The integumentary system [is the organ system that protects the body from various kinds of

damage, such as loss of water or abrasion from outside. The system comprises the skin and its
appendages (including hair, scales, feathers, hooves, and nails).

Epidermis
The epidermis is the relatively thin, tough, outer layer of the skin. Most of the cells in the epidermis
are keratinocytes. They originate from cells in the deepest layer of the epidermis called the basal
layer. New keratinocytes slowly migrate up toward the surface of the epidermis. Once the
keratinocytes reach the skin surface, they are gradually shed and are replaced by newer cells pushed
up from below.

I. EPIDERMIS
A. Cells of the Epidermis
Cells: consists of keratinocytes, melanocytes, Merkel cells and Langerhans cells.
Keratinocytes: tightly packed and connected to desmosomes; originate from stratum
basale; produce keratin
Melanocytes: spider-like cells that produce melanin (forms a pigment shield that
protects the nucleus from the UV rays).
Langerhans cells: star-shaped cells from bone marrow. Function to activate the
immune system as macrophages.

Merkel cells: function as sensory receptors

B. Layers of the Epidermis

Stratum basale: consist of predominantly single row of keratinocytes; some
melanocytes (10-25%) and Merkel cells;
Stratum spinosum: several layers thick; Contains flattened irregularly-shaped
keratinocytes, pre-keratin intermediate filaments.
Stratum granulasum: consist of flattened keratinocytes which accumulate
keratohyaline granules (granules form keratin) and lamellated granules (produce
water-resistant chemical).
Stratum lucidum: present only in thick skin and made up
of a few rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes.
Stratum corneum: outermost layer, conts many layers of cells (cornified or horny
cells). Dead skins slough off.

II.

DERMIS

Richly supplied with nerves (sensory receptors), blood vessels,

lymphatic vessels, sweat and sebaceous glands derived from the
epidermis. Contains two layers: papillary and reticular

Papillary layer: Consists of areolar connective tissue made up of

loose collagen and elastic fibers, projections called papillae which
contain touch and pain receptors (Messsners
corpusles). The papillae also form epidermal ridges found on the
surfaces of palms, fingers and feet. On the palm and fingers they
form the fingerprints (genetic markers of individualilty).

Reticular layer: account for about 80% of thickness of dermis;

consist of dense irregular connective tissue. The ECM of this layer
consist of bundles of collagenous fibers which run in parallel and
opposite directions. The fibers give strength and resilience
(toughness) and recoil, while collagen absorbs water and keep the
skin hydrated. Stretch marks found on the buttocks, thighs,
abdomen and breast are due to these fibers.
Disturbances of the skin
Stretch and tear; blisters

Skin Coloration
Skin color is due to a combination of three
pigments: melanin, carotene and hemoglobin.

Melanin is a brown-black pigmentation formed in cells called

melanocytes. Cells are found in the stratum basale and spinosum.
The amount of melanin produced by an individuals is based on
inheritance. Freckles are small patches of Melanin on the skin due
to uneven distribution.

Hemoglobin is the molecules found in RBC that gives blood its red
coloration. It is made of non-protein (heme which contains iron)
and the protein (globin).

Carotene is the yellowish pigment found in the corneum and the

dermis.

Skin color of human races occur as a result of the relative

abundance of melanin and carotene. Dark-skin coloration is due to
melanin. Caucacians produce more carotene than melanin.

III.

Melanin protects the skin and cells of the skin by shielding the UV
light of the sun against the nucleus.
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES

Accessory structures include hair, nail, and glands.

Hair: formed of keratinized cells and consist of two parts: a shaft

and root. The shaft is above the skin and root embedded in the
dermis, in a hair follicle connected to blood supplies and arrector
muscle.

Nail: they are formed of keratinized epidermal cells and occur on

the finger and toes. Consist of a visible area (body) and the root
(embedded in the dermis).

