phase "A"
Current ( A )
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
40
0.05
Time ( ms )
Figure 4.27: Instantaneous ideal compensation current to be \injected" by a shunt active lter.
119
(d) Conclusions
This section presented an application of the electromagnetic transients program (EMTP)
to the analysis of a power quality issue in a distribution system, where the voltage and current
harmonic distortions were produced by induction furnaces. The history of this harmonic resonance problem was described. A digital model of the induction furnace as a current-source,
parallel-resonant inverter load, together with three-phase representations of the supplying
distribution system were used in a time-domain simulation. After reaching a time considered
as steady state, the simulated results were processed through a Fourier analysis program to
obtain the harmonic contents of the voltage and current waveforms at the point of common coupling. Field measurements were also presented. A comparison between the actual
measurements and the EMTP simulations is presented in Table 4.2 and Table 4.3. The dierences in the values of the total harmonic distortion (THD) and the telephone in uence factor
(TIF) are possibly due to simplications or lack of realistic data in the digital modelling.
The knowledge of detailed manufacturer data of the induction furnaces and their operating conditions, such as the natural resonant frequency, would allow the improvement of the
EMTP simulation. Considering unbalanced conditions could also improve the simulation
results. Both were unfortunately not available.
Table 4.2: Comparison between eld measurements and EMTP simulation results for the operating condition with the harmonic passive lters turned OFF.
Phase \A" Current [A]
Parameters Measured Simulated
Fund
198.9
201.8
RMS
204.8
204.2
CF
1.531
1.491
Min
-308.5
-304.4
Max
313.4
304.4
THD [%]
18.89
15.42
HRMS
37.58
31.11
TIF/IT
52,660
64,416
Error %
1.5
0.3
2.6
1.4
2.9
18.4
17.2
22.3
Phase-to-phase \A-B" Voltage [V]

Measured Simulated Error %
13,557
13,776
1.6
13,592
13,814
1.6
1.489
1.444
3.0
-20,237
-19,950
1.4
19,805
19,950
0.7
7.172
7.487
4.4
972.3
1,031.4
6.1
234.9
520.1
121.4
EMTP-based simulations can be useful tools for harmonic analysis, based on the fact that
very detailed eects can be taken into account. Once the system is modelled for an EMTP-
120
Table 4.3: Comparison between eld measurements and EMTP simulation results for the operating condition with the harmonic passive lters turned ON.
Phase \A" Current [A]
Parameters Measured Simulated
Fund
198.7
190.2
RMS
199.0
190.4
CF
1.515
1.474
Min
-301.5
-279.5
Max
294.2
280.7
THD [%]
5.585
5.110
HRMS
11.10
9.72
TIF/IT
24,637
36,910
Error %
4.3
4.3
2.7
7.3
4.6
8.5
12.4
49.8
Phase-to-phase \A-B" Voltage [V]

Measured Simulated Error %
14,011
14,211
1.4
14,037
14,219
1.3
1.431
1.422
0.6
-20,083
-20,130
0.2
19,896
20,220
1.6
2.589
3.224
24.5
362.7
458.2
26.3
115.1
219.9
91.1
based software, any type of studies can be performed. The new models developed in this
thesis project, hopefully will contribute to make EMTP-based programs more valuable tools
for electric utility companies and industrial customers in evaluating power quality problems.
4.2.2
Voltage Sag Analysis with EMTP-based Simulation
Voltage sags or voltage dips are short duration variations in the supply voltage, caused
by faults in transmission lines or in parallel distribution feeders, or caused by the start-up
of large induction motors or other types of sudden load variations. The majority of power
quality problems are associated with voltage sags, which are very common in today's electricity industry. The ride-through characteristics of modern electronic and computer-controlled
loads are very sensitive to short duration variations in the supply voltage. An entire process
may be shut down when the voltage sags momentarily. The equipment tolerance characteristics to voltage sags vary very much among equipment manufacturers. Moreover, in
most cases the equipment ride-through characteristics are not known. For these reasons,
the CBEMA curve [51] (or the ITIC curve) has been widely used as a rst reference for
power quality studies related to short duration voltage variations. Fig. 4.28 presents actual
measurements of voltage sag phenomena with an overlay of the CBEMA curve 7 .
7 \We typically employ the curve only from 0.1 cycles and higher due to limitations in power quality
monitoring instruments and dierences in opinion over dening the magnitude values in the subcycle time
frame." From [24], pp. 37-38.
121
The power system characteristics at the point where the sensitive load is connected is
another important issue for possible mitigation of voltage sag problems. Power system
protection and operating practices may also aect the success or failure of loads which are
sensitive to voltage disturbances.
Fig. 4.29 (a) shows a voltage sag phenomenon caused by a single-line-to-ground fault in a
distribution feeder, which is in parallel to a feeder supplying a \PVC" pipe (and other plastics
derived products) manufacturer with sensitive loads. The industrial process, controlled by
DC drives, is stopped if the voltage sags at the point of common coupling to less than 90%
of the nominal voltage during a time greater than 18 cycles (300ms).
Fig. 4.29 (b) shows the simulation results using MicroTran. The simulation does not
match the measurements exactly, because the dynamic behaviour of industrial loads (typically induction motors) were not included in the simulation model. Nevertheless, EMTPbased programs have the exibility to include aggregated load models [109]. More research,
however, seems to be needed for the accurate representation in EMTP-based programs of
the dynamic behavior of loads, which is beyond the scope of this thesis project. Custom
Power Controllers such as the dynamic voltage restorer (DVR), is a promising solution for
the mitigation of voltage sag phenomena.
4.2.3
Welding Industry Voltage Fluctuation Study { A Visual

Flicker Case
Flicker is historically considered a problem of perception, because the human ability to

visually sense light changes caused by voltage uctuations does vary. However, there are
certain levels of light icker which can be easily detected, though their impact on possible
human brain disorders or any other potential health damage is dicult to quantify. This
section presents a recent case of light icker and some simplied EMTP-based simulations.
The operation of a welding machine, to produce meshed wires for construction, connected
to a distribution system was simulated with MicroTran. If the duty cycle of the welding process is near 8.8 Hz, the human eye would perceive the maximum visual ickering eect,
even when the RMS voltage uctuations are in a range of very small percentage deviations.

