STABILITY ANALYSIS OF TSHWANE MUNICIPALITY ELECTRIC

POWER NETWORK
By
GALU YUMA

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

MAGISTER TECHNOLOGIAE: ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
in the
Department of Electrical Engineering
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Supervisor: Dr Josiah L. Munda

Co-supervisor: Prof Adisa A. Jimoh

July 2009

DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT

I hereby declare that the dissertation submitted for the degree M Tech at Tshwane
University of Technology is my own original work and has not previously been submitted to
any other institution of higher education.
I further declare that all sources cited or quoted are indicated and acknowledged by means of
a comprehensive list of references.

G. YUMA

ii

DEDICATION
Dedicated to the Lord Jesus Christ, Author and Finisher of our faith

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my sincere thanks to various people who played a role in this interesting
study and project. Additionally, I would like to convey my earnest gratitude and appreciation
to the following people and organisations:

- Dr JL MUNDA, my supervisor, and Prof AA JIMOH, my co-supervisor, for being such

supportive mentors, both technically and personally.
- Tshwane University of Technology for providing the financial support to make this study
possible.
- Tshwane Municipality for their important technical support and for supplying the data used
in this study.
- My friends and colleagues: KUSAKANA KANZUMBA, NNACHI AGHA FRANCIS,
AYO OGUNJUYIBE, DAYO YUSUF, TOM WANJEKECHE, and DEO DUSABE for their
constant help, multidimensional support and friendship.
- My parents YUMA GALU and KINYONGO NAFISA, my family and specially
MARLENE BARANZIKA for their support, prayers and good wishes.

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ABSTRACT

The robustness of a power system is measured by the ability of the system to operate in a
state of equilibrium under normal and perturbed conditions. Power system stability deals with
the study of the behaviour of power systems under conditions such as sudden changes in load
or generation or short circuits on transmission lines.

A power system is said to be stable if the interconnected generating units remain in

synchronism. The security of a power system is related to power system operation and is a
mandatory public good necessary for confidence in the power market. Hence, the study and
design of control systems are very important.

The main focus of this dissertation is to present the modelling and simulation of the
Centurion

suburb

of

the

Tshwane

Municipality

electric

power

system

using

MATLAB/SIMULINK package.

The basic system is tested under large and small disturbances to study the dynamic behaviour
of the system and the stability margins associated with the different configurations of the
system.

The single-machine infinite bus power system model is considered, with the synchronous
generator being represented by figure 8 with both the generator main field winding and the
damper winding in q-axis, and developed to evaluate the impact of power system stabilizer
(PSS) with automatic voltage regulator (AVR) and flexible ac transmission system (FACTS)
based controllers on power system stability.

As a suggested solution to increase stability margins of the system, PSS with AVR are
installed in the network. FACTS controllers are added, modelled and tested to validate the
effectiveness on the different stability margins under both large and small disturbances.

The network has been tested in its current form to check on its stability under various
disturbance conditions, and near total voltage collapse was observed in some cases, as
presented in the simulation results.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT......................................................................................ii

DEDICATION..........................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT........................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS.........................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................xii
LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................................xiv
GLOSSARY.............................................................................................................................xv
CHAPTER 1...1
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background..........................................................................................................................1
1.2 Problem Statement...............................................................................................................8
1.3 Sub-Problems.......................................................................................................................8
1.4 Objectives of the project......................................................................................................9
1.5 Scope and Limitation.........................................................................................................10
1.6 Research output..................................................................................................................10
1.7 Outline of the thesis............................................................................................................11

vii

CHAPTER 2.............................................................................................................................12
VOLTAGE STABILITY.........................................................................................................12
2.1 Definition and Classification of Voltage Stability.............................................................13
2.1.1 Definition of voltage stability, voltage instability and voltage collapse.........................13
2.1.2 Classification of power system stability..........................................................................14
2.2 Analysis of Power System Voltage Stability.....................................................................16
2.2.1 Power-Voltage (P-V) Curves..........................................................................................17
2.2.2 Reactive Power- Voltage (Q-V) Curves..........................................................................19
CHAPTER 3.............................................................................................................................22
SURVEY OF POSSIBLE SOFTWARE TOOLS....................................................................22
3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................22
3.2 Comparison of software tools............................................................................................24
3.2.1 Components modelling...................................................................................................24
3.2.1.1 Synchronous generator.................................................................................................24
3.2.1.1.1 Equivalent circuit......................................................................................................24
3.2.1.1.2 Stator voltage equations............................................................................................25
3.2.1.1.3 Representation of turbine model output....................................................................26
3.2.1.1.4 Rotor angle reference................................................................................................27
3.2.1.1.5 Magnetic saturation...................................................................................................28
viii

3.2.1.2 Transmission line.........................................................................................................30

3.2.1.3 Load.............................................................................................................................30
3.2.2 Solution methodology.....................................................................................................31
3.2.2.1 Linearization of system equations................................................................................31
3.2.2.2 Calculation of eigenvalues...........................................................................................33
3.2.3 Software flexibility..........................................................................................................33
3.2.3.1 Data Input.....................................................................................................................33
3.2.3.2 Data output...................................................................................................................33
CHAPTER 4.............................................................................................................................36
CENTURION NETWORK MODEL......................................................................................36

4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................36

4.2 Single Phase Representation of the Centurion Network....................................................38

CHAPTER 5............................................................................................................................40
POWER FLOW ANALYSIS..................................................................................................40
5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................41
5.2 Power Flow Equations.......................................................................................................42
5.3 Gauss-Seidel Power Flow Solution....................................................................................43
5.4 Power Flow Programs........................................................................................................47
5.5 Data Preparation................................................................................................................49

ix

CHAPTER 6............................................................................................................................52
VOLTAGE STABILITY STUDY..........................................................................................52
6.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................52
6.2 Voltage stability.................................................................................................................53
6.3 Results and Interpretation..................................................................................................55
CHAPTER 7............................................................................................................................61
METHODS OF IMPROVING STABILITY..........................................................................61
7.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................61
7.2 Power system under study..................................................................................................66
7.3 System models....................................................................................................................68
7.3.1 Synchronous generator model.........................................................................................68
7.3.2 Power system stabilizer model........................................................................................71
7.3.3 FACTS Controllers models.............................................................................................74
7.3.3.1 TCSC............................................................................................................................74
7.3.3.2 SVC..............................................................................................................................79
7.3.3.3 UPFC............................................................................................................................82
7.3.4

Problem formulation....................................................................................................86

7.3.5

Cost implication of implementation of FACTS Controllers........................................87

CHAPTER 8............................................................................................................................89
SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..................................................................89
A. Before Disturbance.......................................................................................................92
B. After Disturbance.........................................................................................................97
CHAPTER 9...........................................................................................................................101
CONCLUSION......................................................................................................................101

9.1 Major contribution............................................................................................................102

9.2 Further Research..............................................................................................................103

BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................................................104
APPENDIX A........................................................................................................................111
APPENDIX B........................................................................................................................117

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Classification of power system stability...................................................................16

Figure 2: Typical P-V characteristic curve...............................................................................18
Figure 3: Typical QV characteristic curve...............................................................................21
Figure 4: Network Topography................................................................................................37
Figure 5: Single phase representation of the Centurion network.............................................39
Figure 6: Single phase grid equivalent model..........................................................................55
Figure 7: Typical plot of voltage stability study characteristic................................................59
Figure 8: Single-machine infinite-bus power system with TCSC............................................67
Figure 9: Simplified dynamic model of SMIB using TCSC....................................................67
Figure 10: Control block diagram of AVR and PSS................................................................71
Figure 11: AVR and exciter model for synchronous generator...............................................72
Figure 12: Basic block PSS diagram........................................................................................74
Figure 13: Basic Structure of TCSC........................................................................................75
Figure 14: Stability model of TCSC........................................................................................76
Figure 15: Structure of TCSC-based controller.......................................................................78
Figure 16: Block diagram of a SVC with voltage control.......................................................80
Figure 17: Simplified model of a SVC comprising a TCR and FC.........................................81
xii

Figure 18: Basic structure of STATCOM................................................................................83

Figure 19: Basic structure of SSSC.........................................................................................84
Figure 20: Basic functional scheme of UPFC.........................................................................85
Figure 21: Cost function of the FACTS Controllers: TCSC and UPFC.................................88
Figure 22: MATLAB SIMULINK model for calculation of id , iq , E d' , E q' , E fd and Pe .........90
Figure 23: SIMULINK model of synchronous generator with PSS and TCSC......................91
Figure 24: Response of power angle ...................................................................................93
Figure 25: Variation of speed deviation (p.u)....................................................................93
Figure 26: Variation of current I d ...........................................................................................94
Figure 27: Variation of current I q (p.u)...................................................................................94

Figure 28: Variation of Electrical Power Pe ............................................................................95

Figure 29: Variation of Terminal Voltage Vt ..........................................................................95
Figure 30: Variation of voltage E fd ........................................................................................96
Figure 31: Variation of Speed Deviation (p.u)..................................................................97
Figure 32: Variation of Power Angle ..................................................................................98
Figure 33: Variation of Voltage E fd (p.u)...............................................................................99
Figure 34: Variation of Terminal Voltage Vt (p.u)..................................................................99
Figure 35: Typical plot of voltage stability study characteristic using FACTS controllers..100
xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Summary of software comparison............................................................................35

Table 2: Steady-State Issues...................................................................................................65

Table A.1: Exciter data..........................................................................................................111
Table A.2: Generator data.....................................................................................................112
Table A.3: Bus data...............................................................................................................113
Table A.4: Line Data.............................................................................................................114
Table A.5: Regulated bus data for the 38 bus Network........................................................116
Table A.6: Data for the injected Q due to shunt capacitors..................................................116
Table A.7: Transformer tap setting........................................................................................116
Table B.1: PSS controller parameters used in MATLAB/SIMULINK................................117
Table B.2: SVC Data.............................................................................................................117
Table B.3: SVC controller parameters used in MATLAB/SIMULINK...............................118
Table B.4: TCSC Static Data.................................................................................................118
Table B.5: TCSC controller parameters used in MATLAB/SIMULINK.............................118
Table B.6: UPFC System Parameters....................................................................................119

xiv

GLOSSARY

AVR

Automatic Voltage Regulator

FACTS

Flexible AC Transmission System

FC

Fixed series Capacitor

IPC

Inter phase Power Controller

KCL

Kirchhoffs Current Law

LTC

Transformer-Load tap Changer

NGH

Hingorani damper

OCC

Open Circuit Characteristic

Total active power

PAR

Phase-Angle Regulator

PSS

Power System Stabilizer

PSCAD

Power System Computer Aided Design

PSS/E

Power System Simulation for Engineering

PST

Power System Toolbox

Total reactive power

QR

Orthogonal upper triangular

SCCL

Super Conducting Current Limiter

xv

SMIB

Single-Machine Infinite Bus

SSSC

Static Synchronous Series Compensator

STATCOM

Static synchronous Compensator

SVC

Static Var Compensator

SVG

Static Var Generator

TCPAR

Thyristor Controller Phase-Angle Regulator

TCR

Thyristor Controlled Reactor

TCSC

Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator

TCVL

Thyristor Controller Voltage Limiter

TSBR

Thyristor Switched Braking Resistor

TSC

Thyristor-Switched Capacitor

UPFC

Unified Power Flow Controller

Bus voltage magnitude

VAR

Static Volt-Ampere Reactive

VSI

Voltage Source Inverter

ZIP

Constant impedance current power model

xvi

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background

Since the 1920s, power system stability has been recognized as an important problem for
secure system operation (C.P Steinmetz, 1920), (AIEE, 1926). Many major blackouts
caused by power system instability have illustrated the importance of this phenomenon
(G.S Vassel, 1991).

The management of power systems becomes more difficult today because of the
following reasons:

In the supervision and operation of power systems, fewer operators are

engaged.

In the open access networks, the transmission capacity for all transactions needs
to be determined.

There is a need for a new kind of voltage and power flow control in a
deregulated market.

The expansion of a transmission network is severely limited by environmental

constraints.

Due to increased competition existing power systems are required to provide

greater profit or produce the same service at lower costs, thereby increasing the
duration of power systems operating close to security and stability limits.

Power system stability is a complex subject that has challenged power system engineers
for many years.

As power systems evolved and interconnections between independent systems were

found to be economically attractive, the complexity of the stability problems increased.
The problem of power quality such as under voltage, over voltage, voltage spike, voltage
sag, voltage dip, voltage distortion and short-term outage, have brought more concerns to
electric utilities and customers.

Accompanying the above trends has been an increased tendency of power systems to
exhibit oscillatory instability. Higher-response exciters, while improving transient
stability, adversely affect small-signal stability associated with local plant modes of
oscillation by introducing negative damping.

Of all the complex phenomena on power systems, power system stability is the most
intricate to understand and challenging to analyze.

Electric power systems of the 21st century will present an even more formidable
challenge as they are forced to operate closer to their stability limits. With growing
consumer demands, the maximum power that can be transferred in a reliable fashion over
any transmission line is called the transfer capability (I. Dobson, S. Greene, R.Rajaraman,
2001).

