Calculating Stresses PDF

CAESAR II Statics Video Training Series
Calculating Stresses
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CAESAR II Statics - Calculating Stresses
CAESAR II Statics - Lesson One Video One

1. Welcome to the CAESAR II training classes video courses online. This is the second in the
CAESAR II Video Training Series. The first one was on the fundamental operation of the
program. Now we're going to talk about static analysis of piping systems using CAESAR II.
Our first focus will be on the stresses that we calculate in the program. Many people call
CAESAR II a pipe stress analysis program. CAESAR II does more than just calculating stress,
but as the major portion of the program, we'll take a close look in this set of videos on the
stresses that we calculate.
2. The stresses are a measure of the mechanical demand on the piping material, and a safe
piping system is one where the calculated stresses throughout the system are kept
below the code defined allowable limit. Now, when we say code, we mean the piping code.
In the United States, for example, that is ASME B31.3, the process piping code.
There are over 30 different piping codes in CAESAR II, and they all have their own specific
rules for evaluating stress in the piping system. We'll be looking at things such as what is that
stress that we're calculating? What is its limit? How do you design the piping system to meet
those limits?
3. When the program displays its results, it will indicate a failure in the stress calculation by the
red line in the Load Case. In this example, I'm in the static output processor and Load Case 3,
and the expansion stress range case is in red. This indicates to me that if I look at that report,
the stress report, the stresses will exceed the allowable stresses at one or more points in the
piping system.
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4. Let's take a look at the model. I'm in the CAESAR II input processor now and we're using the
model we built previously, called SIMPLE. I will go into the input processor and we're going
to review it.
5. We can see that the element from 10 to 20 was the

horizontal run, with an elbow at 20. The next element, 20
to 30, is the riser. The tee is at 30. Nodes 30 to 40 ends
the vertical run at the anchor and the reduced pipe size is
on the branch off the tee from node 30 to node 50. This is
the model that we built earlier.
6. We are now going to error check this model by clicking

on the Start Run button.
7. We see we have no errors; we can run this

model. There are no warnings issued by the
program.
8. The only item we have here is the note,

which is our standard Center of Gravity
Report. It tells us the center of gravity of
just the pipe or the whole system
together, the total dead weight. After that
the report will show the position of that
center of gravity.
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9. Usually when I run a job for the first time, I always click on each of these independently:
Start Run, then the Load Cases, and then the Batch Run.
Many users, when they build their model, will click on the Batch Run. Using this procedure
causes the system to do this error check and use the default Load Cases. This might cause
you to overlook some warning from the program. So I suggest for the first pass, you always
click on the Start Run button first and look at the messages.
10. Let's take a look at our Load Cases for this model.
And yes, this is what we expect, the operating state of the system, the installed state (OPE),
the sustained stress calculations, code stress calculations (SUS), and then the range
calculation, the displacement range between the operating and installed positions (EXP). That
is useful for the expansion stress calculations.
11. Those are the recommended Load Cases. I will click the Batch Run
button now. This is that same Running Man, at this point, that we saw
earlier. This will run the analysis.
12. The next stop will be the output processor. So here we are with the output processor of
CAESAR II. Again, this is the job Simple. We see that we had three Load Cases defined,
operating, installed or sustained, and expansion stress range. We have these different
reports available for those three Load Cases.
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13. We're going to first focus on just the overstressed case (Load Case 3, EXP). When we see a
Load Case that is in red, that indicates to me that the program has calculated stress above the
allowable in that Load Case.
14. I'll select Load Case 3, EXP, then I'll click on Stresses. Next, I want to generate a report, so
we'll click on View Reports. This will display the report on the screen. I can also send it out
to a file, send it out to a printer, or send it to Microsoft Word or Microsoft Excel. We'll display it
on the screen.
15. So here I am in the output processor. This is the stress report, Load Case 3 stresses. This is
the expansion case, Load Case 3. So we are, again, repeating the Load Case that we were
looking at. Now I have a series of disconnected column headings.
Column Headings
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16. As I mentioned before, the columns are disconnected by this stress summary. Below the
summary are the node numbers. If I scroll down, the rows in the table shift up and the table
looks complete. There's a column for node, bending stress, torsion stress, code stress, and so
on.
17. Let's take another look at the summary section of the report. The summary begins by
showing us what piping code we're using, ASME B31.3 - 2012. Again, we see the message
that the code stress check failed for the expansion Load Case.
Now, the highest stress in the system, and maybe not the only overstressed point, is listed in
this summary. Code stress at node 30 is 423.6 MPa. The allowable stress is 324 MPa. It is
30% over the allowable limit defined by B31.3 - 2012.
There are some other stresses listed as well, axial stress, bending stress, torsion, hoop,
maximum stress intensity. We'll talk about those later.
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18. If we look at the list of numbers below, we see every node in the system, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, is
shown here. We also see some other nodes here, 18, 19. These are for the elbows.
st
1 Element
nd
2 Element
rd
3 Element
We have one elbow in the system. This is the beginning of the elbow (node 18), midpoint of
the elbow (node 19), and end of the elbow (node 20). The beginning and end could be the
same as our weld points on that elbow, and we also see they are in pairs. These are element
by element pairs.
Scanning through the numbers, here is that node 30 (near the bottom in the figure above).
Again, the summary said this node was stressed 30% over the allowable. The Ratio column
here shows it at 130 (130% of the allowable). So the row displayed in red-- and if you can't
see red, perhaps you'll notice the * star shown-- is the overstressed point. Any stress that
exceeds 100% of the allowed value from the piping code will also be displayed in red and with
an asterisk.
So our code stress is calculated as 423 MPa, and our limit was 324 MPa. We'll talk more
about these numbers later.
19. If we look back at the summary section again, these are the different types of stresses that we
didn't talk about earlier. The report columns only list values for the bending stress, torsion
stress, and the code stress. However, the summary includes axial stress, hoop stress, max
stress intensity.
Those numbers are available as well, but not through this report. Let's look for more
information on those stresses.
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20. Go back to the Output menu, and instead of selecting Stresses, I will click on the Stresses
Extended report.
This will give me an extended width of the display and put in more columns in our table. View
that report.
21. This is Stresses Extended report, stresses on each element and, yes, axial stress, bending,
torsion, hoop, maximum stress intensity are displayed in this report. As I scroll down the
columns now line up with data, and if I was interested in any of these, I would have values to
use.
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22. Now the piping code does not offer an allowable stress for these columns. Frankly I'm only
interested in the code stress and its allowable. But if you do have an interest in other
calculations or, if you want, you could use these to diagnose problems elsewhere.
For example here, our code stress is 423 MPa. It's almost all bending stress (396.09), so we
can relate it like that. Now we'll move onto a graphic representation of this data. We'll start by
closing out this report.
23. From the toolbar, I can see this elbow here.