PQNode Group
122
March 15, 1996 at 18:56:21 PQNode Local
Triggering Phase,Max Depth
16/04/96 06:03:38 PQNode Local
300
Max 106.0
Min
73.50
250
% Volts
200
150
100
50
0
0.001 0.01
0.1
10
100
1000 10000
Time (Cycles)
BMI/Electrotek
Figure 4.28: Voltage sag measurements (%RMS versus time duration) with an overlay of the CBEMA
curve. For time durations less than 1 cycle the equipment seems to measure peak values.
IEC Standard 1000-4-15 provides the specications for a ickermeter with \lamp-eye-brain"
frequency response to light ickering eects. Fig. 4.30 shows the simulated instantaneous
voltage for a power electronics controlled welding machine . The operating duty cycle, controlled by the semiconductor ring angle, results in a modulating frequency of approximately
7Hz for this case, as shown in Fig. 4.31, which causes the visual light icker. Cost-eective
solutions for voltage uctuation problems are usually related to changes in the load duty
cycle, when this does not aect the industry productivity or the quality of the manufactured product. The application of reactive dynamic compensation through power electronic
devices, such as the distribution static synchronous compensator (D-STATCOM) can eectively mitigate this type of power quality problem [110].
TIGRE2 March 25, 1996 at 08:25:40 PQNode Local

Phase A-B Voltage
RMS Variation
% Volts
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
123
Trigger
Duration
0.233 Sec
Min 73.50
Ave 89.70
Max 100.8
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Ref Cycle
30664
Time (Seconds)
% Volts
100
75
50
25
0
-25
-50
-75
-100
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
Time (mSeconds)
Uncalibrated Data
(a)
4
2.5
x 10
Instantaneous Phasetophase"AB" Voltage at the PCC
2
1.5
Voltage ( Volts )
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Time ( s )
(b)
Figure 4.29: (a) Phase-to-phase \A-B" measured voltage sag. (b) Phase-to-phase \A-B" simulated voltage
sag.
124
Instantaneous Voltage at the Point of Common Coupling

1000
950
Voltage ( Volts )
900
850
800
750
700
650
600
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Time ( s )
Figure 4.30: Instantaneous voltage uctuations causing light ickering eect.
Phase "A" Voltage

Voltage ( Volts )
1000
500
0
500
1000
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Time ( s )
Harmonic Amplitude Spectrum
0.9
% Volts
1.5
1
0.5
0
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
Frequency ( Hz )
Figure 4.31: Modulated voltage and respective amplitude frequency spectrum
4.3. EMTP-based Simulation Cases with SSCPS
125
4.3 EMTP-based Simulation Cases with SSCPS

This section presents a collection of test cases to validate the EMTP-based models developed in this thesis. Where an interesting and already published benchmark simulation
case with all the necessary data was readily available, it was selected because it made comparisons easy. In other cases, simple circuits were assembled by the author to test and prove
the ideas.
4.3.1
Basic Control and Control Devices Simulation Cases
This section provides more explanations about the theory presented in the previous chapters, with some applications to test cases.
(a) The Eect of a One Time Step Delay in the Solution of EMTP-based Simulations
Reference [66] presents some interesting cases where the one time step delay in the solution
of control and system equations, or the internal delays inside TACS, give wrong or inaccurate
simulation results. For example, the simulation of a transfer function with poles on the
imaginary axis of the complex plane is very sensitive to time delays, which can \move" the
poles to the right half of the complex plane, resulting in instability. To illustrate this, Fig.
4.32 presents a control block diagram of a transfer function with a second order dierential
equation. The simultaneous solution is shown in Fig. 4.33. The intentional introduction of
a one time step delay in the control system, as illustrated in Fig. 4.34, leads to an unstable
resonance condition, as shown in Fig. 4.35. These results emphasize the \importance of a
simultaneous solution approach", which is critical in some cases for the correct simulation
of control and power system equations with EMTP-based programs.
v IN
126
1
_____
s
v OUT
1.0 [V]
1
_____
s
Figure 4.32: Control block diagram of a second order dierential equation with poles on the imaginary
axis of the complex plane.
8
vout
vin
Voltage ( V )
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Time ( s )
Figure 4.33: Solution of system with bounded resonance oscillations.
80
v IN
127
1
_____
s
v OUT
1.0 [V]
1
_____
s
delay
1 t
Figure 4.34: Introduction of a one time step delay in the control block diagram.
8
out
vin
Voltage ( V )
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Time ( s )
Figure 4.35: Solution of system with unstable resonance oscillations caused by the introduction of one
time step delay.
128
(b) Basic Control Blocks, Transfer Functions and Filters