In reality, the transmission transfer capability is limited by a number of various

mechanisms, including stability, voltage and thermal constraints (North America Electric
Reliability Council, 2000).

Power transmission capability has traditionally been limited by either rotor angle
(synchronous) stability or by thermal loading capabilities. The blackout problem has been
associated with transient stability. Fortunately, this problem is now diminished by fast
short circuit clearing, powerful excitation systems, and various special stability controls.

Although power production, transmission and distribution are unbundled in many

countries there still exists common interests for these companies. The security of a power
system is related to power system operation. The system operator needs to have at his
disposal various services called ancillary services from generator and major customers, in
order to maintain a secure system.

A relatively small disturbance may cause a system upset when a power system is
operated closer to a stability limit. In addition, larger areas of the interconnected system
may be affected by a disturbance.

Voltage (load) stability, however, is now a major concern in planning and operating
electric power systems. More and more electric utilities are facing voltage stabilityimposed limits. Voltage instability and collapse have resulted in several major system
failures (blackouts) such as the massive Tokyo blackout in July 1987.

Voltage stability will remain a challenge for the foreseeable future and, indeed, is likely
to increase in importance. One reason is the need for more intensive use of available
transmission facilities.

Voltage stability is concerned with the ability of a power system to maintain acceptable
voltages at all nodes in the system under normal and contingent conditions. A power
system is said to have entered a state of voltage instability when a disturbance causes a
progressive and uncontrollable decline in voltage.

The expansion of transmission network and generation near load centres is limited by
environmental constraints, which has a negative influence on power system voltage
stability, because the electrical distance from a generator to a load increases and the
voltage support weakens in the load areas.

Historically, voltage instability has been the dominant stability problem on most systems,
and has been the focus of much of the industrys attention concerning system stability
(W. Taylor, 1994).

As power systems have evolved through continuing growth in interconnections, use of

new technologies and controls, different forms of system instability have emerged. For
example, voltage stability, frequency stability and inter area oscillations have become
greater concerns than in the past (S.B Crary, I. Herlitz, and B. Favez, 1948, Rep 347).

Power system voltage stability involves generation, transmission, and distribution.

Voltage stability is closely associated with other aspects of power system steady-state and
dynamic performances.

In practice, we classify the transmission network into the following subsystems:

The Transmission system interconnects all major generating stations and main load
centres in the system. It forms the backbone of the integrated power system and operates
at the highest voltage levels (typically, 275 kV and above). The generator voltages are
usually in the range of 11 to 33 kV. These are stepped up to the transmission voltage
level, and power is transmitted to transmission substations where the voltages are stepped
down to the sub transmission level (typically, 66 kV to 132 kV). The generation and
transmission are often referred to as the bulk power system.

The sub transmission system transmits power in smaller quantities from the transmission
substations to the distribution substations. Large industrial customers are commonly
supplied directly from the sub transmission system.

In some systems, there is no clear demarcation between sub transmission and

transmission circuits. As the system expands and higher voltage levels become necessary
for transmission, the older transmission lines are often relegated to transmission function.

The distribution system represents the final stage in the transfer of power to the
individual customers. The primary distribution voltage is typically between 3.3 kV and
33 kV. Small industrial customers are supplied by primary feeders at this voltage level.
The secondary distribution feeders supply residential and commercial customers at
120/240 V.

A large interconnected power system is exposed to many disturbances which threaten

security. Recent requirements for more intensive use of available generation and
transmission have magnified the possible effects of these disturbances. For three-phase
power system, the disturbances can be divided into balanced and unbalanced
disturbances.

Unbalanced disturbances are normally caused by short circuit (faults) affecting only one
or two of the phases; faults involving ground are the most common. Balanced
disturbances result from transmission line and generation outages, and from load changes.

Actually, modern society is very vulnerable in the case of power system blackout; so the
consequences of blackout are both social and economic. The consequences of
disturbances in office work will be loss of production and information.

Most services will be at a standstill, because the production or use of services requires
electricity. In practice, it is not possible to serve or to work without electricity in modern
society.

Over the last ten to fifteen years, and especially over about the last five years, utility
engineers, consultants, and university researchers have intensely studied voltage stability.
All relevant phenomena, including longer-term phenomena, can be demonstrated by time
domain simulation.

The electricity supply industries of Southern Africa are dominated by the State owned
utility of South Africa, ESKOM. ESKOM generates around two thirds of the electricity
produced in the whole of Africa and is extending its transmission grid north into
neighbouring Sub-Sahara countries.

ESKOM provides about 95% of South Africas electrical power and more than 60% of
Africas. It has been forecasted that by 2008 the countrys electricity demand is expected
to exceed supply capacity, and South African power exports have already been restricted.

The Primary Network Division of the Electricity Department of the City of Tshwane
operates an extensive network of 132 kV power substations as part of the electrical
distribution network for the City of Tshwane.

In this study we will consider only a small part of the Tshwane Municipality Network,
the portion located in the Centurion suburb of the municipality because of the software
limitation used for modelling and simulation. Centurion network consists of six
synchronous machines, all of the same kind, four of which are used for reactive power
support.

1.2 Problem Statement

The main focus of this dissertation is to model and simulate the portion located in the
Centurion suburb of the Tshwane Municipality network incorporating FACTS devices, in
order to improve stability of the whole network.

1.3 Sub-Problems

In order to show the damping functionality of FACTS controllers and to improve the
stability of the Centurion suburb of the Tshwane Municipality network, the sub-tasks
needed to solve the problem, are:

1.3.1 Sub-Problem 1
Power Flow Analysis using Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson methods, with the view
to establishing the active and reactive power flow and voltage profile.

1.3.2 Sub-Problem 2
Analysis of Voltage Stability for the Centurion Network according to the International
Energy Agency.

1.3.3 Sub-Problem 3
Modelling and Simulation of Centurion Network power system subjected to various
severe disturbances using FACTS controllers.

1.4 Objectives of the project

The research of power system stability during the last 10 years has dealt with modelling
of voltage stability, computation of voltage collapse point and enhancement of power
system stability.

With relatively low investment, compared to new transmission or generation facilities,

FACTS controllers, which is a group of power electronic devices allows the industries to
better utilize the existing transmission and generation reserves, while enhancing the
power system performance.

The objectives of this dissertation are:

To increase power transfer capability by controlling line power flow.

To damp system oscillation by regulating bus voltage.

To improve system stability by increasing stability margin, and suppressing low

frequency oscillations.

In order to show the effectiveness of the proposed model of power system, various power
system controllers are used to control the oscillatory problem, namely a PSS including
AVR and a TCSC. On the other hand a SVC and a UPFC are added to the system to
improve stability performances.

1.5 Scope and Limitation

The project description can be summarized in the following:

1. Literature survey on voltage stability phenomena.

2. Survey of possible software tools.
3. Model of Centurion network.
4. Power flow analysis.
5. Voltage stability study.
6. Literature survey on various FACTS Controllers and their application.

1.6 Research output

In the course of this research work, the following papers were presented at international
conferences:

Y. Galu, JL Munda, and AA Jimoh. Stability Improvement of Centurion Electric

Power Network using FACTS controllers. 2nd IEEE International Conference on
Power and Energy (PECon 08), December 1-3, 2008, Johor Baharu, Malaysia.

Y. Galu, JL Munda, and AA Jimoh. Stability Analysis of Centurion Electric

Power System. Proceeding on the 2nd International Association of Science and
Technology for Development (IASTED), Africa Conference on Power and
Energy (AfricaPES 2008), September 8-10, 2008, Gaborone, Botswana.

10

1.7 Outline of the thesis

Chapter 2 describes the voltage stability phenomena. First the voltage stability, voltage
instability and voltage collapse are defined and the aspects of voltage stability are
classified.

Survey of possible software tools is the subject of chapter 3 in which a comparative study
between PSS/E, DIGSILENT, EUROSTAG, PSCAD and PST is described.

Chapter 4 introduces the Centurion network which consists of six synchronous machines,
four of which are synchronous compensators used only for reactive power support.

Power Flow Analysis of Centurion Network is described in chapter 5, which consists of

determining the magnitudes and phase angle of voltages at each bus and active and
reactive power flow in each line using Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson Methods.

Chapter 6 describes the Voltage Stability Study. Methods of Improving Stability are
presented in chapter 7. This chapter gives a brief introduction to FACTS devices structure
and operation, as well as to their capabilities in providing wider stability margins.

Simulation results and discussion are provided in chapter 8. In the same chapter, a small
comparative study is done between PSS including AVR, TCSC and SVC and PSS
including AVR and UPFC controller. Conclusions are given in chapter 9.

11

CHAPTER 2

VOLTAGE STABILITY

Voltage stability has become an important issue to many power systems around the
world. By examining the production, transmission and consumption of reactive power,
the nature of voltage stability can be analyzed.

The problem of voltage stability concerns the whole power system. In recent years,
voltage instability has been responsible for several major network collapses such as:

New York Power Pool disturbances of September 22, 1970

Florida system disturbance of December 28, 1982

French system disturbances of December 19, 1978, and January 12, 1987

Northern Belgium system disturbance of August 4, 1982

Swedish system disturbance of December 27, 1983

Japanese system disturbance of July 23, 1987

This chapter presents a general introduction to the power system stability problem
including physical concepts, classification, and definition of related terms.

The objective is to provide an overview of the power system stability phenomena and to
lay a foundation based on relatively simple physical reasoning.

12

2.1 Definition and Classification of Voltage Stability

2.1.1 Definition of voltage stability, voltage instability and voltage collapse.

Power system stability is the ability of an electric power system, for a given initial
operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a
physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded so that practically the entire
system remains intact.

A power system is a highly nonlinear system that operates in a constantly changing

environment; load, generator outputs and key operating parameters change continually.
When subjected to a disturbance, the stability of the system depends on the initial
operating condition, the state of the system as well as the nature of the disturbance.

Voltage stability is the ability of a power system to maintain steady acceptable voltages at
all buses in the system under normal operating conditions and after being subjected to a
disturbance (Kundur, 1994). It depends on the ability to maintain equilibrium between
load demand and load supply from the power system.

Voltage instability stems from the attempt of load dynamics to restore power
consumption beyond the capability of the combined transmission and generation system.
Instability that may result occurs in the form of a progressive fall of voltages of some
buses (T. Van Cutsem et al., 1999).

13

A possible outcome of voltage instability is loss of load in an area, or tripping of

transmission lines and other elements by their protective systems leading to cascading
outages (T. Van Cutsem and C. Vournas, 1998).

Voltage collapse is a local phenomenon like voltage instability and its consequences may
have a widespread impact. Voltage collapse is a terrible result of a sequence of events
leading to a low-voltage profile in a significant part of the power system.

2.1.2 Classification of power system stability

Power system stability is essentially a single problem. The classification of power system
stability proposed here is based on the following considerations (Kundur, 1994):

The physical nature of the resulting mode of instability as indicated by

the main system variable in which instability can be observed.
The size of the disturbance considered, which influences the method of
calculation and prediction of stability.
The devices, processes, and the time span that must be taken into
consideration in order to assess stability.

Fig.1 gives the overall picture of the power system stability problem, identifying its
categories and subcategories (C. Vournas, 1998).

14

Rotor angle stability is the ability of synchronous machines of an interconnected power

system to remain in synchronism after being subjected to a disturbance. For convenience
in analysis and for gaining useful insight into the nature of stability problem, it is useful
to characterize rotor angle stability in terms of the following two subcategories:

Small-disturbance rotor angle stability is the ability of the power

system to maintain synchronism under small disturbance. It depends
on the initial operating state of the system.
Large-disturbance rotor angle stability or transient stability is the
ability of the power system to maintain synchronism when subjected
to a severe disturbance, such as a short circuit on a transmission line.

As in the case of rotor angle stability, it is useful to classify voltage stability into the
following subcategories:

Small-disturbance voltage stability is the ability to the system to

maintain steady voltages when subjected to small perturbations such
as incremental changes in system load.
Large-disturbance voltage stability is the ability to the system to
maintain steady voltages following large disturbance such as system
faults, loss of generation.

15

Frequency stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain acceptable

frequency following a severe system upset resulting in a significant imbalance between
generation and load.

Figure 1: Classification of power system stability

2.2 Analysis of Power System Voltage Stability

A system enters a state of voltage instability when there is a progressive or uncontrollable

drop in voltage magnitude after a disturbance, or increase in load demand (Kundur,
1994). The important factor, which causes these unacceptable voltage profiles, is the
inability of the system to meet the demand for reactive power.

16

The bus voltage magnitude (V) increases as reactive power (Q) injected at the same bus is
increased under normal operating conditions. However, the system is unstable when V of
any one of the systems buses decreases with the increase in (Q) for that same bus.

The voltage instability impact on the system can be wide spread as it depends on the
relationship between transmitted P, injected Q and receiving end V.