Glands: There are there exocrine (conts ducts)

glands: sebaceous, sudoriferous and ceruminous glands. These
glands secrete their contents to the exterior unlike endocrine which
secrete their contents directly into blood.
a.

Sebaceous glands: produce oil (sebaum) which keeps the

skin oily. The glands are branched and attached to the hair
follicle. Blockage of the gland causes acne.

b.

Sudoriferous(sweat) gland: produce sweat or perspiration

composed of water, salt, urea and uric acid. They are coiled and
tubular shaped and of two types: Eccrine (found on forehead,
back of palm and soles), and Apocrine (larger that eccrine,
found in pubic regions and secrete into hair
follicles). Mammary glands: are specialized form of
sudoriferous gland secrete milk.

c.

Ceruminous glands: found only in the external auditory canal

where they secrete cerumen (earwax). Cerumen is an insect
repellant and also keep the eardrum (tympanic membrane) from
drying out. Excess amount may block.

Skin Cancers

Basal cell carcinoma: originate from the stratum basel (about

70% of skin cancers). Treated by excision.

Squamous carcinoma: originate from cells immediately above

the basale layer. Treatment consist of X-ray and excision.

Malignant melanoma: most life-threatening arises from

melanocytes in the basale. Most often begins as a mole-like
growth and enlarges. May change and metastatize. Often
removed by excision, x-ray.

Temperature Regulation

The regulation of body temperature is carried out by

the hypothalamus in conjunction with the skeletal muscle. The
system works similar to the thermostat in buildings.

Normal body temperature is 37 C(98.6F). This temperature is

produced as a result of metabolic activities which produce heat in
the body.

During the cold when heat loss is excessive, the blood vessel
constrict (therefore less blood to the surface) the muscle contract
frequently (shivering) to produce heat.

In the summer, the vessels dilate (more blood to the skin surface,
more heat loss), sweat pores open and produce perspiration that
cool the surface as heat is lost.

Skin Aging

After 50 years, wrinkles and sagging of the skin become more

noticeable.

Effects of aging are a result of deterioration of collagen, elastic

fibers; decrease in sebaum production, decrease in melanin
production, decrease in content and decomposition of cutaneous
fat.

Disorders of the skin

There are several types of skin disorders associated with the skin.
Some of them are infectious (contagious) or non-infectious.

These disorders include acne, athletes foot, boils, fever blisters,

impetigo, warts, alopecia, burns, calluses (corns), cancers,
dandruff, eczema, moles psoriasis and others.

Contagious skin disorders

A.

Contagious disorders are caused by bacteria or virus or fungus

Acne: characterized by plugged hair follicles that form pimples.

Caused by bacteria, prevalent in teenage years.

Boils: painful infection of hair follicles and sebaceous glands by

Staphylococcus bacteria.

Fever blisters: cold soresfluid filled blisters on the lips or oral

membrane caused by Herpes simplex virus and transmitted by
oral and respiratory exposure. Genital Herpes are painful blisters
on the genitals and transmitted by sexual contact.

Impetigo: highly contagious skin infection caused by bacteria,

occurs in children and characterized by fluid-filled pustules
forming yellow crust over infected area.

Warts: small skin tumors caused by viral infection that stimulate

excessive growth of epithelial cells

B. Non-contagious skin disorders

Alopecia: loss of hair (pattern baldness) is most prevalent in

males and inherited. May also be caused by factors such as poor
nutrition, sensitivity to drugs, and eczema.

Eczema: inflammation producing redness, itching, scalding and

cracking of skin. Seborrheic eczema is produced by hyperactivity of
the sebaceous glands.

Psoriasis: a chronic dermatitis characterized by reddish raised

patches of skin covered with whitish scales. Result from excessive
cell production caused by emotional stress or poor health. Occurs
often on the buttocks, elbows, scalp and knees. Others conditions
are: dandruff, cancers, calluses, hives, burnes.