Macrophages (MA-kro-fazsh-is)

Mast cells
Mastoid fontanel (MAS-toyd FON-ta-NEL)
Matrix (MAY-triks)
Medullary cavity (MEJ-you-LAR-ree)
Membrane (MEM-brain)
Myofascial meridian (MY-o-FASH-al)
Myofibroblast (MY-o-FI-bro-blast)
OA
Occipital fontanel (ok-SIP-i-tal FON-ta-NEL)
Ossification center (OS-si-fi-KAY-shun)
Osteoarthritis (OS-tee-o-ar-THRI-tis)
Osteoblast (OS-tee-o-BLAST)
Osteoclast (OS-tee-o-KLAST)
Osteocyte (OS-tee-o-SITE)
Osteoid tissue (OS-tee-OYD)
Osteon (OS-tee-on)
Osteonic canal (OS-tee-ON-ik)
Parathyroid hormone (PAR-a-THI-royd)
Perichondrium (per-ee-KON-dree-um)
Periosteum (per-ee-OS-tee-um)
Periostitis (PER-ee-ost-EYE-tis)
Piezoelectric effect (PIE-zo-e-LEK-trik)
Plasticity (plas-TIS-i-tee)
Posterior fontanel (pos-TEER-ee-or FON-ta-nel)
Posterolateral fontanel (POS-teer-o-LAT-er-al)
Primary ossification center
Proteoglycans (PRO-tee-o-GLY-kans)
Protomyofibroblast (PRO-to-MY-o-FI-bro-blast)
Radiograph (RAY-dee-o-graf)
Red bone marrow
Reticular fibers (re-TIK-you-lar)

Retinaculum, pl. retinacula (ret-i-NAK-you-lum,

ret-i-NAK-you-la)
Round bones
Secondary ossification centers
Sesamoid bones (SES-a-moyd)
Short bones
Sol state (SOLE)
Sphenoid fontanel (SFEE-noyd FON-ta-NEL)
Spongy bone
Sprain
Strain
Stretch
Subchondral bone
Subcutaneous fascia (SUB-cue-TANE-ee-us FASH-a)
Supernumerary bones (soo-per-NOO-mer-air-ee)
Synovial tendon sheath (si-NO-vee-al)
Tendinitis (ten-di-NI-tis)
Tendon
Tendon sheath
Tenosynovitis (TEN-o-sin-o-VI-tis)
Tensile (TEN-sile)
Tensile strength
Thixotropy (thik-SOT-tro-pee)
Trabecula, pl. trabeculae (tra-BEK-you-la,
tra-BEK-you-lee)
Viscoelasticity (VIS-ko-ee-las-TIS-i-tee)
Viscoplasticity (VIS-ko-plas-TIS-i-tee)
Volkmanns canal (FOK-mahns ka-NAL)
Weight bearing
Wolffs law (WOLF or VULF)
Wormian bones (WERM-ee-an)
Yellow bone marrow

WORD ORIGINS

34

A (an)From Latin a, meaning not, without

AdipFrom Latin adeps, meaning fat
ArthrFrom Greek arthron, meaning a joint
ArticularFrom Latin articulus, meaning a joint
BlasticFrom Greek blastos, meaning to bud, to
build, to grow
ChondrFrom Greek chondros, meaning cartilage
ClasticFrom Greek klastos, meaning to break up
into pieces
CorticalFrom Latin cortex, meaning outer portion
of an organ, bark of a tree
CyteFrom Greek kyton, meaning a hollow, cell
EndoFrom Greek endon, meaning within, inner
EpiFrom Greek epi, meaning on, upon
ExtraFrom Latin extra, meaning outside
FasciaFrom Latin fascia, meaning bandage, band
Fibr, fibroFrom Latin fibra, meaning fiber
GraphFrom Greek grapho, meaning to write
Hem, hematoFrom Greek haima, meaning blood
HyalineFrom Greek hyalos, meaning glass
IntraFrom Latin intra, meaning within, inner

ItisFrom Greek itis, meaning inflammation

KinesFrom Greek kinesis, meaning movement,
motion
MedullaFrom Latin medulla, meaning inner
portion, marrow
MyoFrom Greek mys, meaning muscle
NumFrom Latin numerus, meaning number
OidFrom Greek eidos, meaning resembling,
appearance
OlogyFrom Greek logos, meaning study of,
discourse, word
Os, ossiFrom Latin os, meaning bone
Ost, osteoFrom Greek osteon, meaning bone
PeriFrom Greek peri, meaning around
Physi, physioFrom Greek physis, meaning body,
nature
PiezoFrom Greek piesis, meaning pressure
PoiesisFrom Greek poiesis, meaning production,
making
ProtoFrom Greek protos, meaning first
TensFrom Latin tensio, meaning a stretching

Sustentaculum (sus-ten-TAK-you-lum)
Suture (SOO-cher)
Symphysis (SIM-fi-sis)
Talus, pl. tali (TA-lus, TA-lie)
Tarsal (TAR-sal)
Temporal (TEM-por-al)
Thoracic (thor-AS-ik)
Tibia, pl. tibiae (TIB-ee-a, TIB-ee-ee)
Transverse (TRANS-vers)
Trapezium, trapezoid (tra-PEEZ-ee-um, TRAP-i-zoyd)
Triquetrum (try-KWE-trum)

Trochanter (tro-CAN-ter)
Trochlea (TRO-klee-a)
Tubercle (TWO-ber-kul)
Tuberosity (TWO-ber-OS-i-tee)
Ulna, pl. ulnae (UL-na, UL-nee)
Uncus (UN-kus)
Vomer (VO-mer)
Wormian bones (WERM-ee-an)
Xiphoid (ZI-foyd)
Zygomatic (ZI-go-MAT-ik)