2.2.1 Power-Voltage (P-V) Curves

P-V curves are useful for conceptual analysis of voltage stability and for study of radial
systems. The method is also used for large meshed networks where P is the total load in
an area and V is the voltage at a critical or representative bus. P can also be the power
transfer across a transmission interface or interconnection. Voltage at several buses can
be plotted.

A disadvantage is that the power flow simulation will diverge near the nose or maximum
power point on the curve. Another disadvantage is that generation must be realistically
rescheduled as the area load is increased.

For conceptual analysis, P-V curves are convenient when load characteristics as a
function of voltage are analyzed (W. Taylor, 1994). The relationship between the
transmitted active power P and the receiving end voltage V when considering voltage
stability is of interest.

17

The voltage stability analysis process involves the transfer of P from one region of a
system to another, and monitoring the effects to the system voltages V. This analysis is
commonly referred to as PV study (Kundur, 1994).

Figure 2: Typical P-V characteristic curve (Source: Definition and Classification of

Power System Stability)

This figure shows a typical P-V curve, depicting the variation in voltage at a particular
bus as a function of the total active power supplied to load areas. It can be seen that at the
knee of the PV curve, the voltage drops rapidly when there is an increase in the load
demand.

Load-flow solutions do not converge beyond this point, which indicates the instability of
the system. This point is called the critical point. Hence, we can use the curve to
determine the systems critical operating voltage and collapse margin.

18

Usually, operating points above the critical point signify that the system becomes stable.
If the operating points are below the critical point, the system is diagnosed to be in an
unstable condition (Kundur, 1994).

2.2.2 Reactive Power- Voltage (Q-V) Curves

For large systems, the curves are obtained by a series of power flow simulations. Q-V
curves plot voltage at a test or critical bus versus reactive power on the same bus.

A fictitious synchronous condenser is represented at the test bus. In computer program

parlance, the bus is converted to a PV bus without reactive power limits. Power flow is
simulated for a series of synchronous condenser voltage schedules, and the condenser
reactive output is plotted versus scheduled voltage.

Voltage is the independent variable and is the abscissa variable. Capacitive reactive
power is plotted in the positive vertical direction. Without application of shunt reactive
compensation at the test bus, the operating point is at the zero reactive point
corresponding to removal of the fictitious synchronous condenser.

Voltage stability depends on how the variation in Q and P affect the voltage at the load
buses. The influence of reactive power characteristics of devices at the receiving end is
more apparent in a Q-V relationship.

19

It shows the sensitivity and variation of bus voltages with respect to reactive power
injections.

Q-V curves have several advantages:

Voltage security is closely related to reactive power, and a Q-V curve gives
reactive power margin at the test bus. The reactive power margin is the MVAr
distance from the operating point to either the bottom of the curve, or to a point
where the voltage squared characteristic of an applied capacitor is tangent to the
Q-V curve.

Q-V curves can be computed at points along a P-V curve to test system
robustness.
Characteristics of test bus shunt reactive compensation (synchronous condenser)
can be plotted directly on the Q-V curve. The operating point is the intersection
of the Q-V system characteristic and the reactive compensation characteristic.

The slope of the Q-V curve indicates the stiffness of the test bus.

The Q-V approach is a steady-state tool that develops a curve, which relates voltage at a
bus to the reactive power necessary to reach this voltage (W. Taylor, 1994).

20

Figure 3: Typical Q-V characteristic curve (Source: Definition and Classification of

Power System Stability)

This figure shows a typical Q-V curve, which is usually generated by a series of loadflow solutions. Voltage stability limit is at the point where the derivative

dQ
dV

is zero.

This point defines the minimum reactive power requirement for a stable operation
(Kundur, 1994).

During normal operating conditions, an increase in reactive power will result in an

increase in voltage. Hence, if the operating point is on the right side of the curve, the
system is stable, while operating points in the left side of the graph are deemed to be
unstable.

21

CHAPTER 3

SURVEY OF POSSIBLE SOFTWARE TOOLS

This chapter presents the experience gained in comparing a number of power system
simulation tools. We carry out an eigenvalue analysis of a power system using PSS/E,
DIGSILENT, EUROSTAG, PSCAD and PST.

Some of the features to be compared are modelling adequacy, linearization method used
by the softwares solver, capability of accessing system matrices and data exchange
flexibility and capability.

3.1. Introduction

Several industrial-grade power system simulation tools are commercially available in the
market. They are expensive to acquire and time-consuming to learn. As a result, very few
institutions (utilities, academic/research organizations) can afford to use more than one
power system simulation tool.

The tools employ slightly different component models, analytical algorithms, and
numerical approaches; therefore for the same benchmark electrical network, different
tools can give different numerical results.

22

In large-scale transmission networks and power systems, it is difficult to perform field

experiments. To investigate power system stability, we rely increasingly on the new
multidisciplinary, computational approach and on simulation tools. The tools play a
critical role in decision-making: planning and real-time operation.

Electric power systems are expected to be highly reliable. Therefore, the simulation tools
should accurately and reliably replicate the real-life systems. The quality of a simulation
depends mainly on:

Model of system components: modelling adequacy.

Solution methodology: linearization method used by the softwares solver;

capability of accessing system matrices.

- System input data: data exchange flexibility and capability.

Understanding why the solutions differ is not a trivial issue. At present there are no
industry-accepted standards for comparing the power system simulation tools available in
the market.

The power system engineering literature, in this domain, is scarce. We believe that there
is a need to develop expertise in power system software comparison (Keren Kaberere,
Mpumelelo Ntombela, Komla Folly and Alexander Petroianu).

23

3. 2 Comparison of software tools

For software comparison, we will discuss the following features using PSS/E,
DIGSILENT, EUROSTAG, PSCAD and Power System Toolbox (PST):
Model availability: Generators, transmission lines, and loads.
Solution methodology: Linearization and eigenvalue calculation
methods.
Software flexibility: Data input/output

3.2.1 Components modelling

3.2.1.1 Synchronous generator
We investigate the following aspects related to the generator model.
3.2.1.1.1 Equivalent circuit
In power system dynamic studies, the synchronous generator is commonly represented
using the dq-axes. The generator is represented using models of varying degrees of
complexity the simplest being the classical (2nd order) model that assumes a constant
voltage behind transient reactance.

The sixth order model has been found adequate for representation of round rotor
generators in stability studies (IEEE, 1991). This model has four rotor circuits: a field
winding, a damper winding on the d-axis, and two damper windings on the q-axis.

24

Salient pole generators are represented using a similar model but with only one damper
winding on the q-axis (5th order). The 6th order generator model is included in all
investigated tools.

3.2.1.1.2 Stator voltage equations

Based on the dq-axis machine representation, the per unit (p.u) stator terminal voltage,
Et is given by equation (1). All the investigated tools consider the effect of speed
variations, but neglect the stator transients (Kundur, 1994).

~
Et = ed + jeq
ed =

eq =

d d
r q Ra id
dt

d q
dt

(1)

r d Ra iq

Where,
r: rotor angular velocity

d q : flux linkages in d and q axis, respectively.

id iq : armatures winding currents in d and q axis, respectively.
Ra : armature resistance

25

3.2.1.1.3 Representation of turbine model output

From the investigated literature and from vendors software documentation, it is not clear
whether the turbine model output should be mechanical power Pm or mechanical
torque Tm .

If the turbine/governor set is not modelled, the generator mechanical torque input Tm is
assumed to be constant. If a generator is modelled with mechanical power input Pm , and
rotor speed variations are ignored ( n r = 1 ), then Tm = Pm p.u.

However, if Pm input is chosen and rotor speed variations are taken into consideration,
Tm Pm p.u. The variation of Tm with machine speed is given by equation (2); the
assumption, Tm is constant does not hold (Kundur, 1994).

Tm =

n
Pm
r

(2)

Where, n and r are the synchronous speed and rotor angular speed respectively.
The swing equation, expressed in terms of torque, is given in (3) . If the turbine model
output is Pm , expression (2 ) for evaluating Tm is substituted in (3) . The resultant equation
is linearised around the equilibrium point (Kundur, 1994).

2H

d r
= Tm Te K D r
dt

(3)

26

Where:
H : inertia constant

Te : air-gap torque
K D : damping constant representing friction

Generator models with Pm input give results that exhibit better damping than models that
use Tm (E. Johansson et al., 2002), (J.G Slootweg et al., 2002). PSS/E, DIGSILENT and
PST generator models have Pm input and the rotor speed variations are considered,
whereas EUROSTAG and PSCAD models use Tm as input.

3.2.1.1.4

Rotor angle reference

If the system matrix is defined in terms of absolute rotor speed and angle deviations, one
or two zero eigenvalues result if the system has no infinite bus model. One of the zero
eigenvalues appears due to lack of uniqueness of absolute rotor angles.

The second zero eigenvalue appears if all generator torques are assumed to be
independent of speed deviations (Kundur, 1994), (N. Martin and L.T.G Lima, 1989), (G.
Rogers, 2000).

To eliminate the zero eigenvalues, one of the generators can be chosen as a reference and
the angle and speed deviations of all the other machines are measured with respect to the
reference. The relative values become the new state variables replacing the absolute ones.
27

In EUROSTAG, the rotor angle reference is a virtual centre of inertia that rotates at an
angular speed col given by equation (4) (EUROSTAG, 2002). The user may also choose
a reference rotating at the network nominal frequency n .

col =

1
MT

M
j =1

(4)

Where M T = M j and M j = H j S Nj
j =1

n : number of generators
H j : generator js inertia constant
S Nj : generator js apparent power rating

In PSS/E and PSCAD the reference rotates at nominal frequency n . In DIGSILENT, the
program automatically chooses one of the generators ( j ) to be the reference. In PST the
user may choose one of the generators as reference.

3.2.1.1.5

Magnetic saturation

The calculated initial values of flux linkages and field voltages are affected by the
modelling of machine saturation (PTI, PSS/E, 2002). Saturation may be assumed to affect
either:
(i)

d axis only or

(ii)

d axis and q axis .

28

In (CIGRE Task Force, 1996) it is illustrated that the method of saturation modelling may
be an important factor in the determination of system damping performance.

EUROSTAG allows saturation characteristics to be modelled either on d axis only or

on d axis and q axis . In PSS/E and DIGSILENT both d- and q-axis parameters are
assumed to be saturated. In PSCAD and PST, saturation is assumed to be on the d-axis
only.

In PSS/E, DIGSILENT, and PST the user specifies two saturation parameters S1.0 and
S1.2 corresponding to 1.0 and 1.2 p.u terminal voltage (flux linkage) respectively.

These saturation parameters are determined from the open circuit characteristic (OCC)
curve of the generator as described in (K.K Kabarere, K.A Folly and A.I Petroianu,
2004). The saturation characteristics may be represented using several functions e.g.
two-piece linear, exponential, quadratic.

The choice of the function has little effect on the accuracy of the model (CIGRE Task
Force, 1996). In PSS/E, the user may choose a generator model with quadratic or
exponential function. In EUROSTAG, saturation parameters are defined as m and n
calculated from S1.0 and S1.2 (5).
S1.2
S1.0
m = S1.0 and n =
ln (1.2 )
ln

(5)

29

In PSCAD the OCC curve is defined through ten user defined points.

3.2.1.2 Transmission line

All the tools under investigation use a nominal model of transmission line. PSS/E and
PSCAD in addition have an equivalent model.

3.2.1.3 Load

The static load at a bus may be modelled by either exponential functions (6) and (7) or
polynomial functions (8) and (9) also known as ZIP model (Kundur, 1994). These models
account for both voltage and frequency dependency of loads.

P = P0 (V ) (1 + K pf f
a

(6)

Q = Q0 (V ) (1 + K qf f

(7 )

(8)

(9)

P = P0 p1V 2 + p 2V + p3 (1 + K pf f
Q = Q0 q1V 2 + q 2V + q3 (1 + K qf f

V =

V
and f = f f 0
V0

(10)

30

Where:
P, Q

- active, reactive components of load corresponding to bus voltage magnitude

V . Subscript 0 denotes the initial values of the respective variables,

- bus voltage frequency,

K pf , K qf - active power, reactive power frequency dependency.

The parameters of the exponential function are a and b . If these parameters are equal to
0, 1, or 2, the model represents constant power, constant current or constant impedance
characteristics respectively.

The coefficients p1 , p 2 and p3 ( q1 , q 2 and q3 ) in the ZIP model define the proportion of
constant impedance (Z), constant current (I) and constant power (P) components
respectively.

All the tools except PST can model the frequency dependency of loads.

3.2.2

Solution methodology

3.2.2.1 Linearization of system equations

In PSS/E, the linearization of the system equations is numerical (PTI, PSS/E, 2002). The
program starts from an equilibrium point with state vector x 0 i.e. the derivative x 0 = 0 .

31

A vector x j in which all the elements except the j th one are equal to those of x0 is
evaluated. The j th element differs from the corresponding value in x0 by x j . If x j is
sufficiently small, the j th column of A matrix, A j is estimated from:

x j x 0 = x j = A j x j

(11)

The user has to specify the perturbation size xj . Its value affects the A matrix and hence
the eigenvalues. The perturbation size xj should be small enough to ensure correct linear
approximation but it should not be too small to cause a null column in A. A typical value
of xj is 0.0001.

