Gerdart, The Modern Greek Language in Its Relation To Ancient Greek

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THE MODERN
GREEK LANGUAGE
IN ITS
RELATION TO ANCIENT GREEK
BY
v
E.
M.
GELBART,
B.A.
Formerly Scholar ofBalliol College, Oxford

Modern Language Master at the Manchester Free Grammar
;
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

M DCCC LXX
School.
PREFACE.
sending out into the world the present volume, I have
else to say by way of prefatory remark than to express
little
the sense of the obligations I
am
helped and encouraged me.
Foremost among these must
name
under to those who have
W.
Walker, Esq., late Fellow of Corpus

Christi College, and Head Master of the Manchester Free
Grammar School, my kind friend and instructor, who is the
stand the
of F.
cause, in a sense which he will sufficiently understand, of
the publication of this work.
My
best
due to Professor Jowett for

it was
yet in
thanks are also
looking over a portion of the same while
embryo, and for most valuable suggestions which

attempted to follow out
and
to
my
friends S. Verse's
have
and
A. Pantazides for the loan of various works which have been

of indispensable service to
chapter of this book.
my
indebtedness
willingness to
me
in the preparation of the final
Nor can
to the
refrain
learned lectures,
from expressing
and ever-ready
communicate information with which
all
who
have attended the public instructions of the Professor of

Comparative Philology are so well acquainted, and which
have had no unimportant influence in moulding the views
hereinafter
set
forth.
From
b
Professor Gandell,
and Dr.
PREFACE.
vi
Hessey, Grinfield Lecturer on the Septuagint,
have also
obtained valuable information.
To
for
Professor Blackie of Edinburgh
easily discover
where
will
on Greek Pronunciation.
must tender
my
Hermann Eduard Marotsky,
the Rev.
Church, Wright
Street,
warmest thanks
my
to
Minister of the Ger-
Manchester, without the encou-
ragement and confirmation afforded by whose

ledge,
He
have derived help from his interesting
Last, but not least, I
man
thanks are due
kind and unexpected encouragement.
very
treatise
my
critical
know-
concluding essay on the dangerous domain of
theology would hardly have been hazarded.

I
on other obligations
themselves, though in one case
have no right however to be
of a less personal nature in

at least
silent
proceeding from a personal and esteemed friend, the
Rev. George Perkins,
M.
A.,
author of the lucid and able
Cambridge Journal of Philology for December,

1869, entitled Rhythm versus Metre/ to which I am much
article in the
'
indebted.
Other works which

Schleicher's
Renan's
'
'
'
have advantageously consulted are
Compendium
Eclaircissements
quelques points
'
de
la
der Vergleichenden Grammatik,'

tire's
des Langues sdmitiques sur
Prononciation
grecque,'
Mullach's
Grammatik der Griechischen Vulgarsprache,' Liidemann's

Lehrbuch der Neugr. Sprache,' Prof. Telfy's Studien iiber
Alt-
'
und Neugriechen und
die Lautgeschichte der Griechi-
schen Sprache,' Sophocles' Modern Greek Grammar' and

Glossary of Later and Byzantine Greek.'
'
'
Finally, I would take this opportunity of thanking the

Curators of the Taylorian Institution at Oxford for their
great kindness in granting me the use of the room in which
PREFACE.
Vll
which form the foundation of
I delivered a course of lectures
the present treatise.
have passed over any in silence I hope

understood that such silence is unintentional.
If I
In conclusion,
books to be used
in
its
will
some account of
give
fessor
Mullach's
'
Grammatik
'
sprache/
'
Sophocles'
especially
The most
relations with ancient Greek.
works on the subject with which
the best
modern Greek,
in the study of
am
der
be
will
it
instructive
acquainted are Pro-
Griechischen
Vulgar-
Modern Greek Grammar/ and
Glossary of Later and Byzantine Greek/
his
All three of these
works contain some account of the development of modern

from ancient Greek; and each supplies in some measure
Professor Mullach's work
the deficiencies of the others.
is,
on the whole, the most scholarly and exhaustive. His account

of the Greek dialects, ancient and modern, is specially valuable.
All
would have been
recognition of the discoveries of
modern philology
region of comparative grammar.

cially his
Grammar,
and wider
better for a larger
Sophocles' works, espe-
be used with caution.
require to
in the
For
the headings 'Ancient' and 'Modern' which he places over
be read, in nearly every case,

Language of Polite Society' and Language of the Common
People,' or 'Cultivated' and Vernacular;' for the so-called
his various paradigms, should
'
'
ancient forms never died out, but

in the
more
cultivated
may
nearly
modern Greek of
all
be found
the middle ages.
Where, however, the so-called modern form has completely

supplanted the
classical, as in eypdfacro for eypdcpov, ypd(pf(rai
be noticed.
Again, in
by Mr. Sophocles
to system,
for ypdfai or ypdtyr], the fact should
other ways truth

as
when he
is
sacrificed
gives TOV narepa, roG

b 2
civSpa,
as the
modern Greek
PREFACE.
Vill
for rov
irciTpos,
TOV dvSpos.
the classical forms are
These forms occur no doubt, but
more common even
in the vernacular,
which however the metaplastic nominatives irarepas and

For the study of the
avfyas have supplanted ira-r^p and 01/77/3.
in
popular language as contained in the Klephtic ballads, &c.,
all
'
Carmina popularia Greciae recentioris' renders

other collections superfluous.
For the history of modern
Passow's
Greek
tains
literature
some
Peucker's
valuable
'
Neugriechische Grammatik
contributions,
which
may be
'
con-
further
supplemented from the NtoeXX^tKr) <JuXoXoyia, a work lately

published in Athens, and forming a biographical history of
mediaeval and modern Greek
literature.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
Introduction.
Causes for the neglect of the study of modern Greek.
prejudice; counteracted
of Greece
by
Antiquarian
Political insignificance
utilitarianism.
hopeful signs. Obscurity of modern Greek literature

Direct practical utility of an acquaintance
:
actual but unmerited.
with the language.
and theologians.
Reasons why
The
it
should be studied by scholars
obstacle presented
by the Erasmian system
of pronunciation, pp. 1-7.
CHAPTER
On
The
II.
the Pronunciation of Greek.
opinion of Schleicher. What is meant by the general identity of

modern and ancient pronunciation. Modern pronunciation either
barbarized or legitimately developed. Difficulties of the former

alternative.
Examination of evidence regarding the original pronunciation of each letter. I. Vowels. II. Consonants. III. The
aspirate.
General conclusion, pp. 8-40.
CHAPTER
III.
Accent and Quantity.

Their connection in the law of accentuation.
All modern Greek
vowels not isochronous.
Syllables not necessarily lengthened by

stress.
Real explanation of the supposed conflict between accent
and quantity traced to our use of the Latin accent in Greek.
Erasmus and the
bear.
Insular character of our prejudice.
brings out, but does not obscure quantity.
How
is
Stress
emphasis
CONTENTS.
View of Mr. W. G.
given?
rhythm
in
poetry.
foundation of verse
Opposition of accent and quantity as the

not absolute.
Importance of quantity in
Accent heard
accentual verse.
Dominant importance of
Clark.
in
Musical
quantitative poetry.
rhythm. Error of ignoring the importance of ictus. Significance

of accent in ancient poetry. The rhythm of ancient Greek prose
destroyed by ignoring the accent, pp. 41-67.
CHAPTER
On
IV.
the Origin and Development of

Accidence.
physic.
logic, and metaMere accidence indepen-
Connection of grammar,
Origin not one, but various.
No
Modern Greek
rigid line of demarcation.
dent in a sense of the progress of thought. Levelling tendency.

common to ancient and
Tendency to metaplastic formations
:
modern Greek.
The
apparent metaplasms not simply such.

preservation of archaisms in the vulgar language. Analogies
in English.
Many
The
Grinfield lecturer
ciple of extended analogy.
The mixed
dialectic
declensions.
on the Septuagint.
The
prin-
Phrynichus and modern Greek forms.

Dialectic influences.
Archaisms and
artificial.
The Macedonian
The disappearance of the dative
forms of the Septuagint not
dynasty and the
KOIVT) 8id\fKTos.
case, pp. 68-84.
CHAPTER
V.
The Origin and Development of Modern Greek

Syntax.
modes of expression between modern and ancient Greek.

Compound tenses. Tendency to waste words, pp. 85-90.
Difference in
CHAPTER
VI.
Modern Greek Phraseology.