WORD ORIGINS

68

AccessoryFrom Latin accessorius, meaning

supplemental
AcetabulumFrom Latin acetum, meaning
vinegar, and Latin abulum, meaning small
receptacle, cup
AcromionFrom Greek akron, meaning tip and
Greek omos, meaning shoulder
Ala, pl. alaeFrom Latin ala, meaning wing
AlveolarFrom Latin alveolus, meaning a concavity,
a bowl
Apex, pl. apicesFrom Latin apex, meaning tip
ArchFrom Latin arcus, meaning a bow
ArcuateFrom Latin arcuatus, meaning bowed,
shaped like an arc
ArticularFrom Latin articulus, meaning joint
Atlanto/atlasFrom Greek Atlas, the Greek figure
who supports the world (the first cervical vertebra
supports the head)
AuditoryFrom Latin auditorius, meaning
pertaining to the sense of hearing
AuricularFrom Latin auricula, meaning a little ear
AxisFrom Latin axis, meaning axis (an imaginary
line about which something revolves)
Base/basilarFrom Latin basilaris, meaning the base
of something
BicipitalFrom Latin bi, meaning two, and Greek
kephale, meaning head
BifidFrom Latin bis, meaning twice, and Latin
findere, meaning to cleave
Calcaneus, pl. calcaneiFrom Latin calcaneus,
meaning heel bone
CanineFrom Latin caninus, meaning pertaining to
a dog (refers to proximity to canine tooth)
Capitate, capitulumFrom Latin caput, meaning a
small head
CarotidFrom Greek karoun, meaning to plunge
into sleep or stupor (because compression of the
carotid arteries can result in unconsciousness)
CarpalFrom Greek karpos, meaning wrist
CervicalFrom Latin cervicalis, meaning pertaining
to the neck
ClavicleFrom Latin clavicula, meaning a small key

Coccyx, pl. coccygesFrom Greek kokkyx, meaning

cuckoo bird
ConchaFrom Greek konch, meaning shell
CondyleFrom Greek kondylos, meaning knuckle
ConoidFrom Greek konos, meaning cone, and
Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
CoracoidFrom Greek korax, meaning raven, and
Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
Cornu, pl. cornuaFrom Latin cornu, meaning
horn
CoronoidFrom Greek korone, meaning crown,
and Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
CostalFrom Latin costa, meaning rib
CoxalFrom Latin coxa, meaning hip
CraniumFrom Latin cranium, meaning skull
CribriformFrom Latin cribum, meaning sieve, and
Latin forma, meaning shape
Crista galliFrom Latin crista, meaning crest or
plume, and Latin gallus, meaning rooster
CuboidFrom Greek kubos, meaning cube, and
Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
CuneiformFrom Latin cuneus, meaning wedge,
and Latin forma, meaning shape
DeltoidFrom Latin deltoides, meaning shaped like
a delta (), and Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
Dens, pl. dentesFrom Latin dens, meaning tooth
DiscFrom Greek diskos, meaning a flat round
structure
Dorsum sellaeFrom Latin dorsum, meaning back,
and Latin sella, meaning saddle (the dorsum sellae
is the posterior wall of the sella turcica)
EpicondyleFrom Greek epi, meaning upon, and
Greek kondylos, meaning knuckle
EthmoidFrom Greek ethmos, meaning sieve, and
Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
FacetFrom French facette, meaning a small face
Femur, pl. femoraFrom Latin femur, meaning
thighbone
FibulaFrom Latin fibula, meaning that which
clasps or clamps
FoveaFrom Latin fovea, meaning a pit
FrontalFrom Latin frontalis, meaning anterior

GlabellaFrom Latin glaber, meaning smooth

GlenoidFrom Greek glene, meaning socket, and
Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
GlutealFrom Greek gloutos, meaning buttock
HamateFrom Latin hamatus, meaning hooked
Hamulus, pl. hamuliFrom Latin hamulus, meaning
a small hook
HemifacetFrom Greek hemi, meaning half, and
French facette, meaning small face
HiatusFrom Latin hiatus, meaning an opening
Humerus, pl. humeriFrom Latin humerus,
meaning shoulder
HyoidFrom Greek hyoeides, meaning U-shaped
Ilium, pl. iliaFrom Latin ilium, meaning groin,
flank
IncisiveFrom Latin incisus, meaning to cut (refers
to proximity to incisor teeth)
InfraspinatusFrom Latin infra, meaning beneath
(the spine of the scapula)
InionFrom Greek inion, meaning back of the
neck
InnominateFrom Latin innominatus, meaning
nameless, unnamed
IntercostalFrom Latin inter, meaning between,
and Latin costa, meaning rib
InterosseusFrom Latin inter, meaning between,
and Latin ossis, meaning bone
Ischium, pl. ischiaFrom Greek ischion, meaning
hip
JugularFrom Latin jugularis, meaning neck (refers
to jugular vein)
KyphosisFrom Greek kyphos, meaning bent,
humpback
LacerumFrom Latin lacerare, meaning to tear
LacrimalFrom Latin lacrimal, meaning tear
LambdoidFrom Greek letter lambda (l), and
Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
Lamina, pl. laminaeFrom Latin lamina, meaning a
thin flat layer or plate
LingulaFrom Latin lingua, meaning tongue
LordoticFrom Greek lordosis, meaning a bending
backward
LumbarFrom Latin lumbus, meaning loin, low back
LunateFrom Latin luna, meaning moon
MagnumFrom Latin magnum, meaning large
Malleolus, pl. malleoliFrom Latin malleolus,
meaning little hammer
MamillaryFrom Latin mamma, meaning breast
MandibleFrom Latin mandere, meaning to chew
Manubrium, pl. manubriaFrom Latin manubrium,
meaning handle
MastoidFrom Greek mastos, meaning breast, and
Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
Maxilla, pl. maxillaeFrom Latin maxilla, meaning
jawbone (especially the upper one)
MeatusFrom Latin meatus, meaning a passage
Mental/mentiFrom Latin mentum, meaning mind