Once a perturbation has been applied to a given state variable, the network solution has to
be re-converged prior to calculating the state variable derivatives. The value of network
solution tolerance affects the A matrix.

PST uses a similar linearization procedure as in PSS/E. The differences between the two
tools are:

- PSS/E user chooses perturbation size xj ; PST user does not choose the perturbation
size.
- In PSS/E xj is fixed; PST chooses xj to be the greater of 0.0001 and (0.001*state
variable).
32

3.2.2.2 Calculation of eigenvalues

The eigenvalues of the A matrix are calculated using the orthogonal upper triangular
(QR) method in all the simulation tools.

3.2.3 Software flexibility

3.2.3.1 Data Input
PSS/E, DIGSILENT, EUROSTAG and PSCAD have graphical user interface. Through
this interface, the user can draw the system one-line diagram (or three phases in PSCAD)
and populate the system with data using the pop-up windows.

In PSS/E, the user can also introduce data in text format. The program reads load flow
data separately from the dynamic data. These are given as two distinct raw data files.
In PST, data can be introduced only in text format.

3.2.3.2 Data Output

PSS/E and PST results are eigenvalues, frequency of the oscillatory modes and the
damping ratio. DIGSILENT and EUROSTAG do not give the values of frequency and
damping ratio.

Accessibility to the system matrices is important for controller design and parameter
setting purposes e.g. design of PSS, TCSC, SVC and AVR. The B and C matrices are of
interest in the formulation of the mode controllability and observability matrices.
33

PSS/E and PST allow the user access to all four system matrices, EUROSTAG only
allows A matrix. DIGSILENT does not allow access to any of the matrices. The
eigenvectors and participation factors are important for placement of power system
support devices.

PSS/E gives the normalised complex right eigenvectors from which the user can deduce
local area and inter area electromechanical modes of oscillation. The program also gives
the normalised participation factors for all the system modes.

PST gives both the left and right eigenvectors and normalised complex participation
factors. DIGSILENT gives the normalised complex participation factors but only for the
machine state variables i.e. does not include state variables for controllers and other
devices.

In addition to the numerical values, the program gives a graphical representation of the
participation factors. Users can easily deduce local area and inter area electromechanical
modes of oscillations from the graphical representation.

EUROSTAG does not give eigenvectors and participation factors. Users have to use other
programs to determine the electromechanical modes of oscillations. Table 1 summarises
the comparison of simulation tools.

34

Table 1: Summary of software comparison

Standard
PSS/E
Component
models

Generator
models

nd

,3
6

Generator
saturation
parameters
Rotor angle
reference
angular
speed
Generator
mechanical
input
Load models

Transmission
line
Solution
methodology

Software
flexibility

Linearization
of system
equations

rd

DIGSILENT
th

,5 ,

th

, 6

th

th

rd

th

,5 ,

PST
2

nd

th

,4 ,6

PSCAD
th

th

,6

th

th

6
n and m

S 1.0 , S 1.2

Specify points
on CC Curve

col or n

Pm

Tm

Pm

Tm

Exponential

Exponential

ZIP-Voltage
dependent
only
Nominal

Exponential

S 1.0 , S 1.2

S 1.0 , S 1.2

Pm
Exponential
and ZIP
Nominal
and
equivalent
Numerical
differentiation

EUROSTAG

Nominal

Nominal

Nominal and
equivalent

Information
not available

Information
not available

Numerical
differentiation

N/A

Information
not available
QR

Chosen by
program
QR

N/A

QR

Information
not available
QR

Graphical user
interface with
pop-up
windows or
text

Graphical
user
interface
with pop-up
windows

Graphical
user
interface
with pop-up
windows

Text

Graphical user
interface with
pop-up
windows

Accessibility
of system
matrices
Eigenvectors

A,B,C,D
matrices
available
Right only

Not
available

A matrix
only

N/A

Participation
factors

Available

Not
available
Available

Not
available
Not
available

A,B,C,D
matrices
available
Right and left
Available

N/A

Perturbation
size
Eigenvalue
calculation
method
Data input

User specified

QR

N/A

35

CHAPTER 4

CENTURION NETWORK MODEL

4.1 Introduction

The Primary Network Division of the Electricity Department of the City of Tshwane
operates an extensive network of 132 kV power substations as part of the electrical
distribution network for the City of Tshwane.

TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TSHWANE MUNICIPALITY

NETWORK

No of Station: 6 (4 ESKOM infeed stations and the two power stations)

Ethernet Converters: Etherpad by San people

Telemetry Stations: Prodesign TS 161

D/A Converters : Datexel DAT 4035

Names of Stations: Kwagga substation, Njala substation, Buffel substation,

Rietvlei substation, Rooiwal power station, Pretoria west power station.

36

SUBSTATIONS

The following 55 substations form part of the Tshwane Municipality network:

Atteridgeville, B-Station, Bellom, Boom, Brakfontein, Buffel, Capital Park, Claudius,

Dam, Die Hoewes, Edmond, Eland, Eldoraigne, Gomsand, Highlands, Kentron, Kloofsig,
Koedoespoort, Kosmosdal, K1, K3, Kwagga, Lynnwood, Mamelodi 1, Mamelodi 2,
Mamelodi 3, Mayville, Mooikloof, Nivs, Njala, Olievenhoutsbosch, Orchards, Parktown,
Piet Geers, Pyramid, Pretoria North, Pumulani, Raslouw, Rietvlei, Rooiwal, Rosslyn,
Saulsville, Scientia, Skinner Street, Soshanguve, Tunnel, Villieria, Waltloo, Wapadrand,
Waterkloof, Wingate, Wolmer, Wonderboom, Zebra, Zwartkops.

Figure 4: Network Topography (Source: City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality)

37

4.2 Single Phase Representation of the Centurion Network

In this study, we consider a small part of the network, the Centurion Area (Southern part
of Tshwane Network), the model of which is depicted in Fig. 5. It consists of six
synchronous machines, four of which are synchronous compensators used only for
reactive power support. There are 38 buses in the system, with a total of 1319.9 MW and
587.7 MVAr.

38

Figure 5: Single phase representation of the Centurion network

39

CHAPTER 5

POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

In this chapter, we will describe the power flow analysis of the Centurion network using
the Gauss-Seidel Method as it applies to the steady-state performance of the power
system.

The Gauss-Seidel technique is one of the methods of load-flow analysis. It shares with
the Jacobi method simplicity of programming for computer solution, but offers the
additional benefit of improved convergence performance.

Whereas the Jacobi method calculates new values for all busbar voltages before replacing
old values of voltage with those newly calculated; the Gauss-Seidel uses each busbar
voltage immediately after it is calculated. This leads to an improved convergence
performance.

The basic Centurion network equations presented here also apply to their representation
in the analysis of system stability. The Centurion network is assumed to be balanced;
which allows for a single-phase representation.

40

5.1 Introduction

Power flow studies, commonly known as load flow, form an important part of power
system analysis. They are necessary for planning, economic scheduling, and control of an
existing system as well as planning its future expansion. The problem consists of
determining the magnitudes and phase angle of voltages at each bus and active and
reactive power flow in each line.

In solving a power flow problem, the system is assumed to be operating under balanced
conditions. Four quantities are associated with each bus. These are voltage magnitude V,
phase angle , real power P, and reactive power Q. The system buses are generally
classified into three types:

Slack bus: one bus, known as slack or swing bus, is taken as reference where the
magnitude and phase angle of the voltage are specified. This bus makes up the
difference between the scheduled loads and generated power that are caused by the
losses in the network.

Load buses: At these buses the active and reactive powers are specified. The
magnitude and the phase angle of the bus voltages are unknown. These buses are
called P-Q buses.

Regulated buses: These buses are the generator buses. They are also known as
voltage-controlled buses. The phase angles of the voltages and reactive power are

41

to be determined. The limits on the value of the reactive power are also specified.
These buses are called P-V buses.

5.2 Power Flow Equations

Consider i a typical bus of the Centurion network. Transmission lines are represented by
their equivalent models where impedances have been converted to per unit
admittances on a common MVA base. Application of KCL to this bus results in:

I i = y i 0 Vi + y i1 ( Vi V1 ) + y i 2 ( Vi V2 ) + + y in ( Vi Vn )

= ( y i 0 + y i1 + y i 2 + + y in ) Vi y i1 V1 y i 2 V2 y in Vn

(12)

Or
I i = Vi

y
j =0

ij

j =1

ij

(13)

i j

Vj

The real and reactive power at bus i is Pi + jQ j = Vi I i*

(14)

Or
Ii =

Pi jQi
Vi *

(15)

Substituting for I i in (13) yields:

Pi jQi
= Vi
Vi *

yij
j =0

y
j =1

ij

Vj

j i

(16)

42

From the above relation, the mathematical formulation of the power flow problem results
in a system of algebraic nonlinear equations which must be solved by iterative
techniques.

5.3 Gauss-Seidel Power Flow Solution

In the power flow study, it is necessary to solve the set of nonlinear equations represented
by (16 ) for two unknown variables at each node. In the Gauss-Seidel method, (16 ) is
solved for Vi , and the iterative sequence becomes:

Pi sch jQisch

Vi k +1 =

Vi *

y
j =0

ij

y V( )
k

(k )

ij

j =0

y
j =0

j i

(17 )

ij

Where, y ij is the actual admittance in per unit. Pi sch and Qisch are the net real and reactive
powers expressed in per unit. In writing the KCL, current entering bus i is assumed
positive.

Thus, for buses where real and reactive powers are injected into the bus, such as
generator buses, Pi sch and Qisch have positive values; for load buses where real and
reactive powers are flowing away from the bus, Pi sch and Qisch have negative values.

43

If (16 ) is solved for Pi and Qi , we have:

Pi (k +1) = { Vi *(k ) [ Vi (k )

( k +1)

Qi

= - { Vi

*( k )

[ Vi

(k )

yij
j =0

y
j =0

ij

y
j =1

ij

V j(k ) ] }

ij

V j(k ) ] }

y
j =1

j i

j i

(18)

(19)

The power flow equation is usually expressed in terms of the elements of the bus
admittance matrix. Since the off-diagonal elements of the bus admittance matrix Ybus ,
Yij = y ij , and the diagonal elements are Yii = y ij , (17 ) becomes:

Pi sch jQisch
Vi *
Vi (k +1) =
Yii

Y V
j i

ij

(k )
j

(20)

Yii

And

Pi (k +1) = { Vi *(k ) [ Vi (k ) Yii +

Y V
j =1
j i

Qi(k +1) = { Vi *(k ) [ Vi (k )Yii +

ij

(k )
j

]}

j i

(21)

]}

j i

(22)

Y V
j =1
j i

ij

(k )

44

Yii includes the admittance to ground of line charging susceptance and any other fixed
admittance to ground. Since both components of voltage are specified for the slack bus,
there are 2(n 1) equations which must be solved by an iterative method.

Under normal operating conditions, the voltage magnitudes of the buses are in the
neighbourhood of 1.0 per unit or close to the voltage magnitude of the slack bus. Voltage
magnitudes at load buses are somewhat lower than the slack bus value, depending on the
reactive power demand, whereas the scheduled voltages at the generator buses are
somewhat higher.

Also, the phase angle of the load buses are below the reference angle in accordance with
the real power demand, whereas the phase angle of the generator buses may be above the
reference value depending on the amount of real power flowing into the bus.

Thus, for the Gauss-Seidel method, an initial voltage estimate of ( 1.0 + j 0.0 ) p.u for
unknown voltages is satisfactory, and the converged solution correlates with the actual
operating states.

For P Q buses, the real and reactive powers Pi sch and Qisch are known. Starting with an
initial estimate, (19 ) is solved for the real and imaginary components of voltage. For the
voltage-controlled buses ( P V buses) where Pi sch and Vi are specified, first (22 ) is
solved for Qi(k +1) , and then is used in (19 ) to solve for Vi (k +1) .

45

However, since Vi is specified, only the imaginary part of Vi (k +1) is retained, and its real
part is selected in order to satisfy:

(e i( k +1) ) 2 + ( f i (k +1) ) 2 = Vi 2

(23)

Or

ei(k +1) =

Vi 2 ( f i ( k +1) ) 2

(24)

Where, ei(k +1) and f i (k +1) are the real and imaginary components of the voltage Vi (k +1) in
the iterative sequence. The rate of convergence is increased by applying an acceleration
factor to the approximate solution obtained from each iteration.

k
Vi (k ) )
Vi (k +1) = Vi k + ( Vical

(25)

Where is the acceleration factor. Its value depends upon the system. The range of 1.3
to 1.7 is found to be satisfactory for typical systems.

The updated voltages immediately replace the previous values in the solution of the
subsequent equations. The process is continued until changes in the real and imaginary
components of bus voltages between successive iterations are within a specified
accuracy, i.e.

46

ei( k +1) ei( k )

(26)
f i ( k +1) f i ( k )

For the power mismatch to be reasonably small and acceptable, a very tight tolerance
must be specified on both components of the voltage.