This is the 3D Plot display button. I can click
on this 3D Plot display button and it will
open up the plot processor.
24. Along the top is the same toolbar that we saw earlier in the Input Processor, but there's
another toolbar here as well for the Output Processor. We are looking at the expansion case
here. Usually when I look at the model for the first time, I'll go to the operating case, when
it's hot and in operation, with all the weight on it.
25. Then I'll click on this first button here, Deflected

Shape.
25
The system displays the deflected pipe in a bronze color, which shows the deflected shape.
The display is not to

scale, but it does give
us an idea of where
the system is moving
to when it goes into
operation.
26. If we click the Orbit button we can start to view the system.
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I can see how the branch pipe

pushes out to the riser, and I can
see how the elbow grows away,
and the bending on these legs.
This is probably what we would
expect to see. The anchors are
acting like anchors. So this visual
check is a good way to confirm
your boundary conditions, and see
if they're working properly.
27. Now let's take a look at some other things

here as well. I'm going to go back to our
expansion case, because that's what we
were looking at in terms of stress. The
change in position is now shown.
This is not a true state of the piping system, because it's the change in the piping system, but
we can display numbers on the screen as well.
28. We have this Show Element Grid

button, or we can just click on a
piece of pipe to do the same thing.
Let's click on this piece of pipe,
and now we have this grid.
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29. Hold down the mouse button in the orange header area of the grid window. Drag it up
and over to the left and snap it to the side. The grid contains all the numbers for this model.
30. Click on Stresses for the Expansion case. We can see on the element 30 to 50 the code
stress, which is 30% over the allowable. So we can easily review numbers while looking at the
plot at the same time. This is a very good way to diagnose problems in your piping system.
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31. We also have another way we can review this data graphically. Instead of looking at the
deflected shape, look at the overstressed points. We can use Stress colors by percent,
Overstress, Maximum Stress, Stress by colors by value. I want to look at Stress colors by
percent.
32. Click on the Stress colors by percent button.

Reset the plot to the Southeast view.
33. If we see red, that is greater than 100%. If the pipe is burgundy, it is between 80 and 100%.
So we see some burgundy colored pipe in this display.
34. The pipe displayed in red near the branch. To make it a little easier to see, let's get rid of
these other colors, and change them to white.
35. When the colors are set to white, and when we exit the job, these settings will be stored on the
machine. So the next time we come into this file, our updated colors will appear. Changing
the colors like this makes it easier to see that the branch off of the tee is what is overstressed.
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36. To change the colors click on one of the colors you want to change. Click the button with
the dots (browse button), select the color white, and then click OK.
Do this for each color except red.
37. Now you can see the overstressed areas of the line more easily.
OK, get your model to this point. Review what we've covered and repeat these steps. Make
sure you can do this much and that you understand what's been covered to now.
We will pick up on the stress analysis after that.
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CAESAR II Statics - Lesson One Video Two
1. We're back in our model and now we'll go to the report and review the data on that report.
This report is the stress report and includes the name of the job, and to whom the software is
licensed to. It's best to take a look at the header bar to see what the report is that you're
looking at, and it will define the load case that comes out of CAESAR II.
2. We see here many different columns. Fortunately for us, we're viewing the entire model's
report (minus the stress summary which we'll talk about later). This is the entire model from 10
to 40 and 30 to 50.
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3. The report is listed by elements. So we see here focusing first on the node numbers, each
element is listed in this report as basically the free body diagram of the element.
The forces and moments to keep that free body in equilibrium are then used to calculate
stresses on the elements. We see a number of stresses listed. We have Bending Stress,
Torsion Stress, Code Stress, and Allowable Stress. Which is the stress we have to look at?
Which one's important to us?
4. Well, in my opinion, the code stress is the money stress as far as I would call it. We want to
compare the calculated code stress to the allowable stress defined by the piping code. The
line in red indicates that the branch at node 30 exceeds the allowable. The calculated stress is
423 MPa, and the allowable stress is calculated as 324 MPa. We are 30% over the allowable
stress.
5. So the system is overstressed in accordance with B31.3. Now, what does this actually mean
that we are overstressed in the expansion case? Well, according to code, we may fail this Tee
over time through fatigue. A through the wall crack might develop at that point. We really can't
say when, but assuming a certain number of cycles for this plant, it is not an initial failure, but a
failure that will happen sometime in the future.
6. In order to assure a safe design, we'll have to redesign the system in order to drop that code
stress below the code defined allowable stress. Now, what is that code stress equation? The
following figure shows what B31.3 gives us in paragraph 319.4.4(a).
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7. It says the expansion stress range equals the square root of the absolute value of the axial
stress due to displace strains (that's our thermal strain), plus the bending stress at that point,
also due to displacement strains
That squared plus two times the shear stress squared to that. So we need the square root of
the sum of the squares.
What can we learn from this formula? Well, let's talk about evaluating stress.
8. Basically, if node 10 and node 20 are on each end of the pipe element below, we're going to
calculate stress on each end. We need some kind of accounting system for all the terms that
we have to consider. We're going to relate our stresses to a local coordinate system. The
local coordinate system being the longitudinal stress term (stress along the pipe), the hoop
stress (or circumferential stress around the circumference), and the radial stress through the
wall of the pipe.
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9. If I would create a little stress element on the wall of