MetacarpalFrom Greek meta, meaning after, and

Greek karpos, meaning wrist
MetatarsalFrom Greek meta, meaning after, and
from Greek tarsas, referring to the tarsal bones
MylohyoidFrom Greek myle, meaning mill (refers
to molar teeth that grind food), and Greek
hyoeides, meaning U-shaped
NasalFrom Latin nasus, meaning nose
NavicularFrom Latin navicula, meaning boat
NuchalFrom Latin nucha, meaning back of the
neck
ObturatorFrom Latin obturare, meaning to stop
up
OccipitalFrom Latin occipitalis, meaning back of
the head
OdontoidFrom Greek odous, meaning tooth, and
Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
OlecranonFrom Greek olecranon, meaning elbow
OpticFrom Greek optikos, meaning pertaining to
the sense of sight (the optic foramen contains the
optic nerve)
PalatineFrom Latin palatinus, meaning concerning
the palate
ParietalFrom Latin parietalis, meaning pertaining
to the wall of a cavity
Patella, pl. patellaeFrom Latin patella, meaning a
plate
PedicleFrom Latin pediculus, meaning small foot
Pelvic boneFrom Latin pelvis, meaning basin
PetrousFrom Latin petra, meaning stone
Phalanx, pl. phalangesFrom Latin phalanx,
meaning a line of soldiers
PisiformFrom Latin pisum, meaning pea, and
Latin forma, meaning shape
PromontoryFrom Latin promontorium, meaning a
projecting process or part
PterygoidFrom Greek pterygion, meaning wing
Pubis, pl. pubesFrom Latin pubes, meaning
grown up
Radius, pl. radiiFrom Latin radius, meaning rod,
spoke of a wheel
Ramus, pl. ramiFrom Latin ramus, meaning
branch
SacrumFrom Latin sacrum, meaning sacred
SagittalFrom Latin sagittal, meaning arrow (refers
to a posterior/anterior direction)
ScaphoidFrom Greek skaphe, meaning a skiff or
boat, and Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
Scapula, pl. scapulaeFrom Latin scapulae,
meaning shoulder blades
SciaticFrom Latin sciaticus, meaning pertaining to
ischium (i.e., hip)
Sella turcicaFrom Latin sella, meaning saddle, and
Latin turcica, meaning Turkish
SesamoidFrom Greek sesamon, meaning sesame
seed, and Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
SolealFrom Latin solea, meaning sole of the foot
69

SphenoidFrom Greek sphen, meaning wedge,

and Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
Spine/spinousFrom Latin spina, meaning thorn
SquamosalFrom Latin squamosus, meaning scaly
SternumFrom Greek sternon, meaning chest,
breastbone
StyloidFrom Greek stylos, meaning pillar or post,
and Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
SubscapularFrom Latin sub, meaning under
(referring to the underside [i.e., the anterior side] of
the scapula)
SubtalarFrom Latin sub, meaning under, and
talar, referring to the talus
Sulcus, pl. sulciFrom Latin sulcus, meaning
groove
SuperciliaryFrom Latin super, meaning above, and
Latin cilium, meaning eyebrow
SupraorbitalFrom Latin supra, meaning above,
and Latin orbis, meaning circle, orb
SupraspinatusFrom Latin supra, meaning above
(the spine of the scapula)
SustentaculumFrom Latin sustentaculum,
meaning support
SutureFrom Latin sutura, meaning a seam
SymphysisFrom Greek sym, meaning with or
together, and Greek physis, meaning nature,
body
Talus, pl. taliFrom Latin talus, meaning ankle

The following key terms are a number of general terms

that are used to describe landmarks on bones. Many bony
landmarks are raised aspects of a bones surface that serve
as muscle and/or ligament attachment sites.
AngleA corner of a bone.
Articular surfaceThe surface of a bone that articulates
with another bone (i.e., the joint surface).
BodyThe main portion of a bone; the body of a long
bone is the shaft.
CondyleRounded bump found at the end of a long
bone (part of the epiphysis); usually part of a joint
fitting into a fossa of an adjacent bone.
CrestA moderately raised ridge of bone; often a site of
muscle attachment.
EminenceA raised prominent area of a bone.
EpicondyleA small bump found on a condyle; often a
site of muscle attachment.
FacetA smooth (usually flat) surface on a bone that
forms a joint with another facet or flat surface of an
adjacent bone.
FissureA cleft or cracklike hole in a bone that allows the
passage of nerves and/or vessels.
ForamenA hole within a bone that allows the passage
of a nerve and/or vessel (plural: foramina).
FossaA depression in a bone that often receives an articulating bone (plural: fossae).
70

TarsalFrom Greek tarsos, meaning a broad flat

surface
TemporalFrom Latin temporalis, meaning
pertaining to or limited in time (refers to the
temple region of the head)
ThoracicFrom Greek thorax, meaning chest
Tibia, pl. tibiaeFrom Latin tibia, meaning the
large shinbone
TransverseFrom Latin transversus, meaning lying
across
Trapezium, trapezoidFrom Greek trapeza,
meaning a (four-sided) table
TriquetrumFrom Latin triquetrus, meaning
triangular
TrochanterFrom Greek trochanter, meaning to
run
TrochleaFrom Latin trochlear, meaning pulley
TubercleFrom Latin tuberculum, or tuber,
meaning a small knob, swelling, tumor
TuberosityFrom Latin tuberositas, or tuber,
meaning a knob, swelling, tumor
Ulna, pl. ulnaeFrom Latin ulna, meaning elbow
UncusFrom Latin uncus, meaning hook
VomerFrom Latin vomer, meaning ploughshare
XiphoidFrom Greek xiphos, meaning sword, and
Greek eidos, meaning resemblance
ZygomaticFrom Greek zygon, meaning to join, a
yolk

GrooveA narrow elongated depression within a bone,

often containing a tendon, nerve, or vessel.
HeadThe expanded rounded end (epiphysis) of a long
bone; usually separated from the body (i.e., shaft) of
the bone by a neck.
HiatusAn opening in a bone.
ImpressionA shallow groove on a bone, often formed
by a tendon, nerve, or vessel.
LineA mildly raised ridge of bone (usually less than a
crest); often a site of muscle attachment.
LipA raised liplike structure that forms the border of a
groove or opening.
MarginThe edge of a bone.
MeatusA tubelike channel within a bone.
NeckA narrowed portion of a bone that separates the
head from the body (i.e., shaft) of a bone.
NotchA V-shaped or U-shaped depression in a bone.
ProcessA projection of a bone; may be involved with an
articulation or may be a site of muscle attachment.
ProtuberanceA bump on a bone; often the site of muscle
attachment.
RamusA portion of bone that branches from the body
of the bone (plural: rami).
SinusA cavity within a bone.
SpineA thornlike, sharp, pointed process of a bone;
often a site of muscle attachment.