Euphemism.
The
The
influence
Eleatics, Sophists,
more
explicit
Cyrenaics.
of philosophy;
and Rhetoricians.
the Ionic philosophers.
Modern Greek
but less expressive than ancient.
The
Cynics.
Plato.
The
Stoics, pp.
particles
Socrates.
91-100.
The
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
The
XI
VII.
Development of Modern from
Historical
Ancient Greek.
The Macedonian age. The language of the

and
the
New Testament not simply Hebraistic. MoSeptuagint
dernism of the Septuagint of Polybius and of the New Testa-
Hellenistic
Greek.
New
The age of
The
Byzantine period. Apoinscriptions.
phthegmata Patrum. Theophanes. Malalas. Leo the philosoment.
Nubian
Diocletian.
pher.
religious meaning of certain words.
Porphyrogenitus.
Theophanes Continuatus.
Specimens of
Close of
popular language in Scylitzes and Anna Comnena.
the mediaeval period. Theodoras Prodromus the first modern
Greek
writer, pp. 101-113.
CHAPTER
Dialects of
Asiatic.
Chiotic.
Cretan.
clension
Modern
and conjugation.
Greece.
Peloponnesian. Dialect of the

Its deIts Doricisms.
Cyprian.
The Tsakonian
Ionian Islands.
VIII.
dialect.
Traces of Semitic elements.
Tsako-
nian probably a lingua franca. Specimens of Tsakonian. Albanian

considered as modern Graeco-italic. Its alphabet partly Greek
and partly Latin.

Prepositions.
The
infinitive
mood.
Conjugation.
Pronouns.
Numerals, pp. 114-137.
CHAPTER
Modern Greek
IX.
Literature.
Rochoprodromus. Sethos. The Book of the Conquest. Belthandros

and Chrysantza.
Kornaros.
Chortakes.
Scuphos.
Gorgilas.
Rhegas.
Cumas.
Coraes.
Oekonomos.
Palle.
Nerulos.
Angelica
Christopulos.
Klephtic ballads. Belief in genii. AnaloCultivated Literature of the present
gies in the Old Testament.
day. Tricupes. Roides.
Asopios. Rangabes. Zalacostas. Va
laorites.
Conclusion, pp. 138-177.
CONTENTS.
XI 1
APPENDIX
On
the Greek of the Gospels of St.

St.
Preliminary considerations.
but not vernacular.
The
criticism, pp.
The
Testament popular,
The
Acts.
John.
Agreement with the
results of
179-188.
II.
Short Lexilogus, pp. 189-208.
Index of Greek and Albanian "Words,
pp. 209-216.
CORRIGENDA.
Page
33, line 9, for
.,
^6p8oAos read
fj.(p8a\cos.
130,
7-/or fyfa ren(l fyQov.

26, and elsewhere, for e8c read
141,
14,/or
35.
'>
artificial.
List of striking modernGospel according to St. Luke. His

St.
APPENDIX
A
New
Greek of the
Revelation.
modernisms.
John and
Luke.
Luke and the Acts somewhat
Frequency of modernisms in
isms.
I.
iTfpifiorjTov
read
i8{.
irtpifio-fjTov.
German
CHAPTER
I.
Introduction.
THE
present spoken and written language of Greece is

one of the most remarkable phenomena in the whole field of
and none the
less
remarkable, perhaps,
small amount of notice which it has met with.
philology,
It is
known
is
the
a strange and unparalleled fact, that one of the oldest

languages in the world, a language in which the
and deepest thoughts of the greatest poets, the

wisest thinkers, the noblest, holiest and best of teachers,
have directly or indirectly found their utterance in the farloftiest
ages of a hoar antiquity, should at this day be the

living speech of millions throughout the East of Europe
and various parts of Asia Minor and Africa ; that it should
off
have survived the
fall
of empires, and risen again and again
from the ruins of beleaguered cities, deluged but never

drowned by floods of invading barbarians, Romans, Celts,
Goths and Vandals, Avars, Huns, Franks and Turks ;
often the language of the vanquished, yet never of the dead ;
with features seared by years and service, yet still essentially
Slaves,
the
same
memory
Yet
its
it
instinct with the fire of
life,
and
beautiful with the
of the past.
is
perhaps
still
stranger, that while the records of
youth and manhood form the
lifelong study of thousands
INTRODUCTION.
England, France, Germany, and the rest of Europe;

nevertheless, almost the first symptoms of sickness and
in
decay were the signals for us all to forsake it, few of us

waiting to see whether its natural vigour had carried it on
most of us too
to a green old age, or whether, as
assumed,
it
was buried
easily
and had given place

best sunk into the dotage
in a quiet grave,
to a degenerate scion, or
had
at
of a second childhood.
seems hardly too much to say that our conduct in this

regard shows a kind of literary ingratitude which ought to
shock our moral sense. Greece has in various ages preserved
It
to us the succession of culture
when
For us
overrun with savages.
it
the rest of the earth was
has held the citadel of
civilization against the barbarism of the world,
the danger
is
over
trouble ourselves
we have
how
little
and now
forgotten our benefactor,

it
fares with him.
The
and
case
reminds us of the words of the Preacher, ' There was a little

and there came a great king
city, and few men within it
against it, and besieged it, and built great bulwarks against it.
;
Now
there
was found
in
wisdom delivered the

same poor man/
his
The
learned
it
a poor wise man, and he by
city; yet
reasons for this neglect are

men of the old school it
no man remembered
many and
is
due
various.
that
With
to a certain anti-
quarian bent of mind, amounting to a positive prejudice

The manner of life which
against everything modern.
such persons lead
is
not inaptly expressed in the words
of Southey:
'My
days
among
Around me
the dead are passed,
I behold.
Where'er these casual eyes are

The mighty minds of old.
My
cast,
never-failing friends are they,
With
whom
I converse night
and
day.'
INTRODUCTION.
To
whom
the
those extreme devotees of the

Aristotle
of
last
is
3
'
good old times
'
to
the last of philosophers and Augustine
theologians,
dead
of
whom
and
with
itself
almost the best reason for
the
fact
that
a language
is
studying
the discovery that the elder and nobler of the
it,
is
tongues Greek and Latin is as really alive as it was

Homer, can hardly be expected to prove
welcome. This is, however, less and less the spirit of the
two
sister
in the days of
own day. The

Grammar has opened
study of Sanscrit and Coma new field and awakened
learned in our
parative
new
Now
interest.
least a certain value,
all
languages,
new
or old, have at
even though they be as barbarous and
destitute of literature as
most persons suppose the language
of modern Greece to be.
Again, from quite a different quarter a reaction has arisen

against the exclusiveness of the old school; a reaction
which forms part of the great
utilitarian
movement of
this
nineteenth century.
The voice of the middle class, which
has found a powerful spokesman in one of our most distinguished statesmen, himself a scholar of no mean attainments,
has been heard to declare, in the words of a Wise Man of old,
that
'
live
dog
is
better than a
dead
lion.'
The remaining
reasons for the general neglect of the

language of modern Greece may be briefly summed up as
follows
the political insignificance of the nation the ob:
scurity
of
its
literature;
the
small
practical
use
of the
language; and last, but perhaps not least, the prevalence,

in our own land
especially, of the Erasmian system of pronunciation.
With reference to the first point, a few words
may not be out of place.
The
political insignificance
long duration.
in education as the
was
established,
of Greece cannot be of very
people which has made such rapid
Greek
nation, since
its
must be worth something

B 2
strides
independence
after
all.
The
INTRODUCTION.
4
of
evils
national
place-hunting,
and party
resources,
strife,
squandered
bankruptcy,
are inseparable for the present
from a nation so suddenly called into existence, and composed of such very raw materials as was the Greek nation
in 1828.
are evils deeply
by the large majority

of the people, and there are many signs that they are on
the way to removal.
As a hopeful symptom, I would refer
They
felt
to the appearance of a very ably edited illustrated periodical,
now
issued monthly in Paris, and supported by influential

Greeks wherever the Greek language is read and under-
stood.
It
entitled
is
'
'EdviKT)
'
or
'ETri&wpj/o-is/
National
Review,' and contains articles, both original and translated,

on every branch of Science, Literature, and Art. But the
great importance and significance of the work appears to me
to be the wholesome truth which it desires, as the chief
object of
The
'
publication, to inculcate
its
Revue
November,
question
de
1869,
the
Greek mind.
'
Tlnstruction
thus
on
Publique
comments on
4th
of
periodical
in
the
for
the
'
Les r^dacteurs de VEOviK^j 'EiriOtuprjcris se proposent de faire p^netrer

dans leur pays les notions scientifiques dont 1'absence nuit, en Grece,
au developpement de 1'agriculture, du commerce et de 1'industrie.
.
Persuades que la principale cause de 1'abaissement de la Grece est dans

le manque de routes publiques, ils feront tous leurs efforts
pour
combattre
ruineuse d'unc
['institution
restauration de la nation hellcSnique, a