Laplace transfer functions are essential for control design and simulation. Generally,
classical control blocks such as proportional (P), integral (I), derivative (D), (and their combinations PI, PD, PID), lead-lag's for phase compensation, washout lters, etc., are present
in any analog or digital control scheme. Many if not most of the rst, second or higher
order dierential equations used to model the physical behavior of electrical, mechanical,
chemical, and any other systems use such transfer functions for their mathematical representation. Transfer functions can also represent passive and active lters (i.e., connections of
circuits with operational ampliers, resistors and capacitors). Depending on their properties
and frequency response, these lters are referred to with special names, such as low-pass,
Butterworth, Chebyshev, Legendre-Papoulis, Bessel, elliptic, high-pass, band-pass, notch,
band-elimination, all-pass (magnitude), all-pass (phase), etc. [80]). Therefore, the methodology proposed in this thesis for the simultaneous solution of transfer functions (Chapter
2) expands considerably the potential applications of EMTP-based programs in time and
frequency domain simulation studies.
It is important to mention that other general purpose and powerful computer tools,
such as MATLAB [103], can also be very useful for engineers and scientists, especially for
the design of control systems. The computer program SPICE seems to be more used for
electronics and power electronics simulations. EMTP-based programs, however, still seem
to have more detailed and proven models, especially for the power system part.
This section then presents some test cases with classical control blocks, which are simulated with the simultaneous solution method implemented experimentally in MicroTran, the
UBC version of the EMTP. The rst control block diagram case is illustrated in Fig. 4.36,
which represents the classical linearized \swing equation", which is used in power system
small-signal stability studies of a single machine connected to an innite bus, as extracted
from page 731 of reference [86], where:
KS = 0:757pu torque/rad = synchronizing torque coecient in pu torque/rad;
KD = 10 or -10 pu/pu = damping torque coecient in pu torque/pu speed deviation;
H = 3:5 MWs/MVA = inertia constant in MWs/MVA;
129
!r = speed deviation in pu = (!r !0 )=!0 ;

= rotor angle deviation in electrical rad;
!0 = rated speed in electrical rad/s = 2f0 = 377 rad/s for a 60Hz system;
T m = 0:1pu = mechanical torque deviation in pu;
T es = synchronizing torque component in pu;
T ed = damping torque component;
T a = T m T eS T ed = accelerating torque deviation.
Fig. 4.37 illustrates the simulation results for a -0.1pu disturbance in the per unit mechanical torque deviation (T m). With a positive damping torque coecient (KD = 10)
the rotor angle deviation ( ) presents damped natural oscillations and reaches a new stable
operation point in steady state. As shown in Fig. 4.38 with a negative damping torque coecient (KD = 10) the rotor angle deviation ( ) presents amplied natural oscillations,
as expected, causing small-signal instability. Alternatively, the control block diagram presented in Fig. 4.36 could also be represented by a canonical second order transfer function,
as presented in Fig. 4.39, where:
K=
!n =
(4.5)
KS
KS 2!H
(4.6)
= 12 2KH!Dn = 12 pKKS 2DH!
(4.7)
130
Tes
KS
Tm
Ta
1
_____
2H s
0
_____
s
- 0.1 p.u.
KD
Ted
Figure 4.36: Classical linearized \swing equation", used in power system small-signal stability studies of
a single machine connected to an innite bus.
0.1
Ta
Variables in per unit ( p.u. )
0.05
Te
5*
0
0.05
Te
Tm
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0
5
Time ( s )
10
Figure 4.37: Simulation results of the synchronous machine rotor angle deviation, in the presence of a
positive damping torque coecient.
131
200
Rotor angle deviation ( p.u. )
150
100
50
50
100
150
10
Time ( s )
Figure 4.38: Simulation results of the synchronous machine rotor angle deviation, in the presence of
negative damping torque coecient.
Tm
K n2
_________________
s2 + 2 n s + n2
- 0.1 p.u.
Figure 4.39: Canonical second order transfer function representation of the single-machine innite bus
system.
132
(c) Voltage and Current Sensors, Control Devices, Function Blocks and Digital
Logic Gates
The solution method for voltage and current sensors, control devices, function blocks and
digital logic gates follows the procedures for dependent sources presented in Chapter 2. For
example, the simultaneous solution through the compensation method for a generic linear
or nonlinear voltage-controlled voltage source can be used
to sense a voltage signal, with the compensating current at the controlling branch j
set to zero, i.e., ij = 0;
then to dene any linear or nonlinear voltage function at the controlled branch k, i.e.,
vk = f (vj );
and nally to use the Newton-Raphson algorithm presented in Section 2.2.5, (Fig.
2.19) to calculate a solution for the compensating currents ij and ik .
If more than one control voltage signal needs to be sensed, their respective compensating
branch currents are \simply set to zero". On the other hand, if currents have to be sensed,
their respective branch voltages can be set to zero. Since control signals are usually voltage
signals (or current signals converted to voltage signals), a current sensor can be represented
by a current-controlled voltage source.
The implementation of control devices (such as transport or time delay blocks, comparators, zero crossing detection and generation of gate ring signals, Clark transformation,
Park transformation, etc.), FORTRAN function blocks (such as SIN, COS, TAN, ASIN,
ACOS, LOG, EXP, SQRT, MULTIPLICATION, DIVISION, etc.) and digital logic gates
(AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, etc.) uses the same concept of the simultaneous solution
for voltage-controlled voltage sources presented before.
The implementation of a simultaneous solution for limiters requires special attention, as
for example in the case of the widely used PI controllers with non-windup limiters. Reference
[66] clearly explains the problem and the solution for a correct EMTP-based simulation.
133
Special functions, as for example for the evaluation of average values (e.g. \rolling average
power" presented in [66]), root mean square (RMS) values, instantaneous total harmonic
distortion (THD) values, etc. can be easily modelled with control blocks, and with subcircuit implementation.
4.3.2
Power Electronics Simulation Cases
The cases presented in this section are based on references [65], [93], [89], [94], [104], [95].
(a) Dynamic Control of the Firing Angle (\") of a Thyristor