WORD ORIGINS

AbductFrom Latin abductus, meaning to lead

away
AdductFrom Latin adductus, meaning to draw
toward
CircumFrom Latin circum, meaning circle
ContraFrom Latin contra, meaning opposed or
against
CurvFrom Latin curvus, meaning bent, curved
ExtenFrom Latin ex, meaning out, and tendere,
meaning to stretch
FlexFrom Latin flexus, meaning bent

HyperFrom Greek hyper, meaning above, over

IpsiFrom Latin ipse, meaning same
LateralFrom Latin latus, meaning side
LineaFrom Latin linea, meaning a linen thread,
a line
OpposFrom Latin opponere, meaning to place
against
PelvisFrom Latin pelvis, meaning basin
RectFrom Latin rectus, meaning straight, right
ReposFrom Latin reponere, meaning to replace

5.1 OVERVIEW OF JOINT FUNCTION

Following is a simplified overview of joint function

(For more information on joint function, see Section
6.2.):
The primary function of a joint is to allow movement. This is the reason why a joint exists in the
first place.
The movement that occurs at a joint is created by
muscles.
The role of a muscle contraction is actually to create
a force on the bones of a joint; that force can create
movement at the joint. However, the force of the
muscle contraction can also stop or modify movement. (For more information on muscle function,
see Chapters 11 to 13.)
Ligaments and joint capsules function to limit excessive movement at a joint.
Therefore, the following general rules can be stated:
Joints allow movement.
Muscles create movement.
Ligaments/joint capsules limit movement.
In addition to allowing movement to occur, joints
have three characteristics:

Weight bearing: Many joints of the body are weightbearing jointsthat is, they bear the weight of the
body parts located above them. Almost every joint of
the lower extremity and all the spinal joints of the
axial body are weight-bearing joints. As a rule, weightbearing joints need to be very stable to support the
weight that is borne through them.
Shock absorption: Joints can function to absorb shock.
This is especially important for weight-bearing joints.
The primary means by which a joint absorbs shock is
the cushioning effect of the fluid within the joint
cavity.
Stability: Even though the primary function of a joint
is to allow motion to occur, excessive motion would
create an unstable joint. Therefore a joint must be sufficiently stable that it does not lose its integrity and
become injured or dislocated.
Each joint of the body finds a balance between
mobility and stability.
Mobility and stability are antagonistic properties: A
more mobile joint is less stable; a more stable joint
is less mobile.

5.2 AXIAL AND NONAXIAL MOTION

When a body part moves at a joint, motion of the body
part occurs. The body may undergo two basic types of
motion: (1) axial motion and (2) nonaxial motion.

AXIAL MOTION:

Axial motion is a motion of a body part that occurs

about or around an axis.

This type of motion is also known as circular motion

because the body part moves along a circular path
around the axis (in such a manner that a point drawn
anywhere on the body part would transcribe a circular
path around the axis).
With axial motion not every point on the body part
moves the same amount. A point closer to the axis
moves less (and would transcribe a smaller circle) than

155

OVERVIEW
The discussion of motion in the body began in Chapter
2 and continued in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 now deepens
the exploration of motion by examining the structural
and functional characteristics of joints of the body. Specifically, shock absorption, weight bearing, and the
concept of mobility versus stability are addressed. This
chapter then continues by laying out the classification

system for all joints of the body. The three major structural categories of joints (fibrous, cartilaginous, and
synovial) are each examined. A special emphasis is
placed on synovial joints; their four major categories
(uniaxial, biaxial, triaxial, and nonaxial) are discussed in
detail. The chapter concludes with a look at the role of
articular discs and menisci within joints.

KEY TERMS
Amphiarthrotic joint (amphiarthrosis, pl.
amphiarthroses) (AM-fee-are-THROT-ik, AM-fee-areTHROS-is, AM-fee-are-THROS-eez)
Articular cartilage (ar-TIK-you-lar)
Articular disc
Articulation (ar-TIK-you-LAY-shun)
Ball-and-socket joint
Biaxial joint (bye-AK-see-al)
Cartilaginous joint (kar-ti-LAJ-in-us)
Closed-packed position
Compound joint
Condyloid joint (KON-di-loyd)
Congruent (kon-GREW-ent)
Degrees of freedom
Diarthrotic joint (diarthrosis, pl. diarthroses) (DIE-areTHROT-ik, DIE-are-THROS-is, DIE-are-THROS-eez)
Ellipsoid joint (ee-LIPS-oid)
Extra-articular (EKS-tra-ar-TIK-you-lar)
Fibrous joint
Functional joint
Ginglymus joint (GING-la-mus)
Gliding joints
Gomphosis, pl. gomphoses (gom-FOS-is,
gom-FOS-eez)
Hinge joint
Intra-articular (IN-tra-ar-TIK-you-lar)
Irregular joints
Joint
Joint capsule (KAP-sool)
Joint cavity
Meniscus, pl. menisci (men-IS-kus, men-IS-KIY)
Mobility

Nonaxial joints (non-AKS-ee-al)