(de drachmes), et pour tacher de faire
armre
inutile,
qui,
depuis
la
dvore
plus de trois cents millions

couler dans le domaine de 1'agri-
culture et de 1'industrie ces flots d'or et d'argent depensds sans raison.'
With regard to modern Greek literature, that it is obscure

must be admitted, but that its obscurity is well merited is
by no means so certain. To begin with the Epic poetry
of modern Greece, Belthandros and Chrysantza is without
'
'
more imaginative poem than
question a far
genlied,'
and
compare
the
have
little
the
'
Niebelun-
doubt that any one who would
two, would feel that the former
is
the
work
INTRODUCTION.
The popular songs of the Greek

of a far superior genius.
mountaineers are acknowledged by every one who knows
them
In
to
be quite without
parallel.
poetry there are few writers, ancient or modern,
lyric
Christopulos would compare unfavourably. The

present polite literature of Greece has scarcely had time
to ripen, but one poet at least, Zalacostas, has certainly the
with
whom
marks of genius
and the prose productions of Greece are
already of sufficient
importance to
attract
notice
the
of
our best Reviews.
With respect to the practical usefulness of the language,

may remind those who are accessible to no other argument than that of direct utility, that a competent acquaintI
modern Greek will obviate the necessity of

engaging an interpreter when travelling in Greece, Turkey,
ance with
Egypt, and Asia Minor.
Greek, as the language of the

most thriving mercantile race, is the medium of communication between many of the various nations of the East.
The
real
importance
of
modern Greek
however,
is,
rather a matter for the attention of the scholar, than the
man
I will briefly point out what

of business or pleasure.
I conceive to be the real advantages derivable from the
study of
I.
modern Greek.
I
First,
will
mention what scholars
like
Ross and
Passow have already noticed, that great light may be

thrown on the meaning of classical authors from the study
But this is of course
of the modern Greek language.
especially to be looked for in proportion as the usage of
the writers departs from the recognized classical standard.
Hence the knowledge of modern Greek is of chief significance in the verbal criticism of the New Testament and
Septuagint.
II.
But
this is
not
all.
to show, that the idioms of
I believe,
and
hope
to
be able
modern Greek may be employed
INTRODUCTION.
6
in
manner
hitherto quite
unlocked
in the criticism
for,
of documents of doubtful age, as for example the Gospel

of St. John, with a view to determining the period at which
they were written.
III. Comparative philology derives no unimportant light
from modern Greek, because it preserves many archaic
forms, which are postulated by philologers, but not actually
found in any known ancient dialect.

The relation between accent and quantity in poetry
can never be fully nor fairly judged by any one who is
to be
IV.
not familiar with the sound of Greek read accentually, a

familiarity which can hardly be acquired apart from a
Greek
acquaintance with
practical
as
living
spoken
language.
The
pronunciation of Greek and the interchange of

certain letters within the limits of the Greek language is a
sealed mystery to those who are ignorant of the sounds
V.
which tne Greeks of the present day give to the

their alphabet
and
letters
of
their several combinations.
To
will
prove and illustrate the propositions here advanced

be the main object of the following work.
The
to
the
attention of the reader will be directed
question
of the
first
of
all
original pronunciation of Greek,
on account of
its philological importance, and partly

because the prevalence of the Erasmian system of pronunciation in the West of Europe, and in England especially,
where it may be said to have accomplished its own reductio
partly
ad absurdum,
has built up a wall of partition between the

themselves and those who make the Greek lan-
Greeks
guage
their
study,
which completely severs us from one
another.
How
small the resemblance between our pronunciation

of (f>vT(vcravTfs and the Greek
How can we wonder that
!
in QMifyoolyoosdntes,
he should
fail
to recognize his phitfyh-
INTRODUCTION.
Mutual disgust
sandes ?
a disparity.
find
it
When we
is
the natural result of so great
hear Greek spoken by Greeks,
we
seems to
us,
hard to believe that
this jargon, as
it
has any relation with the language we used to learn at

On the other hand, the Greek who is not well
school.
acquainted with the origin and history of the controversy
pronunciation, is liable to the mistake that a
on Greek
deliberate
insult
what are to him,
is
at
intended by those
who
his mother-tongue, a pronunciation which,
nious in
itself,
substitute for
any rate, the harmonious sounds of
must sound
to
him
however eupho-
at best like the
distortion, the ghastly caricature, of a familiar voice.
hideous
CHAPTER
On
'Eav ovv
/*?)
the Pronunciation of Greek.
fl8S> rf)v 8vva.jj.iv TTJS (pcuvrjs, tffoftai rq>
Kol & \a\u>v (V (pol Pdpffapos.
Das
II.
Sr. PAUL.
jC
Coo.
\a\ovvn
Pdpj3apo$'
l^'U
Altgriechische nach Art des Neugriechischen auszusprechen 1st ein

der auf vollstiindiger Unkenntniss der Sprachengeschichte
Fehler,
und der Lautlehre iiberhaupt beruht.
SCHLEICHER, Compendium der
Vergleicbenden Grammatik.
THE
avros c0a of so distinguished a philologist as Schlei-
to
cher,
pronounce ancient Greek like

a mistake founded upon complete igno-
the effect that to
modern Greek
is
rance of the history of languages and of the whole doctrine

of pronunciation, will probably be enough to set this question
at rest in the minds of most people.
The writer of these
pages ventures to dissent from
this
conclusion, which Pro-
Schleicher arrives at entirely on ^ priori grounds,

betraying at the same time a very insufficient acquaintance
fessor
with
modern Greek pronunciation.
acknowledged
It
must however be
that the theory of pronunciation
which Pro-
fessor Schleicher rather leaves to be inferred, than states as
the one to which he inclines, has the striking merit of consistency,
system.
and
is
far superior to
any form of the Erasmian
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.
Nor would we be misunderstood when we
say that we
between
the
of
the
general identity
opinion
modern Greek pronunciation and that of ancient times.
favour the
We
do not mean
to say, for example, that the diphthongs
so called were never diphthongs in reality, or that
never pronounced
like
But
in haphazard.
ph
was
com-
<p
that
all
parative philology can prove, all that a priori reasoning requires, and, as I think we shall see, all that a posteriori
evidence for the most part allows us to believe, is, that the
above letters were so pronounced in some pre-historic period
of language,
which
when Greek was forming, when
consists
it
were in a
state of fusion.
How
has nothing to do with the question,
pronounce Greek
able to
the pages of
From
as
we
find
the elements of
This, however,
is it
most reason-
for the first time in
it
Homer ?
that time,
and we know not
earlier, the language,
have passed over
it,
how many
for
the
notwithstanding
remained in
stereotyped and fixed,

words and the manner
all
its
centuries
changes which
essential features
especially as regards the forms of
in which they are written.

Now,
stand with the a priori argument ? Is it most
likely that the forms have been preserved, but the pronunciation utterly corrupted, or that both have been handed
how does
it
us together?
To believe the first is to believe
to
the
whole
analogy of what we know of
contrary
other languages.
Since Sanscrit was Sanscrit, who doubts
down
to
what
is
pronunciation has been in the main preserved?

Since German was German, who questions the fact that it
that
the
was sounded
as
it
now
is ?
Or how can we
believe that
Chaucer, whose English differs from our own as regards the

grammatical forms more than Homer from Romaic, if read
by us
in the present day,
would be perfectly
unintelligible
to himself?
Again, the following argument must
commend
itself
to
10
If the modern Greek pronunevery one's understanding.

ciation be not the same with that known to the ancients, it
must
either be a legitimate development from it, unaffected

external
influence, or it must be a corruption, the result
by
If a legitimate development, then no
of foreign admixture.
one can fix a priori the limits of its first appearance ; and it
may
be as old as
just as well
Homer
as not.
If
it
be the
contact with foreign influences, then it will be

possible to explain the peculiarities of modern Greek pronunciation from such external causes.
Here we may at
result of
once eliminate Turkish, because we know that at the first

appearance of the Turkish supremacy in Greece, hundreds
of families fled to the
West of Europe, bearing with them
that very system of pronunciation

still
use, but
which learned Europe universally allowed
What
the time of Erasmus.