A voltage accuracy in the range of 0.00001 to 0.00005 p.u is satisfactory. In practice, the
method for determining the completion of a solution is based on an accuracy index set up
on the power mismatch.

The iteration continues until the magnitude of the largest element in the P and Q
columns is less than the specified value. A typical power mismatch accuracy is 0.001 p.u.

Once a solution is converged, the net real and reactive powers at the slack bus are
computed from (21) and (22 ) .

5.4 Power Flow Programs

Several computer programs have been developed and Matlab Power 2 software is used in
this study for the power flow solution of the Centurion network. Each method of solution
consists of four programs. The program for the Gauss-Seidel method is Ifgauss, which is
preceded by Ifbus, and is followed by busout and lineflow.
47

Programs Ifbus, busout, and lineflow are designed to be used with two more power flow
programs. The following is a brief description of the programs used in the Gauss-Seidel
method.

Ifbus: This program requires the line and transformer parameters and transformer tap
setting specified in the input file named linedata. It converts impedances to admittances
and obtains the bus admittance matrix. The program is designed to handle parallel lines.

Ifgauss: This program obtains the power flow solution by the Gauss-Seidel method and
requires the files named busdata and load and generation in MW and Mvar, bus voltages
in per unit, and angle in degree. Loads and generation are converted to per unit quantities
on the base MVA selected.

A provision is made to maintain the generator reactive power of the voltage-controlled

buses within their specified limit. The violation of reactive power limit may occur if the
specified voltage is either too high or too low.

Busout: This program produces the bus output result in a tabulated form. The bus output
result includes the voltage magnitude and angle, real and reactive power of generators
and loads, and the shunt capacitor/reactor Mvar.

48

Lineflow: This program prepares the line output data. It is designed to display the active
and reactive power flow entering the line terminals and line losses as well as the net
power at each bus. Also included are the total real and reactive losses in the system.

5.5 Data Preparation

In order to perform the power flow analysis by Gauss-Seidel method in the MATLAB
environment, the following variables must be defined: power system base MVA, power
mismatch accuracy, acceleration factor, and maximum number of iterations. The name
(in lowercase letters) reserved for these variables are basemva, accuracy, accel, and
maxiter, respectively.

Typical values are as follows:

Basemva = 150;
Accel

= 1.6;

accuracy = 0.001;
maxiter = 80;

The initial step in the preparation of input file is the numbering of each bus. Buses are
numbered sequentially. Although the numbers are sequentially assigned, the buses need
not to be entered in sequence. In addition, the following data files are required.

49

BUS DATA FILE busdata: The format for the bus entry is chosen to facilitate the
required data for each bus in a single row. The information required must be included in a
matrix called busdata.

Column 1 is the bus number. Column 2 contains the bus code. Columns 3 and 4 are
voltage magnitudes in per unit and phase angle in degrees. Columns 5 and 6 are load MW
and Mvar.

Columns 7 through 10 are MW, Mvar, minimum Mvar and maximum Mvar of
generation, in that order. The last column is the injected Mvar of shunt capacitors. The
bus code entered in column 2 is used for identifying load, voltage-controlled, and slack
buses as outlined below:

This code is used for slack bus. The only necessary information for this bus is the
voltage magnitude and its phase angle.

This code is used for load buses. The loads are entered positive in megawatts and
megavars. For this bus, initial voltage estimate must be specified. This is usually 1
and 0 for voltage magnitude and phase angle, respectively. If voltage magnitude
and phase angle for this type of bus are specified, they will be taken as the initial
starting voltage for that bus instead of a flat start of 1 and 0.

50

This code is used for the voltage-controlled buses. For this bus, voltage
magnitude, real power generation in megawatts, and the minimum and maximum
limits of the megavars demand must be specified.

LINE DATA FILE linedata: Lines are identified by the node-pair method. The
information required must be included in a matrix called linedata. Columns 1 and 2 are
line bus numbers. Columns 3 through 5 contain the line resistance, reactance, and onehalf of the total line charging susceptance in per unit on the specified MVA base.

The last column is for the transformer tap setting; for lines, 1 must be entered in this
column. The lines may be entered in any sequence or order with the only restriction being
that if the entry is a transformer, the left bus number is assumed to be the tap side of the
transformer.

51

CHAPTER 6

VOLTAGE STABILITY STUDY

In this chapter, we discuss the analysis of voltage stability for the power system. We have
considered only a small part of the Tshwane Municipality Network, Centurion. In the
same chapter, we will describe the power flow analysis of Centurion Network using the
Gauss-Seidel method, and compare the results with the Newton-Raphson method.

6.1 Introduction

Each power system is composed of a number of busbars interconnected by a network of

impedances. At each busbar one or more of the following may be connected:

A generator supplying real power into the network, and operating at either a
lagging power factor (supplying reactive power ) or a leading power factor
(absorbing reactive power).

A load absorbing real power from the network, and operating at either a lagging
power factor (absorbing reactive power) or a leading power factor (supplying
reactive power).

Inductive or capacitive compensation devices, equivalent to static reactance

employed for voltage control purposes.

52

Rotating machinery capable of supplying or absorbing real and reactive power in

any of a number of operating quadrant combinations.

The power flow analysis involves the calculation of power flows and voltages of
transmission network for specified terminal or bus conditions. Such calculations are
required for the analysis of steady-state as well as dynamic performance of power
systems.

The system is assumed to be balanced; this allows a single-phase representation of the

system. Therefore, the effects of distribution system voltage control devices on loads are
represented implicitly.

The importance of power-flow analysis cannot be overstated. It is essential for predicting

the behaviour of power systems in the steady state and as part of the process for transient
conditions. It is a fundamental tool for practicing power system engineers engaged in
system planning, operation, and control.

6.2 Voltage Stability Study

Voltage stability is a major problem in electric power systems that have long
transmission passages with big encumbering capacities.

53

Voltage stability studies may be limited to identify areas prone to voltage instability and
to obtain information regarding how the system voltage stability can be improved most
effectively. The main goal of voltage stability analysis is to find the point of possible
voltage collapse.

In this study, we have considered only a small part of the Tshwane Municipality
Network, Centurion. It consists of six synchronous machines, four of which are
synchronous compensators used only for reactive power support. There are 38 buses in
the system, with a total of 1319.9 MW and 587.7 Mvar.

Usually, the three-phase base volt-ampere S B and the line-to-line base voltage VB are
selected. Base current and base impedance are then dependent on S B and VB and must
obey the circuit laws.

Bus 1, NJALA is connected to the network at 450 MW as the real power at the point of
common coupling and is taken as the slack bus with its voltage adjusted to1.08 0 p.u.

54

Figure 6: Single phase grid equivalent model

6.3 Results and Interpretation

Power Flow Solution by Gauss-Seidel Method

Maximum Power Mismatch = 0.002347859
No. of Iterations = 41

55

Bus Voltage Angle

No. Mag. Degree
1 1.080
0.000
2 1.062 -3.25
3 1.078 -8.134
4 1.038 -9.859
5 1.020 -6.916
6 1.017 -17.09
7 1.024 -13.67
8 1.030 -11.92
9 1.095 -2.113
10 1.098 -2.174
11 1.090 -2.028
12 1.097 -2.218
13 1.087 -19.68
14 1.085 -14.91
15 1.085 -16.10
16 1.083 -12.26
17 0.944 -18.35
18 0.943 -11.55
19 0.639 -7.144
20 0.938 -19.27
21 0.934 -13.36
22 0.937 -11.41
23 0.931 -14.97
24 1.000 -17.20
25 0.932 -13.08
26 0.931 -23.23
27 0.832 -29.28
28 1.062 -21.24
29 1.062 -11.24
30 1.093 -19.43
31 1.091 -23.55
32 1.292 -13.73
33 1.091 -19.78
34 1.000 -10.00
35 0.992 -14.92
36 0.992 -25.00
37 0.991 -15.24
38 0.992 -17.21
Total

---Load--------Generation--MW
Mvar
MW
Mvar
0.000
0.000 963.630 -60.220
54.000 25.800 450.000 214.200
54.000 25.800
0.000
0.000
54.000 25.800
0.000
0.000
14.400
6.900
0.000 176.399
47.700 22.800
0.000
0.000
54.000 25.800
0.000
0.000
54.000 25.800
0.000 101.217
26.100 12.500
0.000
0.000
33.300 15.900
0.000
0.000
49.500 23.700
0.000
79.411
40.500 19.400
0.000
0.000
49.500 23.700
0.000
37.869
13.500
6.500
0.000
0.000
13.500
6.500
0.000
0.000
30.600 14.600
0.000
0.000
17.100
8.200
0.000
0.000
53.100 25.400
0.000
0.000
9.000
4.300
0.000
0.000
18.000
8.600
0.000
0.000
36.000 17.200
0.000
0.000
18.000
8.600
0.000
0.000
11.700
5.600
0.000
0.000
53.100 25.400
0.000
0.000
54.000 25.800
0.000
0.000
46.800 22.400
0.000
0.000
54.000 25.800
0.000
0.000
9.000
4.300
0.000
0.000
18.000
8.600
0.000
0.000
38.700 18.500
0.000
0.000
12.600
6.000
0.000
0.000
36.000 17.200
0.000
0.000
31.500 15.000
0.000
0.000
36.000 17.200
0.000
0.000
41.900 19.900
0.000
0.000
61.200 29.200
0.000
0.000
14.400
6.900
0.000
0.000
61.200 29.200
0.000
0.000

1319.900 587.700

1413.63

548.876

Injected
Mvar
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
40.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
38.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
21.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
15.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
114.000

56

Power Flow Solution by Newton-Raphson Method

Maximum Power Mismatch = 9.61234e-007
No. of Iterations = 8

57

Bus Voltage Angle

No. Mag. Degree
1 1.080
0.000
2 1.062 -3.255
3 1.078 -8.134
4 1.039 -9.859
5 1.020 -6.916
6 1.017 -17.09
7 1.024 -13.67
8 1.030 -11.92
9 1.095 -2.113
10 1.097 -2.174
11 1.090 -2.028
12 1.097 -2.218
13 1.087 -19.68
14 1.085 -14.91
15 1.085 -16.10
16 1.083 -12.26
17 0.944 -18.35
18 0.943 -11.55
19 0.638 -7.144
20 0.938 -19.27
21 0.934 -13.36
22 0.937 -11.41
23 0.931 -14.97
24 1.000 -17.20
25 0.932 -13.08
26 0.931 -23.23
27 0.831 -29.28
28 1.062 -21.24
29 1.062 -11.24
30 1.093 -19.43
31 1.091 -23.55
32 1.293 -13.73
33 1.091 -19.78
34 1.000 -10.00
35 0.992 -14.92
36 0.992 -25.00
37 0.991 -15.24
38 0.992 -17.21
Total

----Load--------Generation--MW
Mvar
MW
Mvar
0.000 0.000 963.687 -60.320
54.000 25.800 450.000 214.440
54.000 25.800
0.000
0.000
54.000 25.800
0.000
0.000
14.400
6.900
0.000 176.372
47.700 22.800
0.000
0.000
54.000 25.800
0.000
0.000
54.000 25.800
0.000 101.217
26.100 12.500
0.000
0.000
33.300 15.900
0.000
0.000
49.500 23.700
0.000
79.411
40.500 19.400
0.000
0.000
49.500 23.700
0.000
37.969
13.500
6.500
0.000
0.000
13.500
6.500
0.000
0.000
30.600 14.600
0.000
0.000
17.100
8.200
0.000
0.000
53.100 25.400
0.000
0.000
9.000
4.300
0.000
0.000
18.000
8.600
0.000
0.000
36.000 17.200
0.000
0.000
18.000
8.600
0.000
0.000
11.700
5.600
0.000
0.000
53.100 25.400
0.000
0.000
54.000 25.800
0.000
0.000
46.800 22.400
0.000
0.000
54.000 25.800
0.000
0.000
9.000
4.300
0.000
0.000
18.000
8.600
0.000
0.000
38.700 18.500
0.000
0.000
12.600
6.000
0.000
0.000
36.000 17.200
0.000
0.000
31.500 15.000
0.000
0.000
36.000 17.200
0.000
0.000
41.900 19.900
0.000
0.000
61.200 29.200
0.000
0.000
14.400
6.900
0.000
0.000
61.200 29.200
0.000
0.000

1319.900 587.700

1413.687

549.089

Injected
Mvar
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
40.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
38.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
21.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
15.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
114.000

58

Newton-Raphson took just 8 iterations, whereas, the Gauss-Seidel took 41 iterations. As

a result, the total number of iteration required and execution time is significantly reduced.
However the Gauss-Seidel method requires more iterations than the Newton-Raphson.

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the power system is said to be
stable when the voltage V = 1.0 10% in per unit at each bus. For maintaining voltage
stability, the power system is usually operated with small load angle .

Figure 7: Typical plot of voltage stability study characteristic

From the results that we have obtained, we can see that at buses 19, 27 and 32, the
voltage V 1.0 10% .