Fig. 4.40 illustrates a simple circuit to demonstrate three important contributions of this
thesis, for the dynamic simulation of power electronic devices in EMTP-based programs:
simultaneous solution for voltage sensors;
zero crossing detection and generation of ring pulses with an instantaneous updating
of the controlling ring angle . The controller is enabled by a voltage signal of \1
volt" and disabled by a voltage signal of \0 volt";
EMTP-based voltage-controlled unidirectional current owing switch, to represent the

thyristor, which receives the gate signal directly from the controller.
The voltage sensor in Fig. 4.40 is modelled with the equations for an \ideal" voltagecontrolled voltage source (VCVS) presented in Section 2.2, i.e.:
ij = 0
k + r
vOP ENj + vOPEN
j1
rkj A
::: + rjj A ij + rjk
iM = 0
::: + rjM rkM
A
(4.8)
rk1 i + :::
1
rkkA i + :::
k
A
(4.9)
where A = 1. For this case, the synchronizing signal for the gate ring controller could have
been sensed directly from the excitation source vSA , without the need for a voltage sensor,
which was included here for completeness of the test case.
134
The gate ring controller is modelled as a \multi-terminal voltage-controlled voltage

source", where three controlled voltages are sensed and used to determine the voltage source
at the gate, vGAT E (a pulse of amplitude equal to 1 with a specied width, or zero volts). The
output vGAT E depends on the values of vSY NCHR (which is used to detect, with interpolation,
the time of zero crossings) , vALP HA (which is the ring angle in degrees, converted to time,
based on the given input frequency) and venable=disable (whose value of 1 or zero is multiplied
by vGAT E to enable or disable the control ring). The following equations are used to solve
for the gate ring controller using the compensation method:
ij = 0
(4.10)
ik = 0
(4.11)
il = 0
(4.12)
vOP ENm + rm1 i1 + :::

(4.13)
::: + rmm im + ::: + rmM iM + vGAT E = 0
In addition to equations 4.10 to 4.13, conditional IF-statements are used to implement the
logic described above equation 4.10.
The thyristor was modelled as an EMTP-based voltage-controlled unidirectional current
owing switch, which receives the gate signal directly from the controller.
The solution with the compensation method using an iterative Newton-Raphson algorithm requires the calculation of a Thevenin equivalent for each branch, as mentioned before
in the fundamental assumptions of Section 2.2.2. In cases where this calculation fails, the
connection of large resistors in parallel with the branch may make a Thevenin equivalent
circuit possible 8 . Eventually, in an EMTP production code, the use of internal variables
for the control could result in a more economic implementation. Internal control variables
would actually not have any physical connection with the power network part of the circuit.
Fig. 4.41 shows the resulting voltages and currents simulated with MicroTran and the
method proposed in this thesis, which is a truly simultaneous solution of the power and
control circuit. The time step size used was t = 16:6667s.
8 In MicroTran, the connection of a large resistance of 109
and with the near zero tolerance parameter
for checking matrix singularities, EPSILON=10 12, this problem can easily be solved.
135
iLOAD
vSA
vLOAD
2.5
Vmax = 5.0 [V]

f = 60 [Hz]
5 mH
vGATE
Gate Firing Controller
vSYNCHR
Voltage Sensor
vALPHA
f=60Hz
pulse width=10
degreees
45.0 [V]
Firing Angle
(degrees)
venable /
disable
1.0 [V]
tstop = 25.0 [ms]
Figure 4.40: Circuit for the dynamic control of the ring angle (\") of a thyristor.
LOAD
LOAD
25
Time ( ms )
GATE
enable / disable
20
15
10
vsynchr
30
35
40
45
50
136
Figure 4.41: Voltages and currents in a circuit with dynamic control of the ring angle of a thyristor.
Current ( A )
Voltage ( V )
137
(b) Dynamic Control of the Firing Angles of a Three-Phase Six-Pulse ThyristorBridge Rectier
Fig. 4.42 illustrates a phase controlled rectier with a feedback control system based on
the manual of PSIM [65]. \It should be noted that, in PSIM, the power and the control
circuit are solved separately. There is one time step delay between the power and the control
circuit solutions" [65].
The six-pulse ring controller implemented with the models developed in this thesis
project uses a simultaneous solution for the power and control circuit equations. Similarly to
the simple ring controller \" of the previous test case, a multi-terminal voltage-controlled
voltage source is used to model it. The inputs to the six-pulse ring controller are the
synchronizing signal (voltage vAC sensed from the supply system), the dynamic ring angle
(resulting from the ACOS control block, which receives the signal from the limited PI
controller, after comparison with the desired reference voltage for the DC load). From
the gating signal generated to the thyristor with identication number \1", all the other
gating signals are derived sequentially by adding a time delay corresponding to 60 degrees
at the 60Hz frequency. For starting purposes, whenever a ring signal is sent to a particular
thyristor, another \isolated" ring signal is sent to the previous thyristor as recommended
in [88].
Fig. 4.43 presents the EMTP simulated voltages and currents, using a t = 16:6667s
and with a dynamic control of the ring angles of the three-phase six-pulse thyristor-bridge
rectier. Fig. 4.44 shows the dynamic behavior of the control variables, emphasizing the
ring control signal , and Fig. 4.45 illustrates the dynamics of the voltage control signals
at the output of the proportional-integral (PI) control block and the limiter control block.
138
5 mH
G1
Vmax = 81.65 [V]
G3
iLOAD
G5
f = 60 [Hz]
vDC
vLOAD
vA
vB
400 F
vC
G4
G2
G6
vAC
vSYNCHR
1
vREF
100 [V]
vERR
PI
KP=0.01
KI= 1.0
vSENS= vLOAD
vPI
vLIM
ACOS
-1
1 [V]
vENABLE /
vALPHA
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
G6
DISABLE
Figure 4.42: Circuit for the dynamic control of the ring angles of a three-phase six-pulse thyristor-bridge
rectier.
150
100
50
50
100
150
vDC
iLOAD
vA
10
Time ( ms )
LOAD
15
vsynchr
20
25
139
Figure 4.43: Voltages and currents with dynamic control of the ring angles of a three-phase six-pulse
thyristor-bridge rectier.
Current ( A )
Voltage ( V )
120
100
80
60
40
20
20
5
10
15
20
ALPHA
25
Time ( ms )
30
35
vREF
ERR
45
vSENS=VLOAD
40
50
140
Figure 4.44: Dynamic control of the ring angles of a three-phase six-pulse thyristor-bridge rectier.
Current ( A )
Voltage ( V )
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
5
PI
10
15
20
vLIM
25
Time ( ms )
30
35
40
45
50
141
Figure 4.45: Dynamic voltage control signals at the output of the proportional-integral (PI) and the limiter
control blocks.
Current ( A )
Voltage ( V )
142
(c) Dynamic Control of Three-Phase PWM Voltage Source Inverter