tonic, Slavonic,
ou the
which not only the Greeks
Roman.
then
until
French, Teu-
But none of these throw any
light
peculiarities of Greek pronunciation, as the sounds
given to
y, 0, 5, pfi, HIT, v8, vr, 01,
tration mainly,
et, 77,
and indeed almost
t,
uniformity of
which receive
exclusively,
Again, the general, though by
itself.
us
is left
illus-
from Greek
no means complete
modern Greek pronunciation wherever
the
another very strong argument for its

spoken,
language
antiquity, and against its being a corruption resulting from
The fate of Latin has been
contact with other languages.
is
is
In the Spanish dialect of modern Latin we

very different.
the
trace
influence of Arabic, in Italian of Teutonic,
clearly
in
France of Celtic sounds.
though the countries where
In Greek, on the other hand,
spoken are as widely distant,

and the foreign influences to which it has been subject as
diverse,
same
we
find,
it is
with very
trifling
dialectic
universal traditional pronunciation
unlearned
alike.
variations,
among
the
learned and
In Egypt, in Asia Minor, on the shores of
the Euxine, in Constantinople, in Athens, in Crete, in the
11
Aegean, the pronunciation presents the greatest harmony

controjust in respect of those letters on which the whole
versy turns.
We
now proceed
one by one, the peculiar

features of Greek pronunciation, and collect the evidence on
the subject supplied by MSS., ancient inscriptions, the notices
of grammarians, transcriptions into Latin and the Semitic
shall
to notice,
languages of Greek words, &c., as it bears upon each parAt the same time we shall endeavour to
ticular sound.
show what we hold

general identity of
to
be in
the strongest proof of the

ancient Greek pronunciation,
itself
modern and
namely, that exactly the same letters appear to be interchangeable in ancient as in modern Greek. Had' the letters
changed their force, this extraordinary

coincidence, which would then have to be regarded as the
result of mere accident, would be positively inexplicable.
in question altogether
may present a more

the
corresponding changes in modern
complete appearance,
be
and ancient Greek will
given, even where there is no
In order that this part of the evidence
letters.
We
as a in
most
controversy with respect to the sound of the

will begin with
VOWEL SOUNDS.
A.
This
letter
is
pronounced by the Greeks
It has
languages, or as ah, or the a in father in English.
never been doubted that this was the original sound of a.
Schleicher, however, points out that besides the
cation of a into
an original a
is
o, a,
and
77,
and
its
first intensifi-
further intensification into <,
often frequently represented
by
or
o.
Thus,
besides the dialectic forms fiepeQpov epoyv for fiapadpov apa-rjv,

we have K\eos for xXafas, from grdvas, 7rXe7o> or TrXeto from
pldvdmi, pe'F) from srdvdmi, (pepea-m answering to bhdras?, &c.

So too in modern Greek we get riVora for TiVore, as in
12
Aeolic,
for Kpa/3/3cmoi>, pcrrdvi for pafpdvtov, CVTOV for
Kpe/3j3unoi>
from
auTot), ayytfoo for cyyifa,
fyyvs.
As examples of a interchanged
Greek the Aeolic
with
we have
o,
= (TTparos
orporos ova ovex^pô-f
fjuftpoTov for ijuftparov,
i.
e. TJfyiaproi/,
and
o/iitos
in ancient
avto dff^cop^tre,
ap.a, OJK.OS
and
ayxoy,
In modern Greek we have, in
oppo)Sea>
and
manner,
KarafioBpa for Karafiddpa, apfj-adia for 6pp.a8id.
dppo>5e&>.
like
Com-
pare the classical ,3o0pos with @d6pov, eVi/Sdtfpa.

Schleicher observes that the three terminations of contract
verbs, aw,
in
ea>,
and
were
oo>,
modern Greek
>
is
language of the
in the
in ancient
Greek
originally but one, viz.
always represented by
common
for TreptTraretTe,
all
is
As
people.
<po[3a<rai
for
ao>,
dco.
So
at least
^/ratt for frrfl,
<po/3ettrat,
i.e.
seldom weakened into
0oj3^
v,
or
yet this
appears to have been the case in vvg, ovvg, KVK\OS, p.v\os, and
a few other words, as p.v(rrag, which also appears in the form
fiao-ra, and ftvdos, which is found side by side with ftdOos.
In modern Greek
we
So,
get o-Kixpos for o-Kd<pos or O-KO^T/.
again, we have the diminutive appellation d<piov, as in x<pn(ptov, frequently represented by ixptov, as favfyiov.
In ancient Greek a is often weakened into t, as 10-61 for
ds-dhi,
-r(Qr)\Li
for dddhdmi.
Compare
in
modern Greek
âXa, fyixa\ici, with the classical ânds, âKafft.
as in ancient Greek,
and a for
becomes at, as
TriKpd,
>;,
we have
rj
as /SeXoVa for
for a,
^t*cpj)
/SfXoV?/.
alcrds, aid, dial, irapai.
KOTat/SaiVo), dvaiftatva, iriatvat
Atara, a covenant,
may
for
Tridvco,
for
in
So
in
bably an older one.

A is prefixed to many words more or
/uicpa, TTIKP?)
less
'A/Spvov,
dftporavov,
and many
others, in
for
Homeric Greek
modern Greek
KaOundw.
dt'atra,
and pro-
perhaps for the
sake of euphony, as d/SX^po'y, fampoirq, atrmdpa,

classical
In modern,
Ka6urratvt& for
be another form of
i-
dcrracpis,
in
d^3StXXa, d^pdp.u\ov for fipdftvXov,
modern Greek.
13
E.
Pronounced
German a
like the
made
ginal
Manner.
in
of which
letter,
o is
As a
s>
representative of an ori-
interchangeable with that

ancient ; OX&POS for fx@P s %>
>
Conversely, e&Wes for

'
ancient and "EKvp-nos for
modern Greek.
for eo>, in
'A7reAAwi> for 'ATro'AAwi/, in
e\ê for m//*, in
modern Greek.
eKflvos,
in ancient
fie,
more
broader,
is
it
another,
as OX&POS for ex&P
little
This sound has never been
the subject of dispute.

a,
only a
like e in better,
fp.e,
It is also prefixed,
TOVTO,
e'rovro,
o-e,
eVe,
as
(ru,
ccrv,
in
modern Greek.
H.
This
letter is
ee in see,
nounced
or
pronounced by the Greeks
e in
and
it,
fo;
still
like
t,
that
is
like
while the followers of Erasmus propronounce it, as the Italian e long, i.e.
Hence in the early days of the controversy

as ey in they.
concerning the original sounds of the Greek letters, Reuchlin
and his adherents, who favoured the modern Greek pronunciation, were
called the Itacists or lotacists,
Erasmians received the
title
of Etacists.
while the
The name
is
un-
fortunate, because just the one point in which the advocates

of the modern pronunciation would be most inclined to
make a concession
sound of the
That
T)
letter
was
to their adversaries, is with regard to the

;.
originally the representative of a
sound
dis-
from i is etymologically certain, inasmuch as in the

Ionic dialect, and in certain cases in Attic, 17 stands for the
doubly strengthened a, whereas i is a weakened a, in the
tinct
few cases where

are cases where
ftnr\r]crtos.
short
t.
In
it
T]
represents
At the same time there
it.
represents a short
these
instances
17
a,
as
in recrcrapriKovTa,
may perhaps
stand for
14
E. Sophocles, in his Introduction to the
'
Glossary of Later
and Byzantine Greek/ London, 1868, adduces the authority

of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Aelianus Herodianus, Terentianus Maurus, and Sextus, to prove that the sound of
rj
day from
differed in their
and was
t,
like the
long Italian
<?.
Dionysius says, in pronouncing rj the breath strikes the roots

of the tongue, in sounding i the back of the teeth. This,
though a very vague distinction, is not altogether inapplicable
between the sounds of ay and ee. Herodian simply says people are mistaken in saying VTJO-TIJS for
to the difference
Here
v/Jorts.
may be very well one

Terentianus Maurus says, distinguishing
the difference implied
of quantity only.
between
nativitas
o-uoTuXev
long
and
Temporum momenta
fieV
TO
r\
yiWrai
short
rj
e,
e.
eKraQev
TO
fie
was sounded
T}
greatly to
In the
ay.
modify the value
first
place,
it
soni
*
thing, viz.
ylvtrai
Kal
That
r).'
is,
This would seem to a casual reader
Erasmians contend,
to prove the point for which the

that
non
distant,
and Sextus says much the same
;'
r)
'
77,
A
to
little
consideration
be attached to
viz.
serve
will
their testimony.
should be remembered they are
more
all
Romanized Greeks, in as far as they are Greeks at

all, and they would therefore
readily imagine that the
must or ought to be pronounced like the letter which they
or less
rj
used to represent it ; and as to them

cluded TI = e. Again,
e,
they naturally con-
is
rj
etymologically they were right
not only the strengthening or lengthening of a, but also of e.
As
cpa>Ta> rjptoTTjcra, eVey/cco fjveyKov,
cvpu
r)vpov.
was considered by the ancients as a long f, so

was
for the old name of
was ft, according to the principle which governed the original nomenclature of the Greek
Again,
if
rj
and which was that each