59

Voltage instability occurs in those buses for the following reasons:

The transmission line loading is too high.

The reactive sources (generators) are too far from load centres.

Insufficient load reactive compensation.

The reactive power supply cannot meet the reactive power demand of the system and the
reactive power cannot be moved very far in the network. Thus, this shows that our system
is unstable.

60

CHAPTER 7

METHODS OF IMPROVING STABILITY

This chapter discusses special methods used for enhancing power system stability. For a
given system, any one method of improving stability may not be adequate.

The best approach is likely to be a combination of several methods judiciously chosen so

as to most effectively assist in maintaining stability for different contingencies and
system conditions.

7.1 Introduction

Most of electric power supply systems in the world are widely interconnected, involving
connections inside utilities own territories which extend to inter-utility interconnections
and then to inter-regional and internal connections. This is done for economic reasons, to
reduce the cost of electricity, and to improve reliability of power supply.

Power system stability issues and thermal constraints limit transmission capacity. To
meet the increasing load demand and satisfy the stability and reliability criteria, either
existing transmission and generation facilities must be utilized more efficiently, or new
facilities should be added to the system.

61

The former can be achieved by using FACTS Controllers as seen in well-developed

power systems throughout the world.

The flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) has received much attention in the last 2
decades. It uses high current power electronic devices to control the voltage, power flow,
stability, etc. of a transmission system.

FACTS devices can be connected to a transmission line in various ways, such as in

series, shunt, or a combination of series and shunt. The terms and definitions of various
FACTS devices are described in (N.G. Hingorani, 1988).

The relatively recent development and use of FACTS controllers in power transmission
systems has led to many applications of these controllers to improve the stability of
power networks (N.G. Hingorani, 1993), (IEEE, 1996).

Many studies have been carried out and reported in the literature on the use of these
controllers in a variety of voltage and angle stability applications, proposing diverse
control schemes and techniques for voltage and angle oscillation control (IEEE, 1996).

Several distinct models have been proposed to represent FACTS in static and dynamic
analyses (C. Terond, 1999).

Certain FACTS controllers have already been applied and others are under development.
In particular, SVC, TCSC, STATCOM, SSSC and UPFC (a combination of a SSSC and a
STATCOM) are the best known FACTS controllers (N. Yang, Q. Liu, and J.D. Calley,
1998), (M. J. Lautenberg, M.A. Pai, and K.R. Padiyar, 1997), (C.A Canizares and Z.T.

62

Faur, 1999), (L. Gyugyi, 1994), (L. Gyugyi et al., 1990), (E. Uzunovic, C.A Canizares,
and J. Reeve, 1997), (N.G. Hingorani, 2000).

With the advent of flexible ac transmission system (FACTS) devices (N.G. Hingorani,
2000), the unified model of single-machine infinite bus (SMIB) power system installed
with a TCSC, STATCOM and a UPFC have been developed (H.F. Wang and F.J. Swift,
1997), (H.F. Wang, 2000).

The linear methods cannot properly capture complex dynamics of the system, especially
during major disturbances. This presents difficulties for designing the FACTS controllers
in that, the controllers designed to provide desired performance at small signal conditions
do not guarantee acceptable performance in the event of major disturbances.

A systematic procedure for modelling, simulation of TCSC controllers in a SMIB power

system was presented where the MATLAB/SIMULINK based model was developed (S.
Panda, N.P. Padhy and R.N. Patel, 2007).

FACTS devices that have an integrated control function are known as the FACTS
controllers. These may consist of thyristor devices with only gate turn-on and no gate
turn-off, or with power devices with gate turn-off capability.

FACTS technology opens up new opportunities for controlling power and enhancing the
usable capacity of present, new, and upgraded lines. The possibility that current through a
line can be controlled at a reasonable cost creates a large potential of increasing the
63

capacity of existing lines with larger conductors and with the use of one under normal
and contingency conditions.

The placement of FACTS devices is based on angle stability and voltage stability. For
transient stability, the placement is based on how the devices can improve transient
stability based on the response of the devices. This can be achieved by introducing
FACTS in a bus and consider the angle improvement at that bus.

There are many placement techniques based on voltage stability. The shunt compensation
devices should be placed at the weakest bus or weakest area. The weakest bus
identification is addressed commonly based on contribution of modal analysis method or
tangent vector method (IEEE, 1996).

Generally, FACTS controllers are not required to correct steady-state limitation.

However, if action must be implemented quickly (e.g. post-contingency), a FACTS
controller may be advantageous; table 2 describes the application of various FACTS
controllers along with their conventional counterparts in addressing these limitations.

64

Table 2: Steady-State Issues

The philosophy of FACTS is to use power electronics for controlling power flow in a
transmission network, thereby allowing the transmission line to be loaded to its full
capability. Power electronic controlled devices, such as static Volt-Ampere Reactive
(VAR) compensators, have been used in transmission networks for many years.
65

The Centurion part of the power system has six synchronous generators, all of the same
kind. Instead of doing modelling and simulation for each one of them while they all have
the same characteristics, a simplified dynamic model of a power system is used in this
study, named SMIB power system.

This model consists of a single synchronous generator connected through a parallel

transmission line to a very large network which is Centurion approximated by an infinite
bus.

7.2 Power system under study

The network under study may be reduced to the form of Fig. 8 by using Thevenins
equivalent of the transmission network, external to the machine and the adjacent
transmission system (K. R. Padiyar).

The SMIB power system is composed of a synchronous generator, which delivers power
to the infinite-bus through a double circuit transmission line. Vt and VB = Eb = V are the
generator terminal and infinite bus voltage respectively; X T , X L and X TH represent the
reactance of the transformer, transmission line per circuit and the Thevenins impedance
of the receiving end system respectively.

66

Figure 8: Single-machine infinite-bus power system with TCSC

For any given system condition, the magnitude of the infinite bus voltage VB remains
constant when the machine is perturbed. However, as the systems steady state conditions
change, the magnitude of VB may change, representing a changed operating condition of
the external network. Fig. 9 shows a simplified dynamic model of SMIB using TCSC (B.
H. Li, Q. H. Wu, D. R Turner, P. Y. Wang and X. X Zhou, 2000).

Figure 9: Simplified dynamic model of SMIB using TCSC

67

7.3 System models

7.3.1 Synchronous Generator Model

The synchronous generator is represented by figure 8, with field circuit and one
equivalent damper on q-axis. The machine equations are (K.R. Padiyar, 2008):

d
= r (S m S mo )
dt

(27 )

dS m
1
[ D(S m S mo ) + Tm Te ]
=
dt
2H

(28)

dE q'
dt

) ]

1
E q' + X d X d' I d + E fd
Tdo'

dE d'
1
= ' E d' + X q X q' I q
dt
Tqo

(29)

(30)

The electrical Torque Te is expressed in terms of variables E d' , E q' , I d and I q as:

Te = E d' I d + E q' I q + X d' X q' I d I q

(31)

68

For a lossless network, the stator algebraic equations and the network equations are
expressed as:

E q' = X d' I d + v q

(32)

E d' = X q' I d + v d

(33)

v q = X e I d + V Cos

(34)

v d = X e I q V Sin

(35)

Solving the above equations, the variables I d and I q can be obtained as:

Id =

Iq =

V Cos E q'
X e + X d'

V Sin + E q'
X e + X q'

(36)

(37 )

69

Where,

: Rotor angle of synchronous generator in radians.

r : Rotor speed deviation in rad/sec.
S m : Generator slip in p.u.
S mo : Initial operating slip in p.u.
H : Inertia constant.
D : Damping coefficient.

Tm : Mechanical power input in p.u.

Te : Electrical power.
E fd : Excitation system voltage in p.u.
Tdo' : Open circuit d-axis time constant in sec.

Tqo' : Open circuit q-axis time constant in sec.

X d : d-axis synchronous reactance in p.u.
X d' : d-axis transient reactance in p.u.
X q : q-axis synchronous reactance in p.u.

X q' : q-axis transient reactance in p.u.

X e : Reactance before and after fault.

The notation for the variables and parameters described above are standard and defined in
the nomenclature (Kundur, 1994), (K.R. Padiyar, 2008), (Songklanakarin J. Sci, 2005).

70

7.3.2 Power System Stabilizer Model

The basic function of a Power System Stabilizer (PSS) is to add damping to the generator
rotor oscillations by controlling its excitation using auxiliary stabilizing signals. To
provide damping, the stabilizer must produce a component of electrical torque in phase
with the rotor speed deviation.

Since the purpose of a PSS is to introduce a damping torque component, a logical signal
to use for controlling generator excitation is the speed deviation r .

A PSS can be viewed as an additional control block used to enhance the system stability
(P.M. Anderson and A.A. Fouand, 1997). This block is added to the AVR, and uses
stabilizing feedback signals such as shaft speed, terminal frequency and power to change
the input signal of the AVR, and to represent the excitation control of generators as well.

Figure 10: Control block diagram of AVR and PSS

71

Figure 11: AVR and exciter model for synchronous generator

Thus, the effect of the AVR is either to increase the synchronizing torque component and
decrease the damping torque component or to decrease the synchronizing torque
component and increase the damping torque component.

If the exciter transfer function and the generator transfer function between E fd and Te
were pure gains, a direct feedback of r would result in a damping torque component.

The natural response of a power system when subjected to a disturbance consists of a

range of frequencies. Typically it is the electromechanical oscillations, in the range of 0.5
to 2.0 Hz, which are lightly damped and hence more problematic in power systems.

72

The purpose of a PSS is to add damping to these oscillations by modulating the excitation
of a generator such that an electrical torque in phase with the deviation of its rotor speed
is generated.

A widely used conventional lead-lag PSS is considered in this study. It consists of a gain
block with gain K p , a signal washout block, and two-stage phase compensation block
with time constants T1P , T2 P , and T3 P , T4 P . The three basic blocks of a PSS model, are
illustrated in Fig.12.

The function of a stabilizer Gain block is to determine the amount of damping. The
washout block serves as a high-pass filter, with a time constant that allows the signal
associated with oscillations in rotor speed to pass unchanged, but does not allow the
steady state changes to modify the terminal voltages.

The phase-compensation block provides the desired phase-lead characteristic to

compensate for the phase lag between the AVR input and the generator electrical (airgap) torque. In practice, two or more first-order blocks may be used to achieve the
desired phase compensation.

In this structure, TWP is the washout time constant; is the speed deviation and VS is
the stabilizing signal output of PSS.

73

Figure 12: Basic block PSS diagram

7.3.3 FACTS Controllers Models

7.3.3.1 TCSC

Improvement of voltage and current limits on power electronics devices led to a fast
development of FACTS in the last decade. TCSC have been widely studied by many
researchers. Several TCSC devices also have been installed and operated by some
utilities (E.V. Larsen, K. Clark and et al., 1994), (J. Liang, J. Guo and X. Zhou, 1998).

TCSC is one of the most important and best known series FACTS controllers. A TCSC
controller consists of a fixed series capacitor (FC) in parallel with a thyristor controlled
reactor (TCR).

The TCR is formed by a reactor in series with a bi-directional thyristor valve that is fired
with a phase angle ranging between 90 and 180 with respect to the capacitor voltage
(CIGRE, 1996).
74

Figure 13: Basic Structure of TCSC

In a TCSC, two main operational controls can be clearly identified, an external control
and an internal control (N.G. Hingorani, 2000). The function of the external control is to
operate the controller to fulfil specified compensation objectives; this control directly
depends on measured system variables to define the reference for the internal control.

The function of the internal control is to provide the right gate drive signals for the
thyristor valve to produce the appropriate compensating reactance. The external control is
defined by the control objectives.

The typical steady state function of a TCSC is reactance control, but additional functions
for stability improvement such as damping controls, may be included in this control.

75

Figure 14: Stability model of TCSC

Another principal steady state function of a TCSC is power flow control, which is usually
accomplished either automatically with a slow PI controller or manual through direct
operator intervention (CIGRE, 1997), (N. Martin, H. Pinto, and J. Paserba, 2000).

The function of the internal control is to provide appropriate gate drive signals for the
thyristor valve to produce the desired compensating reactance. Thus, the external control
is the one that defines the operating function of the controller (N.G. Hingorani, 2000), (C.
Gama and R. Tenorio, 2000).

According to the variation of the conduction angle ( ) or the thyristor firing angle ( ),
this process can be modelled as a fast switch between corresponding reactance offered to
the power system. There is a steady-state relationship between and the reactance

76

X TCSC . This relationship can be described by the following equation (R.M. Marthur and
R.K. Verna, 2002):

X TCSC ( ) = X C

X C2 ( + Sin ) 4 X C2 Cos ( 2 )[k tan (k 2 ) tan ( 2 )]

+
( X C X P )
(X C X P ) k 2 1

(38)

Where,
X C : Nominal reactance of the fixed capacitor C
X P : Inductive reactance of inductor L connected in parallel with C.

: Conduction angle of TCSC

: Firing angle of TCSC
k: Compensation ratio, k =

XC
XP

A TCSC is modelled here as a variable capacitive reactance within the operating region
defined by the limits imposed by .