Open-packed position
Ovoid joint (O-void)
Pivot joint
Plane joint
Polyaxial joint (PA-lee-AKS-ee-al)
Saddle joint
Sellar joint (SEL-lar)
Shock absorption
Simple joint
Stability
Structural joint
Suture joint (SOO-chur)
Symphysis joint (SIM-fa-sis)
Synarthrotic joint (synarthrosis, pl. synarthroses)
(SIN-are-THROT-ik, SIN-are-THROS-is,
SIN-are-THROS-eez)
Synchondrosis joint, pl. synchondroses (SIN-konDROS-is, SIN-kon-DROS-seez)
Syndesmosis, pl. syndesmoses (SIN-des-MO-sis,
SIN-des-MO-seez)
Synostosis, pl. synostoses (SIN-ost-O-sis,
SIN-ost-O-seez)
Synovial cavity (sin-O-vee-al)
Synovial fluid
Synovial joint
Synovial membrane
Triaxial joint (try-AKS-see-al)
Trochoid joint (TRO-koid)
Uniaxial joint (YOU-nee-AKS-see-al)
Weight-bearing joint

WORD ORIGINS

AmphiFrom Greek amphi, meaning on both

sides, around
BiFrom Latin bis, meaning two, twice
CavityFrom Latin cavus, meaning hollow,
concavity
CongruentFrom Latin congruere, meaning to
come together
DiFrom Greek dis, meaning two, twice
EllipsFrom Greek elleipsis, meaning oval

ExtraFrom Latin extra, meaning outside, beyond

GinglymusFrom Greek ginglymos, meaning hinge
joint
IntraFrom Latin intra, meaning within, inner
MeniscusFrom Greek meniskos, meaning crescent
moon
NonFrom Latin non, meaning not, other than
OvialFrom Latin ovum, meaning egg
PlaneFrom Latin planus, meaning flat
187

PolyFrom Greek polys, meaning many

SellaFrom Latin sella, meaning chair, saddle
StabileFrom Latin stabilis, meaning stationary,
resistant to change (i.e., resistant to movement)
SymFrom Greek syn, meaning together, with
(Note: sym is the same prefix root as syn;

sym appears before words that begin with b, p,

ph, or m.)
SynFrom Greek syn, meaning together, with
TriFrom Latin tres, meaning three
UniFrom Latin unus, meaning one

6.1 ANATOMY OF A JOINT

Structurally, a joint is defined as a place of juncture
between two or more bones. At this juncture, the
bones are joined to one another by soft tissue.
In other words, structurally, a joint is defined as a
place where two or more bones are joined to one
another by soft tissue.
A typical joint involves two bones; however, more
than two bones may be involved in a joint. For
example, the elbow joint incorporates three bones:
the humerus, radius, and ulna. Any joint that
involves three or more bones of the skeleton is
called a compound joint. In contrast, the term
simple joint is sometimes used to describe a joint
that has only two bones.
The type of soft tissue that connects the two bones
of a joint to each other determines the structural
classification of the joint (Box 6-1). (For more information on the structural classification of joints, see
Section 6.6.)
The following are the three major structural classifications of a joint:
Fibrous
Cartilaginous
Synovial
A joint is also known as an articulation.
Figure 6-1 illustrates the components of a typical joint
of the body. (Note: It should be stated that there really
is no typical joint of the body. As will be seen later in
the chapter, many different types of joints exist, both
structurally and functionally.)

188

BOX
6-1

Spotlight on Structural versus

Functional Joints

The definition of a joint as bones connected to each other by soft

tissue is a structural definition. As explained in Section 6.2, the
function of a joint is to allow movement; so functionally a joint
is defined by its ability to allow movement. These structural and
functional definitions usually coincide with each other (i.e., a
structural joint is a functional joint and a functional joint is a
structural joint). However, sometimes they do not perfectly match
each other. The scapulocostal joint between the scapula and
ribcage is an example of a joint that allows movement between
the bones but is not a structural joint because the bones are not
attached to each other by soft tissue (fibrous, cartilaginous, or
synovial). For this reason, the scapulocostal joint cannot be
defined as a structural joint but is considered to be a functional
joint. Another example of the difference between the structural
definition of a joint and the functional definition of a joint is the
knee joint. Structurally, the distal femur, proximal tibia, and
patella are all connected to one another and enclosed within one
joint capsule; therefore all these bones constitute one structural
joint. However, this one structural joint would be considered to
be a number of separate functional joints, because the functional
movement of the femur and patella and of the femur and tibia
are somewhat independent of each other. Many physiologists/
kinesiologists would even divide the tibiofemoral joint (between
the tibia and femur) into the medial tibiofemoral joint and the
lateral tibiofemoral joint because the two condyles of the femur
move somewhat independently of each other on the tibia!

Superior costotransverse ligament (sue-PEER-ee-or

COST-o-TRANS-verse)
Supraspinous ligament (SUE-pra-SPINE-us)
Swayback (SWAY-back)
Tectorial membrane (tek-TOR-ee-al)
Temporomandibular joint (TEM-po-ro-man-DIB-you-lar)
Temporomandibular joint dysfunction (dis-FUNK-shun)
Temporomandibular ligament
(TEM-po-ro-man-DIB-you-lar)
Thoracic spine (thor-AS-ik)
Thoracolumbar fascia (thor-AK-o-LUM-bar FASH-ee-a)
Thoracolumbar spine

Thorax (THOR-aks)
Transverse ligament of the atlas
True ribs
Uncinate process (UN-sin-ate)
Uncovertebral joint (UN-co-VERT-i-bral)
Vertebral arteries (VERT-i-bral)
Vertebral column
Vertebral endplate (VERT-i-bral)
Vertebral prominens (PROM-i-nens)
Z joints
Zygapophyseal joint (ZI-ga-POF-i-SEE-al)