Fig.4.46 presents a circuit for the dynamic control of a three-phase PWM voltage source
inverter (VSI) [65]. Again, the power and the control circuit equations are solved simultaneously with the methods proposed in this thesis. For this EMTP-type simulation it was used
a t = 16:66667s.
The phase \A" modulation and triangular carrier waveforms for generation of gating
signals through sinusoidal pulse width modulation (PWM) are presented in Fig. 4.47.
With the use of comparators and NOT logic gates the ring signals are dynamically
generated, in a simultaneous solution with the network equations through the compensation
method.
The IGBT's with anti-parallel diodes were represented, for simplicity and without much
loss of accuracy in this simulation, by the EMTP-based voltage-controlled switches, which
were implemented in this thesis through the GATE subroutine. Here it is opportune to
discuss the issue of simultaneous commutation: Let us assume that the current is owing
through the IGBT with identication number \1" from the DC source to the load. When
IGBT number 1 is turned o, the voltage vSA NEUT R reverses polarity almost instantaneously (due to the behavior of the inductor, which forces the current to keep owing in
the same direction), thereby forward biasing the anti-parallel diode of the IGBT with identication number \4", which then starts conducting. In digital simulation programs this
means that there is simultaneous commutation between IGBT 1 and the anti-parallel diode
at IGBT 4. This could be modelled as it is, i.e., with an IGBT and diode in anti-parallel
(which would have to be modelled with piecewise linear or nonlinear model), or as a voltagecontrolled bidirectional current owing switch, where the control signals play the role of the
commutation.
Fig. 4.48 presents the node voltage \vSA " generated by the 3-Phase PWM voltage source
inverter (VSI), whereas Fig. 4.49 shows the voltage across the load \vSA NEUT R " and the
current in phase \A" supplied to the load.
The dynamically generated 3-phase load currents are illustrated in Fig. 4.50. The line-
143
to-line voltage generated by the three-phase PWM voltage source inverter (VSI) is shown in
Fig. 4.51.
Most of the advanced Custom Power Controllers [60] (and active lters [111]) apply
this type of converter to synthesize voltages or current waveforms according to the desired
\dynamic reference modulating signal". When a current is to be synthesized, dynamic
hysteresis current-band PWM converters are used [60] 9 . Therefore, the models developed in
this thesis, will hopefully be useful for the accurate EMTP-simulation of a variety of existing
and new power electronic devices, especially those aimed at improving the quality of power
in utility and industrial systems.
9 The Ph.D thesis \Active Power Line Conditioners" of Dr.-Ing. Mauricio Aredes, can be downloaded by
the reader from the the web site http://www.dee.ufrj.br.
IGBT1
450 [V]
144
IGBT3
IGBT5
iSA-NEUTR
vSA
vSB
vSC
vNEUTR
iSB-NEUTR
iSC-NEUTR
3.87
7.7 mH
10 9
IGBT4
IGBT6
IGBT2
vA
0.8 [V]
vB
NOT
0.8 [V]
vC
0.8 [V]
f = 60 [Hz]
COMPARATOR
vTRI
1 [V]
f = 1500 [Hz]
phase = -180 [degrees]
Figure 4.46: Circuit for the dynamic control of three-phase PWM voltage source inverter (VSI).
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
10
TRI
Time ( ms )
15
20
25
145
Figure 4.47: Phase \A" modulation and triangular carrier waveforms for generation of gating signals
through sinusoidal pulse width modulation (PWM).
Current ( A )
Voltage ( V )
600
400
200
200
400
600
5
vSA
10
Time ( ms )
15
20
25
146
Figure 4.48: Node voltage \vSA " generated by a three-phase PWM voltage source inverter (VSI).
Current ( A )
Voltage ( V )
600
400
200
200
400
600
5
vSA vNEUTR
Time ( ms )
5 * iSANEUTR
10
15
20
25
147
Figure 4.49: Voltage across the load \vSA NEUTR " and current supplied to the load by a three-phase
PWM voltage source inverter (VSI).
Current ( A )
Voltage ( V )
60
40
20
20
40
60
5
SANEUTR
10
15
SBNEUTR
Time ( ms )
iSCNEUTR
20
25
Figure 4.50: Load currents supplied by a three-phase PWM voltage source inverter (VSI).
Current ( A )
Voltage ( V )
148
149
600
vSA vSB
400
Voltage ( V )
200
200
400
600
10
15
20
25
Time ( ms )
Figure 4.51: Line-to-line voltage generated by a three-phase PWM voltage source inverter (VSI).
4.4. Synthesis of Simulation Guidelines for Studies with EMTP-based Programs
150
4.4 Synthesis of Simulation Guidelines for Studies with