the pipe here, it would look like the stress cube
shown here. We have the longitudinal stress (shown
pointing to the right), and a shear stress (normal to
the tail of the longitudinal stress vector). The shear
stress is caused by torsion on the line. On the near
surface we have hoop stress, in the hoop direction,
and the shear stress. On the outside wall, we have
the radial stress.
Hoop Stress
Shear Stress Longitudinal Stress
10. We will use this stress cube to get back to that equation we saw earlier. Here are all the terms
that we're going to work with.
What we're going to do is ask, are longitudinal stress caused by thermal strain? We're looking
at expansion stress calculation. We'll have the axial term; the axial force due to stress.
Axial Term
Bending Term
The axial force is divided by the cross section of the metal, and the bending moment will be
divided by the section modulus of the pipe. Now, this will be changing through the wall of the
pipe, so we want the maximum longitudinal bending stress, and that would be at the outside of
the wall, the surface of the pipe.
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11. We have very low stress in the hoop direction caused by thermal strain. Typically, hoop stress
is considered when we're talking about pressure stress. We'll talk about that later. But right
now we've basically got what's required as far as the code is concerned. We're heating up this
piping system without any regard for pressure or dead weight. It's like we're in outer space
and we're heating up this piping system. There's no dead weight here. Radial stress is also
zero.
12. So we have a longitudinal stress. We have no hoop stress caused by thermal strain, and no
radial stress caused by thermal strain. Shear stress is caused by the torsion. So the base
equation, torsion divided by two times that same section modulus is the shear stress on the
stress element. We might have a direct shear as well, but on the outside wall, where we have
our maximum bending stress that would be zero. So we're going to exclude that from our
calculation.
So we only have the axial load, the bending term, and the torsion term remaining in our
calculation, by code.
13. If I go back to my cube, the radial term is zero, the hoop term is zero,
and I have just the shear term, and the longitudinal stress term, how
does that look?
If I look down from the top of that cube, I have a longitudinal
stress and the shear terms. Do I have a limit for longitudinal? Do
I have a limit for shear? No.
What the codes do is they take this stress element, and rotate it
in the space, to get a maximum principle stress or a maximum
shearing stress.
In our next video, we'll explore how we can convert this combination of stresses into a
simplified evaluation of the total stress on the stress element.
35
CAESAR II Statics - Lesson One Video Three
1. OK, now let's convert these general stresses into

stresses that are used by the piping code.
Remember that if I have a stress cube, and we are
looking at a static analysis, that system is in
equilibrium. It's not moving. It's stable. All the
forces and moments are balanced.
So if I look at my stress cube, this surface back
here has a shear term on it. Shear times area is a load.
Here's a direct stress. Direct stress times area is a load.
So I've got loads in the vertical and horizontal directions shown here on the illustration.
2. Let's cut a new surface here. The force on this new

surface must balance out the remaining forces on the other
surfaces. So if I have forces I can calculate stress. I have
a direct stress and a shear stress on this new diagonal
face. We have an existing shear stress on the horizontal
face, and both shear and direct stresses on the vertical
face.
3. I can, with some work, calculate the stress on this new (diagonal) face. A convenient tool that
we have to do this transformation for the stresses on the new face is Mohr's Circle. Given the
stress, direct stress and shear stress, on the original faces, I can develop a new set of
numbers for the new face based on the angle and those loads.
So let's look at Mohr's Circle. Here's an example.
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On the horizontal axis, we have our direct term. On the vertical axis, we have our shear stress
term.
On this face we have SL and -. I'm going to say shear is positive clockwise.
So there's SL negative tau (-).
The other face has only shear stress and no direct stress, so direct stress
is zero, shear stress is tau. Here's the other point.
4. These two points now establish this circle called Mohr's Circle. This is a locus of points that
will have the direct stress and shear stress on the new face.
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If I plot it this way, then I rotate for the new face in this direction, angle phi, then based on this
rotation, here are my new stresses on that new face. Given the two points I can develop the
circle, and that will allow me to calculate the stresses on any angle phi. So here's my new
stress on that face.
5. Now I don't really care about any general angle; I'm most interested in the limits of this circle.
Generally speaking, in Mohr's Circle, we will have, on a 3-D surface, three principals stresses.
A principal stress is a stress where there is no shear term. It's the orientation of that face of
that cube where there is no shear.
We have that at three places here. We have the S1
defined as the largest principal stress. S3 is the
smallest principal stress. Remember that we had a 0
term in the radial direction, that 0 stress, which will be
S2. So we have the tension stress S1, compression
stress S3, and then the radial term, the third surface
which will be 0.
6. We have three stresses on our stress cube, and we've