WORD ORIGINS

AlbaFrom Latin albus, meaning white

AnnulusFrom Latin anulus, meaning ring
ArcuateFrom Latin arcuatus, meaning bowed
BifidFrom Latin bifidus, meaning cleft in two parts
CervicalFrom Latin cervicalis, meaning neck
ConcavityFrom Latin con, meaning with, and
cavus, meaning hollow, concavity
ConvexityFrom Latin convexus, meaning vaulted,
arched
CorporealFrom Latin corpus, meaning body
CostalFrom Latin costa, meaning rib
CruciateFrom Latin crux, meaning cross
FlavumFrom Latin flavus, meaning yellow
KyphosisFrom Greek kyphosis, meaning bent,
humpback
LineaFrom Latin linea, meaning line
LordosisFrom Greek lordosis, meaning a bending
backward
LumbarFrom Latin lumbus, meaning loin
MasticationFrom Latin masticare, meaning to
chew (Note: This originates from Greek masten,

meaning to feed, which in turn originates from

Greek mastos, meaning breast, the first place from
which a person receives sustenance.)
NuchalFrom Latin nucha, meaning back of the
neck
NucleusFrom Latin nucleus, meaning little kernel,
the inside/center of a nut (Note: Nucleus is
diminutive for the Latin word nux, meaning nut.)
PulposusFrom Latin pulpa, meaning flesh
RadiateFrom Latin radius, meaning ray, to spread
out in all directions
ScoliosisFrom Greek scoliosis, meaning curvature,
crooked
ThoracicFrom Greek thorax, meaning breastplate,
chest
UncinateFrom Latin uncinatus, meaning shaped
like a hook
ZygapophysealFrom Greek zygon, meaning yoke
or joining, and apophysis, meaning offshoot

7.1 SUTURE JOINTS OF THE SKULL

The suture joints of the skull are located between most

bones of the cranium and also between most bones of
the face (Figure 7-1).

BONES:

Suture joints are located between adjacent bones of the

cranium and face.
All joints between the major bones of the cranium
and face (except the temporomandibular joints

[TMJs]) are suture joints. Other nonsuture joints of

the skull are the joints of the teeth and the joints
between middle ear ossicles.
Joint structure classification: Fibrous joint
Subtype: Suture joint
Joint function classification: Synarthrotic

MAJOR MOTIONS ALLOWED:

Nonaxial
211

Tibiofemoral joint (TIB-ee-o-FEM-or-al)

Tibiofibular joints (TIB-ee-o-FIB-you-lar)
Toe-in posture
Toe-out posture
Transverse acetabular ligament (AS-i-TAB-you-lar)
Transverse arch

Transverse ligament (of knee joint)

Transverse tarsal joint (TAR-sal)
Upper ankle joint
Windlass mechanism (WIND-lus)
Y ligament
Zona orbicularis (ZONE-a or-BIK-you-la-ris)

WORD ORIGINS

AuricleFrom Latin auris, meaning ear

BifurcateFrom Latin bis, meaning two, and furca
meaning fork
BunionFrom Old French bugne, meaning bump
on the head
CounterFrom Latin contra, meaning against
CoxaFrom Latin coxa, meaning hip or hip joint
CruciateFrom Latin crux, meaning cross
DeltoidFrom the Greek letter delta, which is
triangular in shape, and eidos, meaning
resemblance, appearance
DigitFrom Latin digitus, meaning toe (or finger)
HallucisFrom Latin hallucis, meaning of the big toe
HalluxFrom Latin hallex, meaning big toe
InnominateFrom Latin innominatus, meaning
unnamed or nameless
LabrumFrom Latin labrum, meaning lip
LunateFrom Latin luna, meaning moon
MalaciaFrom Greek malakia, meaning softening
(related Latin malus, meaning bad)

MeniscusFrom Greek meniskos, meaning

crescent
NutationFrom Latin annuo, meaning to nod
PedisFrom Latin pes, meaning foot
PelvisFrom Latin pelvis, meaning basin
PesFrom Latin pes, meaning foot
RayFrom Latin radius, meaning extending
outward (radially) from a structure
RecurvatumFrom Latin recurvus, meaning bent
back
RetinaculumFrom Latin retineo, meaning to hold
back, restrain
SacrumFrom Latin sacrum, meaning sacred, holy
SciaticFrom Latin sciaticus (which came from
Greek ischiadikos, which in turn came from
ischion), meaning hip
ValgaFrom Latin valgus, meaning twisted, bent
outward, bowlegged
VaraFrom Latin varum, meaning crooked, bent
inward, knock-kneed

8.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PELVIS AND PELVIC MOVEMENT

8-2

The pelvis is a body part that is located between the

trunk and the thighs (see Section 1.2).
The bony pelvis is the term that refers to the bones
and joints of the pelvis (Figure 8-1).
The bones located within the pelvis are the sacrum,
coccyx, and the two pelvic bones.
The sacrum is actually five vertebrae that never fully
formed and that fused embryologically.
The coccyx is made up of four vertebrae that never
fully formed. Usually the four bones of the coccyx
fuse later in life.
Each pelvic bone is composed of an ilium, ischium,
and pubis that fused embryologically.
The pelvic bone is also known as the coxal bone,
innominate bone, or hip bone.
The joints that are located within the pelvis are the
symphysis pubis and two sacroiliac (SI) joints.
The symphysis pubis joint unites the two pubic
bones.
258

Each sacroiliac (SI) joint unites the sacrum with

the iliac portion of the pelvic bone on that side of
the body.
The pelvis is a transitional body part that is made up
of bones of both the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
The sacrum and coccyx of the pelvis are axial bones
of the spine.
The two pelvic bones (each one composed of an
ilium, ischium, and pubis) are appendicular pelvic
girdle bones of the lower extremity.
The bony pelvis is often referred to as the pelvic
girdle.
A girdle is an article of clothing that encircles
the body and provides stabilization. Similarly, the
pelvic girdle encircles the body and provides
a firm, stable base of attachment for the
femurs.