EMTP-based Programs
This section emphasizes the basic issues which are critical for the successful evaluation of
the impact of power electronic devices on the quality of power. Important factors regarding
power quality monitoring, modelling and simulation in EMTP-based programs of power
system components and power electronics devices are pointed out, with the main objective
of analyzing their dynamic interaction and of evaluating their impact on electric power
quality.
For power quality monitoring the important factors are:
Evaluation based on accurate measurements of power quality phenomena, through the

use of instruments with appropriate voltage and current sensors and adequate digital
sampling frequency [15];
Use of statistical and other advanced data analysis methods to produce meaningful
information;
Comparison against national and international power quality standards, taking into
consideration system dierences and similarities;
In the analysis of power quality phenomena through time and frequency domain EMTPbased simulations, special attention must be paid to:
the simulation step size t, which has to be chosen as a function of the maximum
frequency expected (or of concern) in the simulation. Usually, the time step size is
set to a value at least equal to one tenth of the period of the maximum frequency,
which will result in a 3% error with the trapezoidal integration rule [2], [112]. It is also
recommended that the step size be such that the period of the fundamental frequency
is an integer multiple of t, in order to avoid the generation of non-characteristic
harmonics in the post processing Fourier analysis. For example, if the system nominal
frequency is 60:0Hz and the maximum frequency expected in the transient simulation
151
is in the order of fmax = 6kHz , then the time step size can be calculated as t =
1=(10 fmax ) = 16:66666s;
the selection of appropriate models to represent power system and load components,
especially if frequency dependence has to be taken into consideration in the simulated
phenomena [92];
nonlinearities, which are usually disregarded in many simulations. They can aect the
accuracy of the simulation results, particularly in the case of transformer saturation;
the use of simplied switch models for power electronics devices. This may be justied
to speed up the simulation time for system level studies, but it may also give wrong and
misleading results, especially related to semiconductor commutation phenomena. Also,
the EMTP solution at discrete time intervals t may result in inaccurate turn-on or
turn-o switching times, causing unrealistic high frequency transients in the simulation
of power electronic devices. Backtracking techniques [67], [68] and/or resynchronization techniques ([96] pages 185, 204, 207) or even the Clock Synchronized Structure
Changing Concept (CSSC) [97] can be used to minimize the problem. Interpolation
and/or extrapolation as well as resynchronization techniques seem to be more and more
applied even in the EMTP-based solution of modern control for power electronics systems [98], [99]. Therefore, for better accuracy in EMTP-based simulations of power
electronics, it is much more important to use such techniques than to reduce the time
step size;
numerical oscillations caused by the trapezoidal rule of integration in solving the system
of equations. The use of techniques such as CDA (\Critical Damping Adjustment"
[84], [85]) is eective in the elimination of numerical oscillations. MicroTran has CDA
implemented, but other EMTP versions may not, or may use dierent approaches.
the one time step delay at the interface between the control and power systems solution, as well as other internal time step delays, which may exist in TACS (\Transient
Analysis of Control Systems") and in other software packages. The method SSCPS
(\Simultaneous Solution of Control and electric Power System equations") proposed in
152
this thesis overcomes this problem, and the user only introduces time delays if needed
to represent system physical behaviour.
Chapter 5
Conclusions and Recommendations
for Future Work
HE MAIN GOAL of this Ph.D. thesis project was the development of EMTP-based
models for control and power electronic devices for electric power quality assessment.
EMTP simulations can oer theoretical and practical insights into the evaluation of power
quality, both by time-domain simulation techniques and by frequency-domain simulation
techniques.
5.1 Conclusions and Main Contributions

The increasing demand for electricity and other forms of energy in modern society will
create issues of con ict and interest. The simple absence of enough power generation or
of available transfer capacity may become the cause of scheduled load shedding or more
frequent blackouts, with obvious catastrophic consequences.
The growing regulatory, environmental, nancial and time constraints in building new
power plants (typically hydroelectric) and transmission lines has been forcing emergency
solutions in the electricity industry all over the world, such as the increasing use of "small"
distributed generation (mainly thermal power plants with steam or gas turbines), the use of
FACTS devices to enhance power system stability and control, and the adoption of programs
to \save energy" with the promotion for the use of more electricity ecient light, heat, and
motor equipment. This, in turn, might create a deteriorating impact on the quality of power,
153
5.1. Conclusions and Main Contributions
154
due to the manufacturing of usually inexpensive power electronic converters. It is a challenging environment for engineering, politics, economics, etc. since in modern human society,
electricity has become a basic commodity, which almost everybody and almost everything
depends on.
The quality of the electric power delivered to customers by utilities may not be acceptable
for some types of sensitive loads, which are typically power electronics and computer-based
loads, particularly in the control of industrial processes. There are cases where the increasing use of power electronics to enhance process eciency and controllability creates power
quality problems. The growing application of shunt capacitors for voltage support, power
factor correction, and system loss reduction, as well as the use of series capacitors (xed or
controlled, for line reactance compensation) will increase the potential risk of transient disturbance amplications and potential electrical and mechanical resonances in the presence
of more and more power electronic devices, and of steam and gas turbines in distributed and
co-generation power plants. As the natural order of the system grows, so grows its ability
to oscillate more! At the same time, new power electronic devices also oer the means for
adequate \power conditioning", to meet the special requirements of electric power quality in
a system.
To evaluate the promising solutions oered with the introduction of more and more power
electronic devices in the transmission and distribution systems, as well as to analyze their
interaction and impact on either the load or the network side, computer programs based on
the EMTP (Electromagnetic Transients Program) are becoming more useful.
The development of new EMTP-based models for more accurate representation of controls
and power electronic devices has been the main subject of this thesis project. The assessment
of electric power quality and the technical impact of power electronic devices on the quality
of power, can hopefully be performed with the models developed in this work.
The main contributions of this Ph.D. thesis project are summarized as follows:
development of a \simultaneous solution for linear and nonlinear control and electric
power system equations" (SSCPS) in EMTP-based programs, through the compen-
5.1. Conclusions and Main Contributions
155
sation method and the Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm. This solution method
eliminates not only the one time step delay problem at the interface between the solution of power and control circuits, but also all the internal delays, which may exist
in methods based on the transient analysis of control systems (TACS) since 1977 [64].
A \circuit approach" was proposed in this thesis, as an innovative alternative to the
solution presented by A. E. A. Araujo in 1993 [67];
experimental implementation in Microtran, the UBC version of the EMTP, based on