Thus, X TCSC min X TCSC X TCSC max

(39)

With X TCSC min = X TCSC (180 ) = X C and X TCSC max = X TCSC ( min )

(40)

77

The structure of TCSC-based damping controller, to modulate the reactance offered by

the TCSC, X TCSC ( ) is shown in Fig. 15. The input signal of the proposed controllers is
the speed deviation , and the output signal is the resistance offered by the TCSC,
X TCSC ( ) .

Figure 15: Structure of TCSC-based controller

The structure consists of a gain block with gain K T , a signal washout block and two-stage
phase compensation blocks. The signal washout block serves as a high-pass filter, with
the time constant TWT , high enough to allow signals associated with oscillations in input
signal to pass unchanged.

78

The phase compensation block (Time constants T1T , T2T , and T3T , T4T ) provides the
appropriate phase-lead characteristics to compensate for the phase lag between input and
the output signals, 0 represents the initial conduction angle as desired by the power
flow control loop, 0 is assumed to be constant during large disturbance transient period.

7.3.3.2 SVC

Static Var Compensators (SVCs) are shunt-connected static generators and/or absorbers
whose outputs are varied so as to control specific parameters of the electric power
system.

The term static is used to indicate that SVCs, unlike synchronous compensators, have
no moving or rotating main components. Thus an SVC consists of Static Var Generator
(SVG) or absorber devices and a suitable control device.

The main job of a SVC is to inject a controlled capacitive or inductive current so as to

maintain or control a specific variable, mainly bus voltage (IEEE, 1995). A well-known
configuration of a SVC is the fixed capacitor (FC) with thyristor controlled reactor
(TCR), and thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC).

Fig. 17 shows a simplified model of a SVC consisting of a TCR and a fixed capacitor.
The TCR is assumed to have a proportional type regulator. The parameters are in per unit
with TCR rating as base values.
79

In addition to the main function of the SVC controller, which is to control the SVC bus
voltage, the reactance of the SVC controller may be used to damp system oscillation
(C.A. Canizares, 2000).

Figure 16: Block diagram of a SVC with voltage control

80

Figure 17: Simplified model of a SVC comprising a TCR and FC

The reactive elements of the compensator are connected to the transmission line through
a transformer to prevent the elements having to withstand full system voltage.

A control system determines the exact gating instants of reactors according to a

predetermined strategy. The strategy usually aims to maintain the transmission line
voltage at a fixed level.

Generally, static VAR compensation is not done at line voltage; a bank of transformers
steps the transmission voltage down to a much lower level. This reduces the size and
number of components needed in the SVC, although the conductors must be very large to
handle the high currents associated with the lower voltage.

The main advantage of SVC over simple mechanically-switched compensation schemes

is their near-instantaneous response to change in the system voltage. For this reason, they
are often operated at close to their zero-point in order to maximise the reactive power

81

correction, they can rapidly provide when required. Typically, the power system control
variable controlled by SVC is the terminal bus voltage.

7.3.3.3 UPFC

The Unified Power Flow Controller is the most versatile and powerful power electronic
equipment that has emerged for the control and optimization of power flow in electrical
power transmission system, combining the features of the STATCOM and the SSSC.

The STATCOM is based on a solid state synchronous voltage source that is analogous to
an ideal synchronous machine without rotating mass. It generates a balanced set of
sinusoidal voltages at the fundamental frequency with rapidly controllable amplitude and
phase angle.

STATCOM has better characteristic over SVC; when the system voltage drops enough to
force the STATCOM output to ceiling, its maximum reactive power output will not be
affected by the voltage magnitude.

The main objective of the STATCOM is to convert a DC input voltage into AC output
voltage at fundamental frequency in order to compensate the active and reactive power
needed by the system. The basic structure of STATCOM is shown in Fig. 18.

82

Figure 18: Basic structure of STATCOM

The SSSC is similar to the STATCOM and it is based on a DC capacitor fed VSI that
generates a three-phase voltage at fundamental frequency, which is then injected in a
transmission line through a transformer connected in series with the system.

The main control objective of the SSSC is to directly control the current, and indirectly
the power, flowing through the line by controlling the reactive power exchange between
the SSSC and the AC system.

83

The main advantage of this controller over a TCSC is that it does not significantly affect
the impedance of the transmission system and, therefore, there is no danger of having
resonance problem. The basic structure of SSSC is shown in Fig. 19.

Figure 19: Basic structure of SSSC

The UPFC can provide simultaneous control of all basic power system parameters,
transmission voltage, impedance and phase angle. It is recognized as the most
sophisticated power flow controller currently, and probably the most expensive one.

84

The rapid and almost instantaneous responses make it suitable for many applications
requiring effective steady-state power flow control and dynamic stability improvement.
A basic UPFC functional scheme is shown in Fig.20.

The UPFC consists of two identical voltage-source inverters: one in shunt and the other
one in series with the line, sharing a common DC storage capacitor, and connected to the
power system through coupling transformers.

The series inverter is controlled to inject a symmetrical three phase voltage system, of
controllable magnitude and phase angle in series with the line to control active and
reactive power flows on the transmission line.

Figure 20: Basic functional scheme of UPFC

85

7.3.4 Problem formulation

In the present study, a washout time constant of TWP = TWT = 1.0 sec is used. The
controller gains K T and K P and the time constants T1T , T2T , T3T and T4T and T1P , T2 P ,
T3 P and T4 P are to be determined, the damping coefficient D = 0 .

In the case of PSS, the stabilizing signal output VS is zero during steady state conditions.

In the case of TCSC-based controller, and 0 are constant during steady state
conditions. During dynamic conditions, conduction angle ( ) and hence X TCSC ( ) is
modulated to improve power system stability.

The desired value of compensation is obtained through the change in the conduction
angle ( ), according to the variation in . The effective conduction angle during
dynamic conditions is given by: = 0 +

Here, Vs and Vr are assumed to be sending and receiving-end voltages. In the UPFC
model it is assumed that the sending end corresponds to a power plant while the receiving
end to an electric power network.

86

The receiving end voltage may not cause any phase angle change, because Vr is an
infinite bus voltage. The phase angle of Vs is adjusted according to the power demand for
the power plant. A phase difference of 10

between sending-end and receiving-end

voltages is simulated.

7.3.5

Cost implication of implementation of FACTS Controllers

7.3.5.1 Generation Cost Function

The generation cost function is represented by a quadratic polynomial as follows:

C2 (PG) = 0 + 1 PG + 2 PG2 , where PG is the output of the generator (MW), and 0 ,

1 and 3 are cost coefficients (K. Vijayakumar, Dr. R. P. Kumudinidevi).

7.3.5.2 Investment Costs Function of FACTS Controllers

Based on the Siemens AG Database, the cost function for TCSC and UPFC are
developed. The cost function for UPFC and TCSC are:

C1UPFC = 0.0003 S2 - 0.2691 S + 188.22 (US $/MVAr)

C1TCSC = 0.0015 S2 0.7130 S + 153.75 (US $/MVAr)

Where C1UPFC and C1TCSC are in US $/kVAr and S is the operating range of the FACTS
Controllers in kVAr.

87

The cost function for TCSC and UPFC are shown in Fig. 21.

Figure 21: Cost function of the FACTS Controllers: TCSC and UPFC

88

CHAPTER 8

SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In order to show the effectiveness of the proposed models of power system stability
controllers, simulation studies are presented in this chapter. Various power system
controllers are used to control the oscillatory problem, namely a PSS including AVR and
a TCSC. On the other hand a SVC and a UPFC were added to the system to improve
stability performances.

To assess the performances and robustness of the PSS and the TCSC under a wide range
of fault disturbances, as well as in order to simultaneously tune their parameters, the
MATLAB/SIMULINK model of power system shown in Fig.8 is developed.

The model for calculation of id , iq , E d' , E q' , E fd and Pe is shown in Fig.22 and the
MATLAB/SIMULINK model of synchronous generator with PSS and TCSC controller is
shown in Fig.23.

Synchronous generator excitation control is one of the most important measures to

enhance power system stability and to guarantee the quality of electrical power it
provides. The main control function of the excitation system is to regulate the generator
terminal voltage.

89

Figure 22: MATLAB SIMULINK model for calculation of id , iq , E d' , E q' , E fd and Pe

90

Figure 23: SIMULINK model of synchronous generator with PSS and TCSC

To evaluate the performance of the proposed simultaneous design approach, the response
with the proposed PSS-AVR and UPFC controllers are compared with the response of the
simultaneously designed PSS including AVR, TCSC and SVC.

91

In the figures to follow, the response without the controllers is shown with dotted line,
the response with the simultaneously designed PSS including AVR, TCSC and SVC is
shown with thin solid line and the response with the simultaneously designed PSS
including AVR and UPFC controllers is shown with thick solid line. The following cases
are considered:

A. Before Disturbance

The system power angle response is shown in Fig. 24. From this figure, it is clear that,
without controllers even though the system is stable, power system oscillations are poorly
damped.

The PSS including AVR with TCSC and SVC controllers significantly suppresses the
oscillation in the power angle and provides good damping characteristics to low
frequency oscillations by stabilizing the system quickly.

Application of both PSS-AVR and UPFC controllers where the controllers are tuned by
the proposed simultaneous design approach gives the best response in terms of overshoot
and settling time. The settling time is greatly reduced with the simultaneous design
approach and the first swing in the power angle is also slightly suppressed.

92

RESPONSE OF POWER ANGLE (DEG)

0.12
No Controllers
PSS-AVR-TCSC-SVC
PSS-AVR-UPFC

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

3
TIME (SEC)

Figure 24: Response of power angle

0.01
No Controllers
PSS-AVR-TCSC-SVC
PSS-AVR-UPFC

VARIATION OF SPEED DEVIATION

0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
-0.002
-0.004
-0.006
-0.008
-0.01

3
TIME (SEC)

Figure 25: Variation of speed deviation (p.u)

93

0.8
No Controllers
PSS-AVR-TCSC-SVC
PSS-AVR-UPFC

VARIATION OF CURRENT Id (p.u)

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2

3
TIME (SEC)

Figure 26: Variation of current I d

0.06
No Controllers
PSS-AVR-TCSC-SVC
PSS-AVR-UPFC

VARIATION OF CURRENT Iq

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

3
TIME (SEC)

Figure 27: Variation of current I q (p.u)

94

0.035
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
No Controllers
PSS-AVR-TCSC-SVC
PSS-AVR-UPFC

-0.005
-0.01

3
TIME (SEC)

Figure 28: Variation of Electrical Power Pe

VARIATION OF TERMINAL VOLTAGE Vt (p.u)

VARIATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER Pe (p.u)

0.04

1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
No Controllers
PSS-AVR-TCSC-SVC
PSS-AVR-UPFC

0.4

3
TIME (SEC)

Figure 29: Variation of Terminal Voltage Vt

95

No Controllers
PSS-AVR-TCSC-SVC
PSS-AVR-UPFC

VARIATION OF VOLTAGE Efd (p.u)

10

-5

-10
0

3
TIME (SEC)

Figure 30: Variation of voltage E fd

Figs. 25-30 show the variation of speed deviation , currents I d , I q , electrical power
Pe , voltages Vt and E fd respectively, all with respect to time for the above mentioned
contingency.

From these figures, it is clear that, the simultaneous design of PSS including AVR and
UPFC controllers by the proposed approach significantly improves the stability
performance of the power system and power system oscillations are well damped out.

96

B. After Disturbance
Case 1: Three Phase Fault

At time T = 2 sec, a fault is applied at the generator terminal busbar by increasing the
mechanical power input in order to verify the effectiveness of the proposed simultaneous
design approach under disturbance. The original system is restored upon the fault
clearance.

The system response under disturbance contingency is shown in Figs. 31-32. From these
figures, it is clear that PSS including AVR and UPFC controllers operate in a coordinated
manner and improves the stability performance of the power system compared to the case
where only PSS-AVR with TCSC and SVC are acting. The system has good damping
characteristics to low frequency oscillations.
0.02
No Controllers
PSS-AVR-TCSC-SVC
PSS-AVR-UPFC

VARIATION OF SPEED DEVIATION

0.015

0.01

0.005

-0.005

-0.01

-0.015

3
TIME (SEC)

Figure 31: Variation of Speed Deviation (p.u)

97

No Controllers
PSS-AVR-TCSC-SVC
PSS-AVR-UPFC

VARIATION OF POWER ANGLE

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

3
TIME (SEC)

Figure 32: Variation of Power Angle

Case 2: Line outage

In this case one of the transmission line is permanently tripped out at t = 2 sec. The
system response for the above contingency is shown in Fig. 33 and 34. From the figures,
it is clear that PSS-AVR and UPFC act in a coordinated way. They have good damping
characteristics to low frequency oscillation and quickly stabilize the system under this
line outage disturbance.