WORD ORIGINS

AnnularFrom Latin anulus, meaning ring

ArthritisFrom Greek arthron, meaning a joint,
and itis, meaning inflammation
CarpusFrom Greek karpos, meaning wrist
CubitusFrom Latin cubitum, meaning elbow
DigitalFrom Latin digitus, meaning finger (or toe)
ForeFrom Old English fore, meaning before, in
front of
ManusFrom Latin manus, meaning hand
OsteoarthritisFrom Greek osteon, meaning bone,
and itis, meaning inflammation

PollicisFrom Latin pollicis, meaning thumb

RayFrom Latin radius, meaning extending
outward (radially) from a structure
ReinFrom Latin retinere, meaning to restrain
RheumatoidFrom Greek rheuma, meaning
discharge or flux, and eidos, meaning resembling,
appearance
ThenarFrom Greek thenar, meaning palm
TrochleaFrom Latin trochlea, meaning pulley

9.1 SHOULDER JOINT COMPLEX

When the term shoulder joint is used, it is usually used

to describe movement of the arm relative to the scapula
at the glenohumeral (GH) joint.
However, almost every movement of the arm at the
GH joint also requires a coupled movement of the
shoulder girdlein other words, the scapula and
clavicle (Box 9-1).

BOX
9-1

Spotlight on the Shoulder Girdle

A girdle is an article of clothing that encircles and thereby holds

in and stabilizes the abdomen. Similarly, the scapulae and clavicles (along with the manubrium of the sternum) are called the
shoulder girdle because they perform a similar function. They
encircle the upper trunk and act as a stable base from which the
upper extremity may move. However, the shoulder girdle shows
a greater similarity to a corset than a girdle. Whereas a girdle
completely encircles the body, a corset is open in back and
requires lacing to truly encircle the body.
In this regard, the shoulder girdle is also open in back,
because the two scapulae do not articulate with each other. In
fact, the musculature (i.e., middle trapezius and rhomboids) that
attaches the medial borders of the scapulae to the spine can be
viewed as the lacing of a corset. For this reason, the term shoulder corset might be more appropriate! Furthermore, just as the
stability of a corset is dependent on the tension of the lacing,
the stability of the shoulder corset is dependent on the strength
and integrity of the musculature that laces the two scapulae
together.

The shoulder girdle is also known as the pectoral

girdle.
The scapula and clavicle may move at the sternoclavicular (SC), acromioclavicular (AC), scapulocostal
(ScC), and GH joints (Figure 9-1; Table 9-1).
Because most movement patterns of the shoulder
require motion to occur at a number of these joints,
the term shoulder joint complex is a better term to
employ when describing motion of the shoulder. From
a big picture point of view, the sternoclavicular (SC)
joint may be looked at as the master joint that orients
the position of the scapula because motion of the
clavicle at the SC joint results in motion of the scapula
at the scapulocostal joint. Fine-tuning adjustments
and augmentation of scapular movement also occur at
the acromioclavicular (AC) joint. The net result of SC
and AC joint motion is to orient the scapula to the
desired position. Position of the scapula is important
to facilitate humeral motion at the glenohumeral
joint. Thus, motion of the arm at the shoulder joint
truly is dependent on a complex of joints!
This coupling of shoulder girdle movement with arm
movement is called scapulohumeral rhythm. Given that
motion of the clavicle is also required, perhaps a better
term would be scapuloclaviculohumeral rhythm. (The
concept of coupled movements [i.e., coupled actions]
is addressed in Section 13.12. The coupled actions of
the shoulder joint complex are described in detail in
Section 9.6.)
The shoulder girdle primarily moves as a unit. When
this occurs, movement occurs between the clavicle of
the shoulder girdle and the sternum at the SC joint,
329

Synaptic gap
Tendon
Tensegrity (ten-SEG-ri-tee)
Titin (TIE-tin)
Tonic fibers
Transverse tubules (TOO-byools)
Trigger points (TrPs)
Tropomyosin molecule (TRO-po-MY-o-sin)

Troponin molecule (tro-PO-nin)

T-tubules (TOO-byools)
Type I fibers
Type II fibers
White fast-twitch fibers
Z-band
Z-line

WORD ORIGINS

AerFrom Latin aer, meaning air

CardiacFrom Latin cardiacus, meaning heart
ElleFrom Latin ella, meaning little
EndoFrom Greek endon, meaning within, inner
EpiFrom Greek epi, meaning on, upon
FascFrom Latin fascia, meaning band, bandage
FibrousFrom Latin fibra, meaning fiber

GlycoFrom Greek glykys, meaning sweet

LysisFrom Greek lysis, meaning dissolution,
loosening
MyoFrom Greek mys, meaning muscle
MysFrom Latin mys, meaning muscle
PeriFrom Greek peri, meaning around
SarcoFrom Greek sarkos, meaning muscle, flesh

10.1 SKELETAL MUSCLE

MUSCLE TISSUE:

SKELETAL MUSCLETHE BIG PICTURE:

Three types of muscle tissue exist in the human body:

Cardiac muscle tissue, located in the heart
Smooth muscle tissue, located in the walls of
hollow visceral organs and blood vessels
Skeletal muscle tissue, located in skeletal muscles
Skeletal muscle tissue makes up approximately 40% to
45% of total body weight. This chapter, and indeed
this entire book, deals with skeletal muscle tissue.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE:

Because skeletal muscle tissue exhibits a striated (i.e.,

banded) appearance under a microscope, it is often
called striated muscle.
Note: Skeletal muscle tissue and cardiac muscle
tissue are both striated in appearance under a microscope; smooth muscle tissue is not.
Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control.
Note: Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle tissues are
not under voluntary control, at least not typical full
voluntary control. Although it is possible via biofeedback to affect the tone of smooth and cardiac
muscle, it is not the full voluntary control that we
have over skeletal muscles.
382

A skeletal muscle attaches onto two bones, thereby

crossing the joint that is located between them.
A typical skeletal muscle has two attachments,
each onto a bone. However, some skeletal muscles
have more than two bony attachments, and some
skeletal muscles attach into soft tissue instead of
bone.
The big picture of how a skeletal muscle works is that
it can contract, attempting to shorten toward its
center. (For a thorough explanation of the bigger
picture of how skeletal muscles work, please see
Chapter 11.)
This contraction creates a pulling force on the bony
attachments of the muscle.
If this pulling force is sufficiently strong, one or both
of the bones to which the muscle is attached will be
pulled toward the center of the muscle.
Because bones are located within body parts, movement of a bone results in movement of a body part
(Figure 10-1).
To better understand the big picture of how muscles
create movements of the body, it is necessary to explore
and understand the microanatomy and microphysiology
of skeletal muscle tissue.