rotated in space. We have three surfaces here. If I use Mohr's
circle, I can rotate this cube in space to a position where I get purely
normal stresses on those three faces.
Where does that happen? It happens at these three points. So S1, reorient the cube to get
the maximum principal stress, principal stress is normal to the face and no shear exists. The
minimum here is out here at S3 by definition, which is in compression. It's on the negative
side. Then again, S2, our radial term, is 0.
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7. The piping code theory of failure is maximum

sheer stress. If the sheer stress exceeds a
certain value, we assume that causes the failure
of the material. There are many different
theories of failure. Maximum shearing stress is a
quite useful one for us. The maximum shearing
stress is this value here.
We're also going to be able to relate that to the radius of Mohr's Circle, which is also then
related to the diameter Mohr's Circle. We could also talk about S1 minus S3, the diameter of
Mohr's Circle. This is twice the maximum shearing stress.
8. So we're going to use the maximum shearing stress theory of failure. We want to know what
the maximum shearing stress on this piece of pipe is. So I have a complex state of stress; I
have longitudinal stress and shear stress. How does that relate to this maximum shearing
term?
Well the nice thing about it is that now I don't have to worry about what is the magnitude of SL
and what is two times the shear term. Instead I'll just get you one number, maximum shearing
stress, and use that to compare with the failure.
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What is the maximum shearing stress here? Well I'll draw this triangle. There's my vertical run
(that's two times tau): positive tau and negative tau. The horizontal run here is SL minus 0, or
the longitudinal stress or bending term. So with those two sides of the right triangle given, I
can calculate the diameter of Mohr's Circle here. For this calculation, just take the hypotenuse
and divide by 2.
So this is our equation for the calculated stress in our
expansion case.
9. Of course we're interested in the maximum

shearing stress, but what the code will do in terms of
simplification is basically get rid of that 2 that we're
dividing by. So instead of dividing by 2 here, multiply
both sides by 2. So 2 times the maximum shearing
stress equals this equation.
10. Compare that now to the code equation. Well it has

the same format exactly. Here's a longitudinal term,
which is a direct axial load. There's our bending term. Square it. That's SL2, and here's our 2
times the shear term.
So we have bending stress and shear stress caused by torsion on the element and also any
direct axial load. The direct axial load is taken absolutely. T he code simplifies and gets rid of
the sign. We want to acknowledge that there might be some additional direct axial stress on
the line as well.
11. Like most piping codes, B31.3