98

No Controllers
PSS-AVR-TCSC-SVC
PSS-AVR-UPFC

VARIATION OF VOLTAGE Efd

10

-5

-10
2

3
TIME (SEC)

Figure 33: Variation of Voltage E fd (p.u)

VARIATION OF TERMINAL VOLTAGE Vt

1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
No Controllers
PSS-AVR-TCSC-SVC
PSS-AVR-UPFC

0.4

3
TIME (SEC)

Figure 34: Variation of Terminal Voltage Vt (p.u)

99

Voltage instability could be minimized with the help of FACTS Controllers. From Fig.
35, we can see that according to the International Energy Agency, the use of FACTS
Controllers enhances power system performances, improves the quality of supply and
also provides an optimal utilization of the existing resources. Thus, the system is stable.

Figure 35: Typical plot of voltage stability study characteristic using FACTS Controllers

100

CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION

In this study, operating principles and main benefits achievable with the use of power
electronic converters-based compensating devices have been introduced. FACTS devices
have been reviewed.

Their capability to provide reactive power support has been shown to increase power
flow and stability margins. It has been highlighted that FACTS devices can be augmented
with supplementary controllers which can provide additional benefits such as increased
damping of power system oscillations.

A systematic procedure for modelling and simulation of a power system installed with a
PSS and a FACTS-based controller and a series of results associated with stability issues
of Centurion network and the inclusion of some controllers is presented.

The model is developed in MATLAB/SIMULINK environment which provides a means

for carrying out power system stability analysis and for explaining the generator dynamic
behaviour as affected by a PSS including AVR and FACTS-based controllers.

101

The performance of the proposed controllers is tested on a power system subjected to a

set of disturbances. Simulation results show that application of PSS, AVR and UPFC
controllers gives better response in terms of overshoot and settling time.

9.1 Major contribution

Power systems are exposed to various dynamic disturbances, which may cause a sudden
change in the real and reactive power balance of the system and consequent problems in
certain machines.

Application of FACTS devices to enhance power system stability is an important issue.

The problems that are to be faced in the planning stage are appropriate type, location,
size, and setting for these controllers for various applications.

In order to address this problem, an effort is made in this dissertation to study technical
issues of FACTS controllers in terms of types, capacity and placement.
This dissertation has provided a review of the power system stability phenomena
and lays a foundation based on relatively simple physical reasoning.
Matlab/Simulink model of SMIB and its associated FACTS controllers and
Matlab Power 2 software are developed.
In order to show the effectiveness of the proposed models of power system
stability controllers, simulation studies are presented.

102

In power transmission system, the use of FACTS controllers has led to many applications
of these controllers not only to improve the stability of the existing power network
resources but also to provide operating flexibility to the power system.

Power system instability could be at least minimized or relieved with the help of the most
recently developed devices called FACTS controllers.

Flexibles AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices are a family of high-speed

electronic devices, which can significantly increase the power system performance by
absorbing or delivering real or/and reactive power.

FACTS controllers are products of FACTS technology expected to revolutionize the

power transmission and distribution system in many ways. The FACTS controllers
clearly enhance power system performance, improve quality of supply and also provide
an optimal utilization of the existing resources.

9.2 Further Research

Although this dissertation has covered some of the interesting FACTS Controllers, it did
not investigate in detail the placement of FACTS Controllers. This is an area of future
research.

103

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110

APPENDIX A

DATA FOR THE 38-BUS TEST SYSTEM

Table A.1: Exciter Data

Exciter no.

KA

200

200

200

200

200

200

TA

0.032

0.032

0.032

0.032

0.032

0.032

TB

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

TC

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

VR max

8.36

8.36

8.36

8.36

8.36

8.36

VR min

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

KE

1.00
0.23

1.00
0.23

1.00
0.23

1.00
0.23

1.00
0.23

1.00
0.23

0.0031
1.0

0.0031
1.0

0.0031
1.0

0.0031
1.0

TE
KF
TF

0.0031
1.0

0.0031
1.0

111

Table A.2: Generator Data

Generator bus no.

MW

450

450

450

xl ( p.u )

0.3128

0.3128

ra ( p.u )

0.00

x d ( p.u )

450

450

0.3128

0.3128

0.3128

0.3128

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.7342

0.7342

0.7342

0.7342

0.7342

0.7342

x d' ( p.u )

0.3421

0.3421

0.3421

0.3421

0.3421

0.3421

x d" ( p.u )

0.36

0.36

0.36

0.36

0.36

0.36

Tdo'

8.1

8.1

8.1

8.1

8.1

8.1

Tdo"

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

x q ( p.u )

0.765

0.765

0.765

0.765

0.765

0.765

x q' ( p.u )

0.765

0.765

0.765

0.765

0.765

0.765

x q" ( p.u )

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

Tqo'

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

Tqo"

0.041

0.041

0.041

0.041

0.041

0.041

6.231

6.231

6.231

6.231

6.231

6.231

2.2

2.2

2.2

2.2

2.2

2.2

450

112

Table A.3: Bus Data

No

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38

Bus
No

10113
12383
12393
10893
18373
11033
61193
61123
21843
22043
21923
22123
22893
22793
22723
22593
44683
45483
44513
44483
44713
44413
45383
45413
58583
55283
58513
55093
52483
54983
55183
50183
59123
50113
10283
10383
18383
10313

Bus name

WIN T1
NJA M1
WIN T2
HIG T2
ATB T4
SCI RB
LYN T2
LYN RB
EDM C2
BEL M4
RIV RB
PRI RB
ZEB T2
CLA T2
CLA RB
ZWA T2
NIV T1
KEN T1
RIE MB
CEN T1
WAT MB
CEN MB
PIE T1
KEN MB
WIN T1
BRA T1
WIN MB
KOS MB
KLO T1
ELD T1
RAS T1
HOE T1
POL M2
HOE MB
MOO T1
WAP T1
ATB T2
WAP MB

Starting bus
voltage
Magnitu Phase
de
angle
1.08
0.00
1.057
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.08
0.00
1.02
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.02
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.067
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00

Generation

Load

MW

MVAr

MW

MVAr

0.00
450.0
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

0.0
54.0
54.0
54.0
14.4
47.7
54.0
54.0
26.1
33.3
49.5
40.5
49.5
13.5
13.5
30.6
17.1
53.1
9.0
18.0
36.0
18.0
11.7
53.1
54.0
46.8
54.0
9.0
18.0
38.7
12.6
36.0
31.5
36.0
41.9
61.2
14.4
61.2

0.0
25.8
25.8
25.8
6.9
22.8
25.8
25.8
12.5
15.9
23.7
19.4
23.7
6.5
6.5
14.6
8.2
25.4
4.3
8.6
17.2
8.6
5.6
25.4
25.8
22.4
25.8
4.3
8.6
18.5
6.0
17.2
15.0
17.2
19.9
29.2
6.9
29.2

113

Table A.4: Line Data

From
Bus
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
6
7
7
8
9
9
10
10
11
11
11
12
12
13
13
13
14
14
14
15
15
16
16
17
17
18
18

To
Bus
2
3
1
29
1
4
6
3
6
2
7
3
4
8
9
5
11
6
6
10
9
12
7
14
22
10
13
12
27
16
11
16
21
28
19
13
14
25
18
17
20

Resistance (R)
p.u
0.00160447
0.00161365
0.00282474
0.000901
0.000874
0.003527
0.002536
0.00159
0.00025439
0.00068815
0.000377
0.00071019
0.001952
0.00121477
0.005793
0.000907
0.004143
0.000493
0.003444
0.00122019
0.001054
0.000809
0.00134601
0.000544
0.00066
0.0014
0.00391688
0.001697
0.00334555
0.002826
0.000544
0.001975
0.001264
0.001034
0.00160447
0.00161365
0.00282474
0.000901
0.000874
0.003527
0.002536

Reactance (X)
p.u
0.00825825
0.0083055
0.014539
0.004639
0.004497
0.012133
0.008723
0.005468
0.00278134
0.00358414
0.004126
0.00369892
0.006716
0.00417858
0.019928
0.003121
0.01425115
0.001695
0.011846
0.006945
0.003625
0.002783
0.00463
0.0028
0.002269
0.004815
0.01347331
0.005836
0.01143784
0.009721
0.0028
0.01016
0.006508
0.00532
0.00825825
0.0083055
0.014539
0.004639
0.004497
0.012133
0.008723

Line charging
(1/2 B) p.u
0.00120806
0.001214975
0.002126845
0.0006785
0.000658
0.00131
0.000942
0.0005905
0.169840625
0.10881288
0.0840255
0.11229768
0.000725
0.00045125
0.002152
0.000337
0.001539
0.000183
0.001279
0.00075
0.0003915
0.0003005
0.0005
0.0004095
0.000245
0.00052
0.001455
0.00063
0.001302095
0.0010495
0.0004095
0.001487
0.000952
0.000778
0.00120806
0.001214975
0.002126845
0.0006785
0.000658
0.00131
0.000942

Line
code
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
114

19
19
19
20
20
21
22
22
22
23
23
23
24
25
25
26
26
27
27
27
28
28
29
29
30
30
31
31
32
32
33
33
34
34
35
35
35
36
36
37
37
38
38

35
15
34
18
33
14
11
24
23
22
27
28
22
26
17
29
25
13
23
35
15
23
2
26
31
33
30
32
31
36
20
30
19
38
27
37
19
32
38
35
38
37
36

0.00159
0.00025439
0.00068815
0.000377
0.00071019
0.001952
0.00121477
0.005793
0.000907
0.004143
0.000493
0.003444
0.00122019
0.001054
0.000809
0.00134601
0.000544
0.00066
0.0014
0.00391688
0.001697
0.00334555
0.002826
0.000544
0.001975
0.001264
0.001034
0.00160447
0.00161365
0.00282474
0.000901
0.000874
0.003527
0.002536
0.00159
0.00025439
0.00068815
0.000377
0.00071019
0.001952
0.00121477
0.005793
0.000907

0.005468
0.00278134
0.00358414
0.004126
0.00369892
0.006716
0.00417858
0.019928
0.003121
0.01425115
0.001695
0.011846
0.006945
0.003625
0.002783
0.00463
0.0028
0.002269
0.004815
0.01347331
0.005836
0.01143784
0.009721
0.0028
0.01016
0.006508
0.00532
0.00825825
0.0083055
0.014539
0.004639
0.004497
0.012133
0.008723
0.005468
0.00278134
0.00358414
0.004126
0.00369892
0.006716
0.00417858
0.019928
0.003121

0.0005905
0.169840625
0.10881288
0.0840255
0.11229768
0.000725
0.00045125
0.002152
0.000337
0.001539
0.000183
0.001279
0.00075
0.0003915
0.0003005
0.0005
0.0004095
0.000245
0.00052
0.001455
0.00063
0.001302095
0.0010495
0.0004095
0.001487
0.000952
0.000778
0.00120806
0.001214975
0.002126845
0.0006785
0.000658
0.00131
0.000942
0.0005905
0.169840625
0.10881288
0.0840255
0.11229768
0.000725
0.00045125
0.002152
0.000337

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

115

Table A.5: Regulated bus Data for the 38 bus Network

Bus
number
2
5
8
10
12

Voltage
Magnitude p.u
1.057
1.02
1.02
1.0
1.067

Minimum MVAr
Capability
400
400
150
30
30

Maximum MVAr
Capability
500
400
250
150
150

Table A.6: Data for the injected Q due to shunt capacitors

Injected Q due to Capacitors

Bus No
Mvar
10
40
17
38
30
21
35
15

Table A.7: Transformer tap setting

Transformer
Designation
4-6
6-8
9-10
14-16
30-31
14-21

Transformer Data
Tap Setting
p.u
0.964
0.932
0.978
0.969
0.936
0.948

116

APPENDIX B

DATA of the Controllers

B.1 PSS Data

Table B.1: PSS controller parameters used in MATLAB/SIMULINK

K pss

TW (s )

T1

T2

T3

T4

Vs max

Vs min

10

0.45

0.03

0.45

0.03

0.1

-0.1

B.2 SVC Data

Table B.2: SVC Data

X c ( p.u )

X l ( p.u )

1.9821

0.5427

min (deg .) max (deg .)

92

180

Slope (%)

MVA

kV

200

13.8

117

Table B.3: SVC controller parameters used in MATLAB/SIMULINK

T (s )

Bmax ( p.u )

Bmin ( p.u )

26

0.15

-2

B.3 TCSC Data

Table B.4: TCSC Static Data

X c ( p.u )

X l ( p.u )

min (deg .)

max (deg .)

kV

0.00625

0.000625

160

180

69

Table B.5: TCSC controller parameters used in MATLAB/SIMULINK

KW

TW

T1

T2

T3

T4

X min ( p.u )

X max ( p.u )

0.015

1.1

1.1

0.06

0.08

0.6

0.00621

0.00612

118

B.4 UPFC Data

Table B.6: UPFC System Parameters

Line to line voltage

230kV

Frequency

60 Hz

Transmission rating

100 MVA

Capacitance of DC Link Capacitor

2000 F

DC Link voltage

45kV

Length of transmission line

200 Km

Resistance of the line

32 / m

Inductive reactance of the line

350.9 / m

Capacitive reactance of the line

240.5M m

119