So o was called
long sound.
alphabet,
by
its
letter
ov,
yet
should be
named
no one supposes
really the long sound of o, because we know that

ov was always transcribed in Latin by u.
Equally certain is
that ov
was
THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.
OAT
that
it
vowel
was almost invariably represented by the simple
ft
Consequently we are led to the concluwould be respectively the representatives

and ee, which are their exact phonetic
i in Latin.
sion that ov and
ei
of the English oo
For
parallels.
te
ov actually stands for oo in
ov
xp v<r
e. g.
15
xp vcr
as in English so in
v v ) <popeere
Greek
it is
(popeire.
for
Greek, and
In other words,
long sounds
plain, that certain
actually to certain short ones, of which, ac-
corresponded
cording to a priori phonetic
rules, they could not have been

the representatives. An approximation to the English long e
may be seen in the Dutch double e, and in the Hungarian /.
That
and
were very similar in sound is rendered highly

probable both by the fact that they were each held to be the
representatives of a long e, and that they were interchange77
able even within the limits of the
not only
KKfis
or
KTJVOS
and
same
So we have
dialect.
T^VOS for Ktivos, but also /3ouAei
and
xXftf, <\eiTos
Nor does
K\T)TOS.
and
jSouX^,
the Latin tran-
scription of 77 by e prove that it was sounded ay : for the

Latin e represented very often an
and on the other hand
<?z",
tended to become, and therefore probably closely resembled

in sound, the simple I.
So we have tristes from tristeis,
written tristis ; Vergilius written Virgilius, &c.
and not only
but
in
the
is
in
transcribed
so,
Byzantine period designatus
Greek dio-iyvdros while, on the other hand, Plutarch writes
:
Palilia, Ua\r]\ia
scription of
77
'.
by
where plainly
e in
77
= long
So
i.
that the tran-
Latin inclines us to believe, not that
17
was sounded
from
ay, but that e in Latin was hard to distinguish

When shortened, 77 tends to become *, not only in
I.
ancient
but also in
modern Greek,
Ionic for ^po's, dvadep.a for

ep6s for
Irjpdy,
Oepiov for
dvd6rip.a
drjpiov,
as for example, Sepoy,
and
in
modern Greek,
pepiov for pripiov, Kfpiov for
Krjpiov.
Of the
of
very close resemblance between
Homer,
that
is
and
77
in the time
between the sounds represented in
later
16
times by i and 77 respectively, we have, Professor Mullach

thinks, instances in the parallel forms TJKCD and t*a>, (iriftoXos
and
seems to be simply i lengthened by

C7n]fio\os (where
combined force of the accent and the ictus), yiyas and
yrjyevqs, which two forms we have together in the Batra77
the
chomyomachia,
FrjyevcGW avbpwv
from
7n'Sa
mjSaa),
stands for long
rjSe
p,ip.ovp,fvoi
and
I&F.
epya yiydvrav,
In
many
of these cases
in others for a shortened
77,
an inscription found
rjpwuv.
The
derives
all its little
Carpathus in which
at
Ross gives
77.
ipaa>v
stands for
significance of this would depend greatly on the

In the Cratylus of Plato, the
antiquity of the inscription.
false
of
obviously
A^r^p from 8i8a>/u and /^rr/p,
etymology
77-
and
So
81-.
plausibility
from the resemblance between
in Aristophanes' Pax, 925, the point of a
pun depends upon the resemblance in sound between &oi

and porjQelv, and again, 928, between m and tyvia.
Nor
should the later parallel forms Trpiorr]? and Trpfjcms, o-Kqirav and
o-KiTrav, with the Latin Scipio, which Plutarch writes S/crjTnW,
be forgotten.
All the Semitic transcriptions, of whatever age, agree in
representing 77 by
according to M. Renan, in his very
learned and interesting pamphlet, Eclaircissements tire's des
*',
'
Langues
se'mitiques sur quelques points de la Prononciation
grecque.'
Thus
in the Syrian Peschito
Kâr =
Ktfo,
Kvprjvr)
= Kourini.
In
/3^/xa,
Hebrew we have
diathiki for
Tarschisch for Tapô-o-tfc, lima for
8ta0T)Kr], listis
In Aethiopian, paraclilos =
for
\rja-TTjs.
irapdKXrjTos,
mestir for
/iucrr^ptoi/.
In Arabian, Dimas for Afoas.

In the eighth century after Christ, Theophilus of Edessa,
a Syrian astronomer who enriched his literature by translations
from the
Iliad
and Odyssee, introduced a system of
Ij
which M. Renan thinks must have represented

a pronunciation reaching back to a very early age, and in
vocalization,
which the
In the
fXaKTio-c,
letter
New
are
appears as an
Testament,
no doubt
turned on
errors in spelling, but they
early prevalence of the confusion of
It is
not of
much importance
??
with
2aXa0i)jX
because
r;
Greek the Hebrew

was the only letter left
.I,
the
as in
'E/z/iai/ouTjX,
for this purpose,
the rest having been appropriated to the
all
show
so too
that 9 represents in Alexan-
drine and Hellenistic

:
its side.
KajutXo? for Ka/z^Xoy, e'XaKTô-e for
Hebrew sounds
which they most resembled.

There is another passage in Plato's Cratylus, 418 c, bearing on the sound of the letter r?, to the consideration of
which we must devote a few

both by the
their views.
fJKicrTa
and
It is this
Of TraXaioi
ov%
Itacists
it
has been claimed
of f)fJiTpoi TO) laird KOI Tbv<rt.
NUJ/ avr\ p.v TOV 'Iwra

fjiev
lines, as
Etacists respectively in support of
apâiOTarot ipepav
TJ
Ei
TTJV
T
r)
Hra
rjp.fpav
p.fTacrTp(povcri.
Olov of
fKaXovv, of 8e e/xepav, of 5e vvv
rjpepav.
Here
it
the former
seems we must read, instead of

77
connecting
fj
Ûra, simply *Hra,
'lira ^ Et.
The Erasmians are so

the passage, that we must
far right in their interpretation
of
agree with them in thinking that if

Plato had not recognized a difference between i and 77, he
would scarcely have distinguished the two as he has done ;
but
if
we
are really to believe that he
meant
77
to represent
the sound ay in day, then the result is most alarming for the
defenders of the Erasmian system, inasmuch as we have it
on the authority of Plato that the pronunciation of ^ra as

so far from being an innovation as the Erasmians con,
tend,
was the most ancient sound of that

be that Plato
The
letter.
truth
thinking merely of the quantity of

which
he distinguishes. He speaks of
the respective sounds
than t or e, /xe-yaXoTrpeTreo-repov by which
77 as a grander sound
appears to
is
he can only mean that it is longer or fuller.

In any case he must have been wrong, at
the general principle
for neither
least as regards
can we believe that the
tendency to lotacism was an archaism which has been

revived quite lately in modern Greek, inasmuch as we can
trace the tendency throughout the historical period of the
more and more strongly marked

language grows older nor, on the other hand, can we
Greek language, and

as the
find
it
believe that long vowels like 9 were originally represented
short ones like
by
f.
knew of
course nothing whatever of the now ascertained principles of philology, and he was led to his conclusions probably by the knowledge of the fact that f^fpa was
Plato
found in ancient documents and inscriptions written, in dewhich was not_used as a vowel until
77,
fault of the letter
the Archonship of Euclides, 403 B.C.,

this
that
view be correct, we
the
was by
may
e>e'pn
to
appeal
or l^pa.
Plato
most ancient way of representing the
in
If
proof
letter
77
t.
The Scholiast on Eurip. Phoen. 685 tells us expressly that

before the time of Euclides t was used for 17, o for oyie'ya.
Theodosius the Grammarian, who lived in the fourth century
was formed by joining two
after Christ (?), assures us that
77
This
of course impossible, inasmuch as

t's together.
was originally used as the sign of the aspirate, but it shows
was considered as equivaat any rate that by Theodosius
is
77
T)
lent to a long or double
The well-known
noticed
1
line
t.
of Cratinus
still
remains to
'O
8'
T]\i6ios
&(TTTfp irpoftarov
fir/
j3r}
\tya>v
be
19
Everybody feels, it is argued, that to represent the bleating

of a sheep by a sound equivalent to /3T, /3I, the vowel being
sounded as ee in see, would be inadmissible.
we must
confess that the attempts to render the