will use this maximum shearing
stress theory of failure to
evaluate the strength of the
piping system. So this is our
equation from the code for the
expansion stress range
calculation, and what we'll do in
our next video is go from that
equation, to the output report in
CAESAR II.
40
CAESAR II Statics - Lesson One Video Four
1. Now we're going to see how we can tie this calculated stress into an overstress at node 30 in
our piping system. We're going to be reviewing the expansion stress range, the code defines
the case that we're looking at (see the following figure) as the expansion stress calculation,
and the code says, here's our equation for the expansion stress range, and that's the equation
we just developed. This is equation 17 in the B31.3, 2012 Edition. It is found in paragraph
319.4.4 Flexibility Stresses in the code. They define these terms, SE is the computed
displacement stress range.
2. There is no dead weight in this; there is no pressure. It's just displacement stress range. Sa is
the axial stress range due to displacement strains. Sb is the resultant bending stress, again,
due to displacement strains, and St is torsional stresses, due to displacement strains. The
code goes on the state, in paragraph 302.3.5(d) that this calculated stress shall not exceed SA.
So all the piping codes that we use in CAESAR II have a similar type of calculation. A
calculated stress must be less than some allowable stress.
In doing this evaluation, if every point is below that allowable stress, the system is considered
reliable for operation. So here's our equation again, SE equals the absolute value of the axial
stress, plus the bending stress, that quantity squared, plus two times the torsion stress, that
quantity squared, square root. Sa is the axial stressed range of displacement.
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3. The code defines the axial stress range as an intensification factor times a direct axial load
caused by displacement strains divided by the area of the pipe (the cross section area of the
pipe).
4. This is a rather new equation for B31.3, the expansion stress range, and in fact, this term ia
appears for the first time in the 2012 Edition. This intensification factor changes our calculation
from a true calculated stress to an effective stress. It's an adjustment factor. This i is an
adjustment factor, to relate the relative weakness of a component. You will see that elbows
and tees have higher values of ia, and for all the intensification factors. Straight pipe does not
have a value; it's just equal to one.
5. So the piping codes use this intensification factor to adjust the stress calculation to reflect the
weakness of the component under evaluation. An elbow is weaker than a butt weld in a
straight pipe. This would mean that the elbow has a higher stress intensification factor than a
butt weld. A welding tee, or an unreinforced fabricated tee, also has its own stress
intensification factor reflecting the weakness of that component compared to a butt weld.
If I have, for example, a girth butt weld and expose it to cyclic stresses, let's say a range of
stress of 200 MPa that fails after 5,000 cycles. But an elbow, being a weaker component,
would fail at 5,000 cycles with only 100 MPa. So the elbow it has less stress level to reach the
same failure point.
The piping codes generally calculate a nominal stress, force over area, or moment divided by
section modulus, and then increases that nominal stress to account for the weakness of the
component being evaluated. This increase in the calculated stress is the stress
intensification factor. In the program you'll see it termed as SIF, for stress intensification
factor, or italic lowercase i, stress intensification factor.
6. So a larger SIF indicates a weaker component; weakness in terms of the fatigue strength that
we're talking about here in the expansion stress range, or weakness in terms of collapse,
which we'll talk about later. By increasing the calculated stress, the stress limit is now
independent of component shape. I don't care if you're talking about a tee, or an elbow, or a
butt weld, or a socket weld. If I assign the right stress intensification factor, my measure of
failure is based on the piping material itself, and not on the component shape.
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7. Here's an example, so let's have a girth butt weld on a cantilevered piece of pipe and I cycle
that cantilever up and down until it fails.
Let's say I can get the failure exactly at 10,000 cycles with a stress range (fatigue calculations),
a stress range of 260 MPa. I pull it up, get a positive 130 MPa, then I push it down to get
negative 130 MPa, and it fails after 10,000 cycles. Now let's say I set up an elbow in the same
test stand, and I miraculously have it fail at the same 10,000 cycles. But I can get the elbow to
fail at 10,000 cycles, not with 260 MPa stress range, but instead let's say it is 130 MPa instead;
it has half the stress range allowable. Well, instead of using a lower allowable stress for the
elbow, what the piping codes do is they increase the calculated stress.
8. So if the elbow fails at the same time but with half the stress, its stress intensification factor
then will be two. So we'll calculate the same stress level, we'll double to calculated stress from
130 to 260, and then I can base my allowable stress on the piping material itself, low carbon
steel, for example. It has a certain stress allowable and we compare to that allowable stress.
This was looking at one stress intensification factor for the axial term. There are intensification
factors for most terms of load in the piping codes.
We'll pick up in the next session looking at some of those other terms.
43
CAESAR II Statics - Lesson One Video Five
1. Now let's take a look at some of these other terms that we have in our expansion stress range
calculations. Here's the bending term. Sb is the resultant bending stress range due to
displacement strains. B31.3 provides equation 18 to define Sb, the bending stress range.
There is our intensification factor, i but its ii. That's the in-plane stress intensification factor.
There is also an in-plane bending moment and out-plane bending moment, and it's associated
out-plane stress intensification factors. That is all divided by the section modulus for the pipe.
2. Section modulus is a common piping term. It is basically the moment of inertia, I, divided by
the radius of the pipe. Of course in bending stress calculation, the bending stress is Mc/I
where c is the point through the cross section where we wish to calculate the stress. Our
highest stress is on the outer wall, so c equals the outer wall or the radius of the pipe.
3. So the Z term is just I/r. So instead of talking about Mc/I like other mechanical engineers might
use it, we're going to say for pipers, it's M/Z. The same term.
We can see that we might have a different stress intensification factor for an in-plane bending
moment than we would for an out-plane bending; whether it's a tee or an elbow or any other
planar component in a piping system.
44
4. Let's define in-plane and out-of-plane bending. If I have an elbow and I throw it on the floor, it
lies in the plane of the floor. Suppose I put a bending moment on one end or the other end of
that elbow, and that bending moment is not torsion. If I pull the elbow out of the floor plane,
that's an out-plane bending moment. If I put a bending moment on the elbow and it remains in
the plane to the floor, that's an in-plane bending moment. So the vector for this bending term
for in-plane bending is perpendicular to the plane of the component. The same is true with a
tee. If I have a tee and I put it on the floor, the bending moment that pulls it off the floor, one
end or any of the three elements framing the tee - that would be an out-of-plane bending.
5. Let's go back to our elbow stress intensification factors. There are different stress levels
required to develop a through the wall crack for in-plane and out-of-plane bending. Stress
intensification factors are different for different directions. We already saw one for the axial
term. Here we see two common terms for elbows and tees, for in-plane bending. We have a
certain level where we reach failure for this, versus an out-plane bending, which will be at a
different level. So the piping codes have defined different terms for in and out-of-plane
bending.
6. The last component of our calculated stress is our torsion stress. B31.3 gives us an equation
for that. Torsion stress is an intensification factor, but this for the torque term, times the torsion
in the line (the torsion bending moment) divided by 2 times the section modulus. Again, these
terms are defined in the piping code.
7. Where do we get the stress intensification factors? We've seen several of them. We saw an
it , an ii , and an io. Where do those values come from?
45
8. If we take a look at appendix D of B31.3 entitled Flexibility and Stress Intensification Factors,
we can see they have values defined for stress intensification factors, both out-plane and inplane. We have illustrations shown for an elbow, a closely mitered joint, a widely spaced joint,
a welding tee, and reinforced fabricated tee. These values are based on the geometry of the
component.
46
9. On this page, we also wee the unreinforced fabricated tee, the extruded welding tee, the
welded in contour insert (Sweep-o-let), and the branch welded on fitting (Weld-o-let). There
also SIF's for other joints in a piping system. The other piping codes have similar tables. The
tables may not be exactly the same, but they will also be used to define the intensification
factor for these piping components in those respective codes.
10. These SIFs, or stress intensification factors, are based on testing done back in the late 1940s
by A. R. C. Markl, who was the chief engineer at Tube Turns, a piping component
manufacturing company. He and his team developed these stress specification factors based
on testing.
If you wish to reference these papers, they are still very good documents in terms of pipe
stress. The ASME papers that Markl developed are still available from the company Tube
Turns in the US.
47
11. So what are the stress intensification factors in and out-of-plane for a welding tee? Well, first
we see a calculation in Appendix D will be for a flexibility character h. It defines h as 3.1 times
the nominal thickness of the matching pipe for the tee divided by the mean radius of the
matching pipe for the tee. So it uses the size the pipe that is connected to the tee.
12. Basically it's the nominal thickness divided by the radius of the pipe times 3.1. This came from
testing. The out-plane SIF defined in the piping code is 0.9 divided by h to the 2/3. The inplane is 3/4 of the out-plane plus a quarter. What the program will do for you is based on your
geometry, calculate ii and io and the other terms ia and it, and apply them to your piping system
calculations.
OK, let's put these terms back into our example models in our next presentation!
48
CAESAR II Statics - Lesson One Video Six
1. So let's put these back into our example. In the figure below, we can see the pipe data for our
system and below that is the stress intensification factor calculations.
The pipe data contains information on the OD, wall thickness, OD and wall thickness with a
header pipe, or the run pipe-- this is our branch pipe. Radius of the branch pipe, ID of the
branch pipe, area of the branch pipe, moment of inertia and section modulus of the branch.
And then again, the SIF's for the intersection itself. These are ii and io. We also will develop
from there some other terms before we can do our calculation.
49
2. We also have some additional terms, shown in the figure which follows.
3. One comment in B31.3 is that when you have a reduced branch on a tee, you will adjust the
strength of the intersection by not changing the SIF. The way B 31.3 developed this was to
reduce the section modulus calculation to increase the calculated stress for the branch.
So we will need that term as well. Again, the program takes care of all these calculations.
For the axial term's intensification factor, the code says it equals the outplane SIF for a tee. The torsion term's intensification factor is equal to 1; in
other words, there's no value to increase the calculated stress.
4. In the following figure are the loads on our tee. We will use these loads with these terms, and
also the terms on the previous page in order to calculate the code defined stress for the branch
pipe on our tee. Where do these numbers come from? Well, they're developed by CAESAR
II. It's a preliminary calculation before we get the stress.
50
5. So what are these terms?