SSCPS, of a simultaneous solution for:
{ linear and nonlinear current and voltage dependent sources (which allow, for
example the modelling of operational ampliers, ideal current and voltage sensors,
etc.);
{ independent current and voltage sources, which can also be connected between
two ungrounded nodes;
{ hard and soft limiters (which can be used to represent nonlinear eects such as
saturation);
{ transfer functions (which allows the simulation modelling of all types of analog
lters and classical control blocks);
{ mathematical and transcendental FORTRAN functions (such as +, -, * , /, SIN,

COS, TAN, ASIN, ACOS, LOG, EXP, etc.);
{ special control devices (such as time delays, comparators, etc.) and some digital
logic gates (NOT);
{ transformation of variables (such as the abc to 0 transformation and its inverse);

{ voltage-controlled switches;
{ nonlinear model of a diode semiconductor;
development of the subroutine \GATE" in MicroTran, allowing the dynamic control

of the turn-on and turn-o times of semiconductor devices (e.g., thyristors, GTO's,
IGBT's, etc.), which are modelled as EMTP-based voltage-controlled switches;
5.2. Recommendations for Future Work
156
development of power electronics simulation cases in MicroTran, using the simultaneous

solution approach (SSCPS) for the dynamic control of semiconductor switching devices
(as in a three-phase six-pulse thyristor controlled bridge rectier, and in a three-phase
PWM voltage source inverter (VSI)) and evaluation of current and voltage waveforms;
interaction with a Brazilian utility company and industries for the realization and
analysis of eld measurements of electromagnetic phenomena aecting the quality of
power, such as:
{ voltage sags and voltage swells;

{ harmonic current and voltage distortions;
{ transients, etc.
with determination of causes, consequences and investigation of possible solutions for
power quality problems, as for example, the application of \Custom Power Controllers";
synthesis of simulation guidelines for the evaluation of the impact of power electronic
devices on the quality of power, based on realistic eld measurements and EMTP time
and frequency domain simulations.
5.2 Recommendations for Future Work

The author's main recommendations for future work related to his Ph.D. thesis project
are listed below:
development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of methods for the \automatic calculation of initial conditions" in the simultaneous solution of control and
power electronic circuits;
development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of techniques for the calculation of the \frequency response of integrated control and power system equations",
allowing for example, the determination of transfer functions between a generic input
and a generic output;
157
development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of techniques for the accurate solution of \digital control systems";
development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of \detailed nonlinear

models of semiconductor devices" (such as transistors, etc.);
development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of algorithms for the simultaneous solution of \generic nonlinear dependent sources" [101];
development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of \voltage and frequency

dependent aggregated load models" [109], but suitable for time and frequency domain
simulations in power quality studies;
development and implementation in EMTP-based programs of models for FACTS and

Custom Power Controllers, such as STATCOM, UPFC, DVR, UPQC, active lters,
etc, and denition, if not yet available in the technical literature, of benchmark test
cases, possibly with eld validation of the models. The evaluation of \power system
stability and control, based on long term EMTP-type simulations", will require detailed
and complex modelling of power system components, FACTS Controllers and special
loads, with all their associated control equipment such as turbine-governor controllers,
exciter controllers, power system stabilizers, power electronics controllers, etc.. Complex and very important electromagnetic and electromechanical phenomena could then
be investigated thoroughly, as for example, the damping and control of subsynchronous
resonance [86], [90].
Some of the author's publications in areas related to the thesis topic are listed here for
easy reference:
B. D. Bonatto, E. A. Mertens Jr., E. S. da Silva, and L. F. S. Dias, \Power Quality

Assessment at Sensitive Loads", submitted to the IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Latin America Conference (IEEE/PES T&D 2002), S~ao Paulo-SP, Brazil,
March 18-22, 2002.
158
B. D. Bonatto, E. H. Watanabe, E. A. Mertens Jr., H. W. Dommel, L. F. S. Dias,

M. Aredes, S. Carneiro Jr., and S. Nosaki, \Power Electronics and Electric Power
Quality: Cooperative Research at ELEKTRO, COPPE/UFRJ, and UBC", submitted
to the I Brazilian Congress on Electric Energy Technological Innovation (I CITENEL),
Braslia-DF, Brazil, November 6-7, 2001 (in Portuguese).
B. D. Bonatto, H. W. Dommel, E. H. Watanabe, M. Aredes, S. Carneiro Jr., E.

A. Mertens Jr., S. Nosaki, and L. F. S. Dias, \Custom Power Applications for the
Improvement of the Quality of Power - Literature Review", IV Brazilian Seminar
about the Quality of Power (SBQEE0 01), Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil, August 12-17, 2001.
B. D. Bonatto, and H. W. Dommel, \Current and Voltage Dependent Sources in

EMTP-based Programs", International Conference on Power Systems Transients (IPST001), Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil, Volume I, pp. 299-304, June 24-28, 2001.
B. D. Bonatto, E. A. Mertens Jr., F. A. Fernandes, and L. F. S. Dias, \The Quality

of Electric Power in Coordination with the Industrial Safety", XIV National Seminar
on Electric Energy Distribution (XIV SENDI), Foz do Iguassu-PR, Brazil, November
19-23, 2000 (in Portuguese).
B. D. Bonatto, H. W. Dommel, E. A. Mertens Jr., and F. A. Fernandes, \Power

Quality Analysis based on EMTP Simulations Harmonics Case Study", 5th. Brazilian
Power Electronics Conference (COBEP099), Foz do IguassuPR, Brazil, Volume 1, pp.
135-140, September 19-23, 1999.
B. D. Bonatto, E. A. Mertens Jr., and F. A. Fernandes, \Power Quality Diagnosis

in Industrial Customers - Case Study", III Brazilian Seminar about the Quality of
Electric Power (SBQEE099), Braslia-DF, Brazil, pp. 108-113, August 08-12, 1999 (in
Portuguese).
B. D. Bonatto, T. Niimura and H. W. Dommel, \A Fuzzy Logic Application to Represent Load Sensitivity to Voltage Sags", in 8th International Conference on Harmonics
and Quality of Power (8th ICHQP), IEEE/PES, Ed., Athens, Greece, Vol. I, pp.
60-64, October 14-16 1998.
159
B. D. Bonatto, E. A. Mertens Jr., and F. A. Fernandes, \Power Quality Diagnosis in