noises of animals by the articulate sounds of pepoTrav dvdpaAfter
Trav,
all,
are very diverse and very unsatisfactory.
understand their
tempt to reduce
language, and
it
is
We
do not
hopeless for us to at-
The German
peasant hears
Greek ear seemed
to distinguish
to writing.
his frogs say acht, achl, the
it
the mysterious syllables PpfUfKCKeg. In English the very word

bleat shows the possibility of associating an ee sound with the
Yet we think our sheep say bah, bah,

noise of the sheep.
and I confess the Greek sheep seemed to me to say so too.
this may have been a Doricism.
As however the letter y could hardly have been in use as a
vowel when Cratinus wrote, it is nearly certain that he must
But
perhaps simply /3e', /3e'. This being

so, the whole argument of the Erasmians falls to the ground
as a demonstration in unreal matter.'
have written
/See,
$ee, or
'
I.
Pronounced unquestionably as
which
under
it
interchangeable have been, or
is
letters
will be,
with
noticed
their respective heads.
O
Both sounded nearly
The
in saw.
and indeed
o>
like o in core, gore, shorn, or like

is
rather
felt
aw
than heard,
beginning of a syllable sounds short, and

Ao'yoy sounds \a>-yos ; irpaysyllable, long.
at the
end of a
fjLariKms,
TTpaynaTiKos.
likely
and
distinction in quantity
o at the
seems
The
ee in see.
That
this
from the accent
was so
in
ancient Greek
in TrdXewy, povoKcputs, &c.
almost impossible to preserve the pure sound of o

C 2
It is
when
20
much
Our o in note is not strictly the o in not

lengthened.
6 rapidly followed by do, as in boot.
the
sound
but
lengthened,
Double
sounds
in
English as
it
did in Greek, simply
do.
Ou was one form of long o, and w/xeya was another, the latter
used no doubt in those cases where the o sound was still
Thus
preserved.
form
for o
Greek
it
that
is
we have
povpya for dpopyrj,
modern Greek,
for
ov^coj/t'ô),
strengthened
modern
povxTfpos,
modern Greek, and many
Ou stands more frequently for

in
ou as a
e. g. JJLOVVOS, ouAd/ifz/or, fio^drjpos,
others.
w, as yovv, ovv for y&v,
3>v
so
Kifiovpi for Kiftwpiov, Kov<pbs for Koxjkdr, \l/ovviaa
&C.
as a vowel.
The modern Greeks
generally pronounce this letter

Schleicher
long
simply
says it was originally
sounded like the German or Italian u, but soon acquired
as
i.
the sound of the

is
preserved
in
German
u, or
French
u.
The
old sound
numberless modern Greek words, which
be regarded as Boeotic' forms, like yowrj for ywr).

may
Here follow a few examples, taken for the most part from
all
Sophocles'
,
'Modern Greek Grammar:'

dyicouXa, ayxvpa, tiyKovpa, rvKavij, dovKavrj (cf. in
Homer
for TVTTOs), (TTOVpaKlOV fOT (TTVpCtKlOV, KO\\OVpa for KoXAvpd,

Tpovrra for rpvira, <TKOV\OS for (TKuXoy, KouXXos for KuXXdy, povKavij
for pvKavr],
to
which we
Doric or Boeotic form for

for p-vpfjivpifa, povpfuyyi
may add
KOVTO\IOV,
KVTO\IOV,
e. o-KiraXtoz>,
from
i.
undoubtedly a
/xov^/ioupiâ)
p.vpp.T)g.
In Chios, Thessaly, and Macedonia, according to Professor Mullach, the U sound is still heard.
The Tsakones at present inhabiting the ancient Cynuria,

whose name Professor Mullach thinks may be a corruption
of the ancient KavKoves, have preserved to us another
peculiarity of the pronunciation of v, namely, its tendency to

be sounded
we have
like the
English
VIOVTTO. for VVKTO,
i.
e.
u, viz.yoo.
Thus
in
21
Tsakonian
w.
Boeotian inscriptions we have Aioviovo-tos, AioiWa?,

I suspect however, from the examples ad'OXiowTnWof.
duced, that both in the case of Tsakonian and Boeotian
So
in old
represents the liquid sound of X and v before u, as in

modern Greek generally is the case whenever these letters
the
stand before
v,
t,
T]
and
similar sounds.
generally represented by ou
as kindounos oksoufafon for KtvSwos ogvftcxpov.
In Syrian transcriptions v
(English
00),
Similarly in the
is
Chaldaean of Daniel, Soumphonia =
Svptycwia.
here remark, by the way, that to propose a Semitic

this and other Greek words in Daniel, is what
for
origin
dea-iv 8ia(f)v\dTT(ov.
And not only
no one could do, et
I
may
so, but the words in question, both as regards their form

and signification, are evidently not earlier than the Macca-
baean period.
form enough
J'nnJpa tyavrepiv for âXrrjptov

for the
Koivf)
didXeKros
a natural
is
which arose
after the
Macedonian conquests, but would be inexplicable before

that time.
Coptic
and Aethiopian
transcriptions
thinks, the Boeotic
largely prevailed
with
agree
earlier Syrian in transcribing v as ov, following, as
M. Renan
and Aeolic pronunciation which,
among
the
it
seems,
the Greek-speaking populations of
the East.
In later Syriac however, as in the Peschito version of

the New Testament, we find i as the representative of v, according to the prevailing, though not universal, modern Greek
usage as Evroclidon = EupoKXvSaw, Didimos = Aidvpos, clamis =
:
In Sountico for SiWuôs the accented

syllable preserves the 00 sound, while the unaccented has
That the unaccented v was the first to become i
lost it.
xhap.vs,
hili=v\r].
we may
dov
infer
and
from the
/u,dXi/3off,
common
<ÎTVU>
and
occurrence of such words as

^vTevto, pdpfSiXos
and
/3pd/3vXos,
22
and such endings as -rjpos, -vpos, -vXoj, -iXo'y, -77X0?, used

apparently without any distinction in
indifferently, and
as
meaning,
dyKvXor,
\iyvpos,
avarrjpos,
7roiKi\os,
ctri)Xoff,
Neither accent nor quantity seem
orpo'îXoy, a1crv\os, tyrjXos.
such words; yet v\os seems most often

paroxytone; when the accent is removed the tendency to
become 77X0? or iXos would seem to increase. In Latin a
to
be very fixed
in
short unaccented u also
becomes
easily
2',
as in maximus,
maxumus, optumus^ another instance of the
optimus, for
way
which the lotacizing tendency in Greek is paralleled in

Latin.
There are many instances, however, of an accented
in
becoming
witness
and
/3u/3Xo?
and
/3//3Xoy, fipi-6a>
/3pvo>, (pirpov, (pvrpa, pvyôs and pis, pinrru) and piirTa>

also nvd- and mO-, TTVO-TI? and irians, p-ixros (perhaps
and
p.lcros, ^fiBios
6iov.
E and
and
wfiiV, ^L^Lp.vdiov
"*l/ip.p.i-
and
/cXrjToy,
from
<rTvpa
also
fcXfiToy,
on/pffo), (p\r)vbs
and
crrOXo?
and
from
or^Xr/,
<p\w6s.
<pi\va>
In Arabic, Aethiopian, and Persian transcriptions

nearly always represented as /: Kipros, asicriton,
and so on,
and
p.vaos)
v are also interchangeable, as in fivKdop-ai
K\vrbs
and
and
^vdios, oSwr;
ftapvda>,
probably
'.
for Kvn-pos, do-vyKpirov, (Tvvyf, irv\as.
sizi'ge,
The
is
pilas,
Septua-
gint follows here, as in other cases, the lotacist pronunciation.
In
the
Oovydrrjp
Aeolic
The same
ov
dialect
but more often
t,
as
sometimes
stands
for
u,
as
i^-oy, tVe/>.
three gradations
are
found in German
as
South pronounced as finf; so nutzlich,

Uber stands in Martin Opitz, the
and nitzlich.
funf, ftinf, in the

niitzlich)
founder of what
is
called the
first
Silesian School in
literature in the
seventeenth century, for
South sounds as
iber.
Even in
and giltig,
and Gebirge, gultig

and Sprichwort are used
and fancy of the writer.
iiber,
German
which
in the
the written language, Geburge