Well, the first one listed is the axial load on the branch. It's the load pulling this branch off
the tee.
Next is the torsion term twisting this run
of pipe, twisting the branch. Following
that is in-plane bendingthis is the
bending moment that keeps the tee in its
existing plane. If this anchor was not at
node 50, I could pull this free end up and
down in the plane of the tee. That means in this case, in-plane bending is about the X axis.
The last one is out-plane bending will occur if I take node 50 and pull it towards me; I'm
pulling the branch out of its plane. That would be bending about the Y axis, globally. That's
my out of plane bending moment. CAESAR II produces these numbers for us as well in
reports as part of the output. Let's look at them.
6. Here's my report from CAESAR II. I'm looking at node 30 going to node 50. The axial term is
in the Z direction. So lets look at the global force in the Z direction.
51
Here's a little free-body diagram of 30 to 50. It shows it's in the positive Z direction. Well,
positive Z is to the left; it's an axial term here. That is actually considered compression in
CAESAR II, which is why we have a negative sign in the computed value. So the program is
keeping track of the orientation locally of the element with the loads on that element. The red
arrows indicate the local forces and moments on node 30, and the magnitudes come from the
results in the next table below.
7. So we have our axial term in the Z direction. MZ is a torsion term. Next is the in-plane
bending again, which would be a vector bending about the X axis pointing out to us. This
would mean bending node 50 straight up and down. That would be the in-plane bending. Inplane bending is the MX term, the moment around X.
8. The out-plane bending is the bending moment on the branch that pulls the branch out of the
plane of the tee. That's bending about the Y axis. So if node 50 was not anchored, it would be
the bending moment associated with bringing node 50 towards us or pushing it away from us,
pulling it out of the plane. This is how we'll determine in- and out-of-plane bending of that tee.
With these loads in the system geometry, CAESAR II will proceed to calculate the code
stresses we reviewed earlier.
52
9. Here's an illustration of these calculations using the MathCAD application. We can use this
program to manually calculate, by equation, those same stresses.
10. We see in the following figure the pipe OD and wall thickness, both for the branch and the
header pipe. The derived values, the radius of the pipe, the value h is a flexibility characteristic
defined in Appendix D of the B31.3 piping code. We also see values for the in- and out-ofplane stress intensification factors from the appendix. Also shown is the moment of inertia
section modulus and so on.
53
11. Scrolling down through this report we see the same forces and moments for our stress
calculations as shown as calculated using MathCAD. In this analysis for the expansion case,
pressure is set to 0 because we're not looking at pressure in this analysis.
If I look at the calculations performed by MathCAD, here they are: axial stress, bending stress,
torsion stress, and the expansion stress range.
54
12. Now let's look at the CAESAR report.