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation

(PRO-pree-o-SEP-tiv)
Reciprocal inhibition
Reflex arc
Resting tone
Righting reflex
Ruffinis endings (ru-FEEN-eez)
Semicircular canals
Sensory neuron

Stretch reflex
Target muscle
Tendon reflex
Tonic neck reflex (TON-ik)
Trigger points
UMN
Upper crossed syndrome
Upper motor neuron
Vestibule (VEST-i-byul)

WORD ORIGINS

AmpullarisFrom Latin ampulla, meaning a

two-handed bottle
CortexFrom Latin cortex, meaning outer portion
of an organ, bark of a tree
CristaFrom Latin crista, meaning crest
EndogenousFrom Greek endon, meaning within,
and gen, meaning production
EquilibriumFrom Latin aequus, meaning equal,
and libra, meaning a balance
ExogenousFrom Greek exo, meaning outside, and
gen, meaning production

FacilitationFrom Latin facilitas, meaning easy

InhibitionFrom Latin inhibeo, meaning to keep
back (from Latin habeo, meaning to have)
InterstitialFrom Latin inter, meaning between,
and sisto, meaning to stand (Interstitial means to
stand between or to be located between.)
MaculaFrom Latin macula, meaning a spot
ProprioceptionFrom Latin proprius, meaning
ones own, and capio, meaning to take

17.1 OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The following overview of the nervous system is not

meant to be comprehensive; it is meant to overview
only the aspects of the nervous system pertinent to
muscle contraction.
The nervous system is made up of nerve cells, also
known as neurons (Figure 17-1).
A neuron is specialized to carry an electrical signal
known as a nerve impulse.
The typical neuron is composed of dendrites, a cell
body, and an axon.
The dendrites carry the nerve impulse toward the
cell body; the axon carries the nerve impulse away
from the cell body.
Functionally, a neuron can be sensory, integrative, or
motor.
A sensory neuron carries a sensory stimulus.
Sensory neurons are also known as afferent
neurons.
An integrative neuron integrates/processes the
sensory stimuli received from the sensory neurons.
A motor neuron carries a message that directs a
muscle to contract.

Motor neurons are also known as efferent

neurons.
On a large scale, the nervous system can be structurally
organized into the central nervous system (CNS)
and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) (Figure
17-2).

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM STRUCTURE:

The central nervous system (CNS) is located in the

center of the body (hence the name central) and is
composed of the brain and spinal cord.
The brain and spinal cord contain sensory, integrative,
and motor neurons.

Brain:

The brain is composed of three major parts: (1) the

cerebrum, (2) brainstem, and (3) cerebellum.
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. The
outer aspect of the cerebrum is called the cortex and
is composed of gray matter. The inner aspect of the
cerebrum is primarily made up of white matter,
575

Rest/Pause
Resting metabolic rate (RMR)
Rippetoes starting strength
SAID principle
Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy (sar-ko-PLAZ-mik
hi-PER-tro-fee)
Set
Shearing force
Shoes
Single-joint muscle
Speed training
Stabilization exercise
Static balance
Static resistance
Strength endurance
Strengthening exercise

Stretch-shorten cycle
Stretching exercise
Supersets
Tempo
Time under tension
Tone
Unilateral training
Variable resistance
Vibration training
Volume
Weightlifting belt
Westside barbell
Workload
Wrist straps
Yoga

WORD ORIGINS

AccelerationFrom Latin accelerare, meaning to

quicken
AerobicFrom Latin aer, meaning air, and Greek
bios, meaning life
AmmoniaFrom Greek ammoniakon, meaning
belonging to Ammon
AnaerobicFrom Latin a, meaning not, without;
and aer, meaning air; and Greek bios, meaning life
AquaFrom Latin aqua, meaning water
CamberedFrom Latin camur, meaning crooked,
arched
CompensationFrom Latin compensatus, meaning
to counterbalance
ExerciseFrom Latin exercitare, meaning to train,
to drill
FiberFrom Latin fibra, meaning fiber
FibrillarFrom Latin fibra, meaning fiber
GlycolysisFrom Greek glykeros, meaning sweet,
and lysis, meaning loosening
HybridFrom Latin hybrida, meaning mongrel
HyperplasiaFrom Greek hyper, meaning above,
over; and plasis, meaning formation
HypertrophyFrom Greek hyper, meaning above,
over; and trophe, meaning nourishment

IsolationFrom Latin insula, meaning island

IsometricFrom Greek isos, meaning equal, and
metron meaning measure
KineticFrom Greek kinesis, meaning motion
MetricsFrom Greek metrikos, meaning measure
MobilityFrom Latin mobilis, meaning movable
MuscleFrom Latin musculus, meaning little mouse
MyoFrom Greek mys, meaning muscle
PlasmFrom Latin plasma, meaning to mold
PlyoFrom Greek pleion, meaning more
PostureFrom Latin positura, meaning position
RepetitionFrom Latin repetere, meaning to do
again
ResistanceFrom Latin re, meaning against, and
sistere, meaning to take a stand
SarcoFrom Greek sarcoma, meaning fleshy
substance
StabilizationFrom Latin stabilitas, meaning
firmness
TempoFrom Latin tempus, meaning time
ToneFrom Latin tonus, meaning sound
VariableFrom Latin variare, meaning to change

20.1 REASONS FOR EXERCISE

DEFINING EXERCISE:

Exercise can be defined as performing active or

passive movements for the purpose of restoring, maintaining, or improving health of the body. Two general
types of exercise exist: strengthening exercise and
stretching exercise.

Strengthening exercises are designed to increase

the force that a muscle can generate when it
contracts.
Stretching exercises are designed to increase the
ability of soft tissues of the body to stretch.
To optimize musculoskeletal health, it is important to
balance our exercise regimen with strengthening and

641