Hiilfe
and
Hilfe, Spriichwort
indifferently according to the taste
AT
are
pronounced
German when
the v stands
aw and ew
as
in
between two vowels or before
cases as
in other
a medial;
ET
and
modern Greek
in
23
or
e<
respectively.
The
English letters v and/" are only approximations to the Gerand v in English, and in
man zv = @, and the Greek <.
are
made
most European languages,
by means of the upper
in German, are formed

one
who compares the
Any
two sets of sounds by pronouncing A/3 or Av-, and Av, A$,
or Av and Af, in rapid succession, will see how much nearer
the Greek /3, or v consonantal, and <p, are to the vowel
teeth
and the under
<,
lip,
j3,
and
by the contact of both lips.
sound
The
tions.
is
or even u (French), than the English approxima-
oo,
marked by
It
is
from
transition
oo (u Italian)
to
(German)
the English w.
worthy of observation that v never stands
at the
beginning of a word of Saxon origin; while in the middle

of a word it generally represents either b or f; but very
German
Saxon w.
That ov and cv were sounded as a/3 and e/3, if followed by
a vowel, is generally admitted, and this is according to the
seldom,
if
ever, the
or
analogy of Sanscrit.
In these cases the v represents the digamma, which in
its turn
represents the Sanscrit or old Indian v, so-called,
but what in reality is the consonantal sound of u = oo, into
changed if followed by another

=
vowel, as in grdvas, pldvdmi, srdvdmi nXef-'os, TrXepco, peFi.
The modern Greek forms TrXfuw, pevoo preserve the F, as u
which the vowel sound
is
consonantal.
But there are signs that at a very early period the

consonantal sound of v was heard even before a consonant.
In Syriac, av and
Pavlos,
Avgoustos;
ev
are rendered av
and
evkaristia = evâ/no-Tia,
ev,
as Evroclidon,
evtikis
24
It
true that av in Syriac represents also
is
to,
as lavseph =
and M. Renan suggests that

'Icoo-qcp,
av in Syriac was pronounced au (German), which is possible
but in any case there is the fv = ev remaining. Av and o>,
are plainly nearly related,
as well as the Latin au and
Bariavna
for Bapicow
<?,
whatever
may
Bapa, lautus,
Oavfia,
rpco/za,
have been their pronunciation
So
amavit, amavt, amo.
In
in
modern Greek
lotus,
as rpavpa,
Claudius, Clodius, aut,
modern Greek
p.avpos,
M&pos,
o,
avriov,
sometimes becomes
also
tv
o>,
as
with which we may compare euXaxa, a

>//-a>p.ara,
Laconian form of auXa, and the form o>Xa, also Doric.
In MSS. we have the double forms \avpos and Xa/3por, \avpa
,
and
Xo/9pa,
and
KaXaupoox//-
cannot doubt, for av +
= avs
vdvs, and other adverbs.

mated deva> and eo>, and
Homer
In
KaXa/Spwi//
a\|/>
is,
being added, as in OVTWS
and
e^-w, the sig-
Compare fo'ôo
modern Greek e7n'o-Te\//a, Ka-^ts,
The Homeric word fydifjw is
Kavo-is.
for
7ricrTfva-a,
&c.,
derived by Liddell and Scott in a procrustean manner from
and the 6, being a mere
tyi, 6Ip.os, notwithstanding the long
in
ending, while the
last
analogy, elided
all
1
ou
KaiTTtp
of i$i
between
<
is
and
ov TOIOVTOLS
pa8tov
violently,
and contrary
to
6.
dv8pd(riv
dirt(TT('iv,'
must
is no such ending as 0Z/zoy; and,

one
thing certain about <p0, it is that
secondly,
no vowel has been dropt between the two letters. Let us,
however, admit the identity of the Homeric and modern
submit,
that there
first,
if
there
is
pronunciation, and we see at once that i$0ijuos is but another

way of writing r/#0u/*or, the Epic form of fvdvpos. Here
every single letter
has been
with
<p#iVo>
i)
lost.
:
With
as
is
accounted
Probably
well
<p&ii/o
as
&Vo>,
6ta>,
and the accent and
for,
In Wvs for ev8vs
quantity as well.
it
0W,
Qodfa,
appears that the (p

6iva are connected
66os,
OCLTTOV,
Sanscrit
25
AI.
This combination as pronounced by the Greeks is not to

be distinguished from e. So we get in the grammarians
tyeKas and \lfaiKas, while ye- in the compounds seems to
AiVv?, high, lofty,
represent yai-.
and
from
tyri\6s,
becomes
At-oV
stands for
virep) to
edv.
<paiyya>.
tions
and
at
KttiwfUf fdopa
from
is
and
re
suggest the same.
and
for
The
and
a/na^T/roy,
ptvof,
p,aifj.da)
instead of
often
stands for the Sanscrit

(êpecrat, (frfpeTni,
interjec-
stands for
at
for
fiF/iaco,
e.
or X
'7
"
'
5'?
are
It invariably
at,
as
short as a rule, both
in
in the verbal termination
for bhdrase, bhdrate.
At the end of a word
at
is
prosody, as also before a following vowel in scansion,

renders
X mTT7
a/n6fiaêroy,
>
show how
according to
are,
from x e/co implying the verbal adjective x e

sufficient to
and probably
(paivco,
Kei/6s for Kaibvbs, related to
alapa, paivQfuu
dp.aifj.aKTOs for a/AaKeTos
rt.
same word.
Curtius, but two forms of the

e
VTTCITOS, v-^na-ros,
(cf.
be connected with
3>eyyo>
Kat
seems
which
absolutely certain, that, in such cases at least,
it
could not have been sounded as a diphthong. Schleicher

considers the termination of the second person plural pas-
it
sive
to stand for -a-dpe,
-a-6e,
which
is
short for -a-Bfai -
The
diphthongal sound of at, as of the other sodiphthongs, was probably heard only when it was
written with a diaeresis, as is the case at present in modern
-sdhvai.
called
Greek.
was represented by ae, as Aeacus, Aeneas,

Maenades, and ae was most undoubtedly a monophthong,
In Latin
much
so
at
so that
if
the metre required
archaic representative at
its
was used,
it
be diphthongal,
to
as terrai frugiferai.
In Greek inscriptions belonging to the
we
find
Crat.
412
representing
d, is
at,
and
vice versd.
quoted as proof that
1*0101;
Roman
When
period
Plato,
was pronounced
26
because he derives
to
250
B.C.,
we have
crv
AvcraviT),
Where
the
8uu6v,
to
may be
it
sufficient
In Callimachus,
spell.
the following epigram:

de
vmî maXbs, Ka\bs, aXXa
Trplv
XXoy is supposed to be the echo of vai\i

consonants disappearing, as we know
ex
initial
actually
from
it
knew how
reply that Plato
do
in
they
an echo.
ET.
This combination written without the diaeresis
no doubt was, sounded as
Natî rhymes, as
t.
seen,
In Latin,
and in Greek
regularly appears as
we have 'iprjv and fip^v, tXXo> and eiXo>, 1X77 and ftX?/.
to exei.
itself
and
is,
we have
z',
Semitic transcriptions
point the same way, as well as
all
and akfi^âTiw in Diogenes Laertius.

In the Scythian patois, Aristoph. Thesm., t stands for short ft,
as o for <.
Herodian, M. Victorinus, Choeroboscus, and
the
pun on
aXX' lânov
Theognostus identify ei with

sound peculiar to itself.
i,
while Sextus says
had a
it
Ol.
Now
in
sounded
see.
* than
like
t,
or
v,
that
is,
equivalent to
ee
was sounded apparently more like

letters or combinations, inasmuch
it
Originally
77,
any of the other
name
ityiXoi/ was given it to distinguish it from

v Sta 8i<f>66yyov by the later grammarians.
or
bfyOoyyos
So in Boeotic we get TVS for rot?. In the same way 2\//iXov
was so called to distinguish it from at or c Sta 8i<p66yyov.
as
the
Thus John Lydus,

de
dio\oyov
ypcKfrofJLevov,
quaerere
dXXa ^tXr;
vop.ia>
TI
8c
a Byzantine grammarian,
TI
piv
\^tX^s
olov (ptvvav.
"On
(rr)p.aivei
[Kuai'ara>p]
KvaiWcop
fie
/IT)
rolvvv
dtydoyyos
tells us,
Sta
TTJ
777-777-7;?
arro
(V npooip-lois
ypatpfrai, ovSerepov peit TCOV flpT)fj.VQ)V
(TT][J,ait>ei
77
TOV
Xt'^tf,
TOV de

Kal P\d<r<f)T]p.ov 8ia rrjs ypafyfjs eViSeiêi,
Hence
it
evident that the
is
simple as
to double,
word
27
on
qiieror
which means
tyikov,
is
opposed
by Kriiger and Buttmann,
to
which
know
falsely explained unaspirated

say nothing of the inappropriateness, amounting to absurdity, of calling e unaspirated,
as though it had formerly been one sign of the aspirate,
was
or applying this designation to v, the peculiarity of which is, that except in a few
dialectic forms it is invariably aspirated at the beginning
it
not, as far as I
of a word.
The
Semitic transcriptions of 01 are very various sometimes it appears as /, as kirogrellios for x oi P7P^^ ins
:
Aethiopian sometimes as o, as Phonix for

a mere mistake and most commonly by
;
proving the similarity of the sound of

have seen, is also represented by ou.
01
to
3>oiVi,
i.
ou,
u,
e.
probably
u or oo,
which, as
we
The Aeolians changed ou to 01, as Molo-a for MoOo-a, which

was probably very much the same thing as if they had written
it
Mvo-a.
Oi
and
and often in scansion,

witness II. xiii. 275
the end of a word
short (as a rule) in prosody,
is
that not only at
eWi
and again, ToTo?