Here we see in the extended report the list for Axial Stress, Bending Stress, Torsion Stress,
Hoop Stress, Max Stress Intensity, and finally, Code Stress. Our focus here is on the Code
Stress calculation.
13. So here's the expansion stress

range, MathCAD calculated 423.59
and CAESAR II calculated showing
423.60. That's a match.
That's the value for stress, and it's made up of these

three components.
14. An interesting thing with CAESAR II is that we list Axial Stress, Bending Stress, Torsion
Stress, but these are basic textbook calculations that may not vary between piping codes. The
stresses shown in the previous figure (Sa, Sb, and St) are quite specific for B31.3.
55
15. If I look at my axial stress that I calculate for my expansion stress range, I get minus 26.79
MPa. What does CAESAR II show? It shows 11.51 MPa. So CAESAR II is returning the pure
structural load, axial load, divided by the area of the pipe, giving me 11.5. So this is a generic
axial stress without regard for this new stress intensification factor we have in B31.3.
16. The bending term does match up. I got 396, and there's my 396. So in this column of
CAESAR II we do use SIF's, or stress intensification factors, for the bending term.
17. In the torsion column, my calculation from the code appears to be minus 12 MPa. If I look at
my listing here, it says minus 10.
This difference is from a note in the code which states that if I have a
reduced outlet on the branch connection at a tee, I shall use an effective section modulus
calculation. So here in this column, the torsion stress, it is the effective section modulus
calculation. When I add up all these terms together, I get my calculated stress of 423.59 MPa.
So now you can see how detailed some of these calculations are. These decisions made by
the software in using SIF's, in using effective section modulus versus actual section modulus
are illustrated in this section of the course.
56
CAESAR II Statics - Lesson One Video Seven
1. OK, in our previous video we were reviewing the expansion stress calculations. Let's move on
and look at a few more calculations in the output report.
2. Sustained calculations will be reviewed next.
Before we start looking at the stress report, let's
collect our terms that we need to work with. First,
here is a listing of the sustained stress indices, the
capital I. We also call it the SSI, or Sustained
Stress Index. This is new to 31.3, and the SSI for
sustained stresses is a function of the stress
intensification factor that we had from the
expansion case.
3. Our in-plane SSI is 1.5, out-plane is 1.75, torsion and axial are set at 1 flat. Again, we're
looking at the outlet on the tee, node 30. So we also collect-- these are the SSIs for the
branch.
Here are the local forces and moments for our stress calculations, the axial load, in-plane
bending moment, out-plane bending moment, and torsion.
57
4. So we assign those values. We also have the pressure term as well. These
will all be used to calculate the sustained stress in accordance with B 31.3.
5. Here's our calculation. We have our axial stress calculation, our bending stress and our
torsion stress. These terms are combined in order to calculate the longitudinal stress due to
sustained loads.
Our calculated value using MathCAD is 13.33, and yes, we have 13.33 in our CAESAR II
output report. The allowable stress for those collapse loads or the collapse stresses are
132.12 MPa. That's the hot allowable stress for this node in the piping system.
58

6. Other stresses that we have
in the program are the calculations
for the Axial, Bending, Torsion and
Hoop stress that we see in extended
report. Again this is for node 30.
There are 12.93, and you can then
review all the rest of these. And yes,
we're calculating these stresses in
CAESAR II using these equations.
7. Note here that on the
bending stress, it is not the capital I
that we saw in the stress calculation.
Again, we consider these more the
textbook calculations of stress, and
our interest is mainly on the code
stress calculation.
8. Now what of this other calculation, Maximum Stress Intensity that appears in the CAESAR II
output report shown earlier? Well, there's a little more to talk about in that one. This is a
stress that is calculated at four points across the cross section.
59
If I take my resultant bending moment and lay it on the pipe, I

have, and using the right-hand rule, the side of this pipe at
points 1 and 2 is in tension, due to this bending moment, and
the side at points 3 and 4 is in compression. We're pulling out
towards us, in 1 and 2. We're pushing in, in 3 and 4.
9. We're
going to calculate stresses on the outside
surface, inside surface, on both the tension
and compression side. Also, it's not just with
the bending term, but with all three directionsaxial, hoop, and the radial term.
10. So here are the terms, these four points. Each row represents a point. The first point is the
first row in this vector. The second point is the second row, and so forth. We're calculating
longitudinal stress at point one, two, three, four. Hoop stress is calculated at one, two, three,
four. The hoop stress calculation is the Lam equation for hoop stress, based on the inside
and outside radius of the pipe.
11. Longitudinal stress should be familiar. It's the axial term, and the bending term, outside radius,
inside radius. Radial stress is 0 on the outside surfaces, but negative P (it's the compressive
radial stress on the inside surface of the pipe). The shear stresses are the basic shear term,
outside radius, inside radius based on torsion.
60
12. We're going to calculate these four stresses at these four points through the cross section. We
will then take them to Mohr's Circle, and then calculate the three principle stresses based on
these four terms.
13. This will give us the center of Mohr's Circle, in longitudinal hoop's term.
This is the radius of Mohr's Circle.
So when I add the radius to the center, I

get one of the three principal stresses.
I subtract the radius from Mohr's Circle,