Distribution System", III Latin-American Congress in Electric Energy Distribution (III
CONLADIS), S~ao Paulo-SP, Brazil, pp. 37-41, September 8-10, 1998 (in Portuguese).
L. E. O. Pinheiro, B. D. Bonatto, R. Torrezan, and F. A. Fernandes, \Power Quality

Monitoring - Practical Cases, Solutions and the Planning Perspective", XIII National
Seminar in Electrical Energy Distribution (XIII SENDI), S~ao Paulo-SP, Brazil, May
11-16, 1997 (in Portuguese).
L. E. O. Pinheiro, O. S. I. Komukai, B. D. Bonatto, and E. Yoshida, \Measurements

for Power Quality Monitoring in Distribution System", I Brazilian Seminar on Power
Quality (SBQEE096), Uberlândia-M.G., Brazil, pp. 92-97, June 10-13, 1996 (in Portuguese).
S. M. Deckmann, and B. D. Bonatto, \Damping Introduced by Control Means Considering Generator Capability Limits", IFAC Control of Power Plants and Power Systems
(SIPOWER095), Cancun, Mexico, 1995.
B. D. Bonatto, and S. M. Deckmann, \Damping Introduced by SVC, CSC, and PSS

for Operation on the Synchronous Machine Capability Curve", XIII National Seminar
on Production and Transmission of Electric Energy (XIII SNPTE), Florianopolis-SC,
Brazil, 1995.
B. D. Bonatto, Damping of Electromechanical Oscillations in Electric Systems through

Reactive Dynamic Compensation, Master Thesis, The State University of Campinas UNICAMP, Campinas-SP, Brazil, 1995 (in Portuguese).
S. M. Deckmann, and B. D. Bonatto, Laboratory of Electrical Engineeering I, UNICAMP/FEEC, Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, December 1992, reedited in December 1993, and in 1998. Campinas-SP, Brazil.
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EMTP Modelling of Control and

Power Electronic Devices

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

c Benedito Donizeti Bonatto, 2001

and its inverse); voltage-controlled switches; nonlinear model of a diode semiconductor;

development of the subroutine \GATE" in MicroTran, allowing the dynamic control

development of power electronics simulation cases in MicroTran, using the simultaneous

1 Electric Power Quality and Power Electronic Devices: An Overview

1.1 Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices? . . . . .

2 Simultaneous Solution of Control and Electric Power System Equations

2.2.6 Possible Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Power Electronics Modelling in EMTP-based Simulations

4 Evaluation of the Impact of Power Electronic Devices on the Quality of

5 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work

5.1 Conclusions and Main Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

EMTP and TACS interface with 1 time step delay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1 Power semiconductor devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Circuit with \simultaneous solution" of a voltage-controlled switch. . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1 Circuit with a single-phase diode-bridge recti er. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1 Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices?

1.1. Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices?

1.1. Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices?

Computer Analysis and Simulation of Electric Power Quality Phenomena

1.1. Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices?

Electric Power Quality Monitoring

1.1. Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices?

1.1. Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices?

Power Quality Standards

1.1. Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices?

system response characteristics;

reactive power compensation and control;

harmonic analysis methods;

recommended practices and harmonic limits for individual customers;

recommended practices and harmonic limits for utilities;

methodology for evaluating new harmonic sources.

1.1. Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices?

TIME IN CYCLES [60Hz]

1.1. Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices?

Percent of Nominal Voltage (RMS or Peak Equivalent)

Custom Power Related Publications

This section presents a collection of publications related to Custom Power technology

1.1. Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices?

1.1. Introduction: Better Electricity Quality at "Possibly" Lower Prices?

http://www.siemenstd.com/prods/FPQD/dvr.html - case studies for the voltage sag

http://www.siemenstd.com/prods/FPQD/cp.html - general power quality information

http://sac.sandc.com/products/purewave/ups pubs.asp - for S & C UPS products;

http://www.softswitching.com - for SoftSwitching Technologies products;

and many others.

1.2. Motivation for Thesis Research

1.2 Motivation for Thesis Research

EMTP-based simulations can handle the complexity of electromagnetic phenomena

1.3. Contributions of this Research Project

The diversity of power quality phenomena requires an interdisciplinary approach and

1.3 Contributions of this Research Project

1.3. Contributions of this Research Project

A. E. A. Araujo [63] uses FORTRAN-like statements for control functions such as

The \multi-terminal voltage-controlled voltage source concept" implemented in this

2.1. Previous Developments on Transient Analysis of Control Systems (TACS)

2.1. Previous Developments on Transient Analysis of Control Systems (TACS)

2.2. Current and Voltage Dependent Sources in EMTP-based Programs

2.2 Current and Voltage Dependent Sources in EMTPbased Programs

2.2. Current and Voltage Dependent Sources in EMTP-based Programs

Figure 2.2: M-phase Thevenin equivalent circuit.

4.1 Circuit with a single-phase diode-bridge rectier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A. E. A. Araujo [63] uses FORTRAN-like statements for control functions such as

Figure 2.2: M-phase Thevenin equivalent circuit.

A Thevenin equivalent circuit can be calculated where the dependent source is to

Ideal Operational Ampliers

Figure 2.8: Symbol for operational amplier.

Figure 2.9: Inverting amplier circuit.

Figure 2.10: Non-inverting amplier circuit.

Figure 2.11: Adder circuit with operational amplier.

Figure 2.12: Ideal integrator circuit with operational amplier.

Figure 2.13: Generalization of inverter amplier circuit.