and I get the second of the principal
stresses.
The third term will just be the radial term. So these are our three stresses
on Mohr's Circle, where there is no shear term.
61
14. Well, I can't tell you which one is the maximum in order to get S1 minus S3.
Again, stress intensity is the diameter of the largest Mohr's Circle, S1 minus S3. But I don't
know which one's which. So I can sort these three different stresses at the four points, and
here they are. Here's the Sa at 1, Sa at 2, and Sa at 3.
15. This is on the outside surface in the tension side (1), inside surface tension (2), inside surface
compression (3), outside surface compression (4). Then we sort these terms so that we get
them in order, and then calculate the largest difference between 1 and 3.
62
Then we sort them again, and our maximum stress intensity, which comes out to 30.88 when
calculated using MathCAD.
Looking again at our CAESAR II report we see we get the same value.
63
16. There is another switch you can set in the program, in the configuration file to use either the
octahedral shearing stress calculation, or the equivalent stress calculation.
In CAESAR II, what we do is run the octahedral shearing stress calculation to calculate this
octahedral stress calculation. S1 minus S2, the quantity squared; S2 minus S3, the quantity
squared; S3 minus S1, the quantity squared. We then take the square root of that, multiplied
by one third, and that's going to be our octahedral shearing stress.
17. So that value is 12.61. Again, we don't offer any allowable limits for that; it's more of a textbook
calculation.
That pretty much covers the stress calculations in CAESAR II. We'll move onto one final
section in the next video to conclude this discussion.
64
CAESAR II Statics - Lesson One Video Eight

1. All right, we're about ready to wrap up the discussion on stress calculations in CAESAR II. If
you recall, I made several comments on code stresses or textbook stresses. I want to go back
to one more point on this code stress.
2. Again, in CAESAR II, we calculate code-defined stresses and we compare them to the codedefined limits. If you have an overstress, the stress case is shown in red in the output
processor that clearly indicates that the code stress check failed. But what about the operating
case?
3. If I look at the operating case in the output section of CAESAR II for 31.3 or 31.1, I'm going to
get to a report like this. Here's the stress report, and it says, NO CODE STRESS CHECK
PROCESSED for the operating case, B31.3. If I look at the allowable stress, it says 0.
4. Again, the way that the 31.3 and 31.1 piping codes, and many other piping codes, establish
criteria for safe design is not based on the state of stress in the piping system, but on two
specific modes of failure-- collapse and fatigue. They have their own stress calculations and
their own limits. However, in these piping codes, we do not combine them to calculate the
stress. So this state of stress, we still list it as a code stress in the column here, but this is not
a code-defined stress calculation here. So if you see no allowable stress and you have
allowable stresses specified, it's probably in this type of situation where the code does not
provide a calculation or an evaluation of a stress in such a state.
65
5. Now, if you're not running 31.3 or you're not familiar with the terms that are used in the piping
code, you could go back to our Quick Reference Guide from the Main Menu. It's here, in the
Main Menu of CAESAR II, on the ribbon, Help, Quick Reference Guide.
6. Here's the Quick Reference Guide, right from the program.
66
7. I'm going to go to Code Stresses. Here is a quick review of all the code-defined stresses that
are found in CAESAR II.
Here are some of the terms used in this section of the reference guide.
67
Here are some general terms used in the US codes: Longitudinal Pressure Stress, and the
Operating Stress equation.
Here's a section for B31.1. You can see that it's broken down into the equation for stress that
we calculate, the limit that we establish for that stress case, and the stress category. Again,
when you define a stress category, you're defining the equation used to calculate the stress
and the limit for that stress. So this is how we set up our evaluation for 31.1, Sustained (SUS),
Expansion (EXP), and Occasional (OCC).
68
In 31.3 it's also Sustained, Expansion, and Occasional.
69
8. Here are some other codes: nuclear code, older power codes, here's the transportation code
31.4, liquids transmission code.
70
Here are 31.4, chapter IX (that's the offshore code); we see different calculations are used.
We see there is hoop stress, longitudinal stress, and equivalent stress, which is von Mises
stress. These results are compared to yield limits, percentages of yield.
9. Other codes are included as well: 31.5, 31.8, and so on. So here's all the US codes.
10. Then we get involved with the international codes. The Dutch Stoomwezen code, the French
power code, Canadian transmission codes, and so on.
So review this document if you have any questions about the calculated stresses that we have
in CAESAR II, and make sure these conform to your understanding of what the program
should be doing.
So there you have it. We've completed our review of the stress calculations in CAESAR II!
71

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CAESAR II Statics Video Training Series

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CAESAR II Statics - Calculating Stresses

CAESAR II Statics - Lesson One Video One

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CAESAR II Statics - Calculating Stresses

5. We can see that the element from 10 to 20 was the

6. We are now going to error check this model by clicking

7. We see we have no errors; we can run this

8. The only item we have here is the note,

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23. From the toolbar, I can see this elbow here.

25. Then I'll click on this first button here, Deflected

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The display is not to

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CAESAR II Statics - Calculating Stresses

I can see how the branch pipe

27. Now let's take a look at some other things

28. We have this Show Element Grid

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32. Click on the Stress colors by percent button.

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CAESAR II Statics - Lesson One Video Two

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CAESAR II Statics - Calculating Stresses

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CAESAR II Statics - Calculating Stresses

9. If I would create a little stress element on the wall of

Shear Stress Longitudinal Stress

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CAESAR II Statics - Lesson One Video Three

1. OK, now let's convert these general stresses into

Here's a direct stress. Direct stress times area is a load.

2. Let's cut a new surface here. The force on this new

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