(quoted by Mullach),
eu>i> ofo? OVTIS.
It was then plainly no diphthong.
Oeconomos,
a Greek writer of the present century, thinks it was sounded
old' dperrjv olos
in
some
into
we
t.
dialects as ou
= u
Italian,
and
find iTpovKO. for Trpoina, <f)\ov8iov for
ar/xoTrXouj/ for
The Germans
it
some as u passing
In modern Greek
<p\oii$i.ov
Or
(foXoidtov,
as well as the ordinary i sound.

ar/zoTrXotoi/,
= eu
generally prefer o (
French) as the re-
presentative of
scribes
in
This appears to us highly probable.
01,
and compare oe which invariably tranwe do not know how the Latin oe
in Latin, but
was sounded, although we do know that it was, like the

Greek 01, monosyllabic, and, like it too, easily passed both
28
into
u and
If
and
01
i\
compare foedus with
were
oe
really like the
forms as
compare such
fidus> moenia with munire.
German
sohnen,
o,
we may
then
siihnen,
and
also
(according
Southern pronunciation) sihnen.

The account of the ambiguous oracle in Thucydides, ii. 54,
clearly proves at least the close resemblance in sound between
to
and
Xoifj.6s
The
X</ioy.
from the words
is
sense which Mr. Sophocles obtains

precisely the reverse; but he obtains it
He
by sundry glaring mistranslations.

to the fact that u5eo-0cu,
draws our attention
&>i/o/*do-$ai, clprjo-Oat,
and
reference to the sound of the word, which
and
case,
He
some maintaining
'
says simply
word
'A
partly not the
'
that
but
\oipbs
it
among men,
mentioned had not been
whereas Thucydides
Xt/zoV.'
was not plague
was spoken
that
of,
but
Again, the opinion prevailed at this time that the
was
said
dispute arose
that the calamity
(u>i>o/iao-&u)
famine.'
bear
partly nothing to the point.
renders as follows:
called
aaovrat, all
is
Xot/ior:'
whereas
all
that the
words
will
bear
^^v
eVoiis,
spoken of was Xot/zoV Again, TTJV
OVVTO could not mean adapted their recollections,' but simply
gave the account.' By such ingenious distortions does Mr.
'
the thing
'
Sophocles adapt a passage, which is clearly a stumblingblock to his theory, into a bulwark of defence.
TI
modern Greek
sounds
in
makes
vibs
which
vio'f,
as
nearly always
In Syriac oios occurs for
the more remarkable as the usual Syriac
two short
is
syllables.
representative of u alone is ou.

Passing on to the consonants,
we begin
B = German
Liddell and
It
Homer
simply.
Scott admit that
frequently stood for the
it
with
iy.
was
digamma
softer
than our
b.
in dialectic forms, i.e.
2$
words where the digamma was still sounded; as

So in modern Greek we
/SaXtKios, for e'tKocrt, 17X1*10?.
in those
jSeiKtm,
a hollow, compare ayKo? and ay-yos, &c. ; fipiCa, as

in ancient Greek for pia, in the sense of rye; ftovpKos, etymo-
have
fidyya,
same with
logically the
stands for
It
and paôOXa.
the consonantal sound of v in such tran0/3*09, fipdxos,
probably in the proper name

Ayaftos for dyavos; and the word drroXavu is only another
way of writing an-oXtt/Sw. So in modern Greek we get avd/3co
scriptions as
from
Aa/St'S,
Sfftripos,
of which
ai/aTTTw,
it is
the root, in the sense of to burn
Greek
the ancient
In the middle of a
a#co, evavu.
compare
word it thus preserves the digamma in modern Greek, and
in such positions may be equally well written as t>; e.g.
TrXeuoo, peva), 7rXe'/3a>, pe/3o>.
come from
If o-/3as
the Sanscrit sev, then
be written aevas; but

'
move
ginally
and
that case
in
certainly
the
it
for a
it
it
should properly
meant
possible that atftonai
is
ori-
person/ the ancient sign of respect

stands for
causative,
of which
o-euo/iat,
written
with
of
instead
/3
o-0j3eco
preserve the sound of the last consonant in the root.
is
to
v,
Compare
<po/3eo>, (pe@oij.ai, (pevya), i.e. (pfftyw.
As
in
stands for the Sanscrit g, and thus

interchangeable with y, as /3e'0upa, yetyvpa;
a rule, however,
Greek
it
is
&\e(papov, yXecpapov.
/3
So
in
modern Greek we have
yoinra for jSovTra, yovyovpas for (36pj3opos (?)
),
Before
as vifa for
t,
pronounced
j/i'j8i3-
of such a change in
Greek
it is
very rare,
it
modern Greek, but even
a y was heard in such cases after the

rpi/3o>
in ancient
and probably arose from the
are probably from the
ydpyvpa,
becomes, like y and 5, ^

Xa/Sto/nat. I can find no instance
as y,
Xaô/xat for
y\e<papov,
cf.
same
/3.
Thus
fact that
rpt'â
and
root, rpifeo expressing the
grating squeaking noise caused by rpi'/3o>.

form would be rpt'/Syco, which occurs in
The
intermediate
modern Greek,
as
30
well as both rp^ca
and
modern Greek forms.
are
The hard
follows
as efi/SaiW,
/*,
Greek)
/3i>Cdo>
<,
as BiXar7roy,
cf.
modern Greek
B,
and
and
is
for
vi'/3yo>,
0e/3yo>, i.e.
when #
preserved
fjLJ36Xip.os.
as
fi,
/ze/z/3pa?
for
&i\apds, BtXapdy
4>iXt7T7roy
;
With
for
(ancient
/3e/i/3pa?
(modern Greek)
dx?j3d8a
(modern Greek)
<p\r)(TKOvvi
/3im'i7
Cf. (pfftopai
;HW>
Macedonian
/iudo>,
vi$a>
unaspirated sound of b
interchangeable with
is
So
Tpi'/3a>.
as
TT,
Greek)
(ancient
aXel/3a>, dXe/(pa>
/Sctreii/,
with
P^TJO-KOVVI,
Trarflv, TTUTIW;,
(ancient Greek) ; 'Apama for 'Apa/3ia (modern Greek).

A are interchanged, as @(\<piv, /3X)p for 8e\<piv, SeXeap
(ancient Greek)
Kowdfii
for
Kowddt,
from
Ktvados
(modern
Greek).
r.
a guttural semivowel, like the German ^

in Tflg : before t and e, however, it sounds like a very strong
y in other words, it sounds more palatal. The sound of the
This
letter is
Hebrew
and most
tradition,
Gandel informs me, corresponds exactly

Thus we find in the Septuagint rda,
y.
nW nioj^: which proves almost to demonstration
as Professor
soft,
to
preserved according to the most probable

faithfully rendered by the Arabian g
as
V,
the
Greek
rdjuoppa, for
that the present pronunciation of y
must have prevailed

if
we
can we understand
its
the time of the translators of the Septuagint.
assume
was a
that y
soft semivowel,
in
Only
evanescence, not only as a transcription of V before an unaccented vowel, as 'A/iaXeV, 'HXi, but also in Greek words,
especially before palatal vowels, as ala for yala, Iwos for
and
for
eyo>t>,
as before
-an.
for
middle of a word between two vowels, as
in the
So
dXt'yoy,
dXt'yoy;
a-
or before
/*,
as
T^pa
in aorists of verbs, -d
in
modern Greek we get
lotv
for
eyo>i>,
X'o>
for
r/uf/y/ia,
av,
as well
for -dyto>, aorist -aa-a for
the dialectic forms Xios
for Xeyco, irpapa for Trpay/na, &C.

With
yam we may compare
a?a for
ancient Greek
nected
and
forms as
vyidfa,
vyuiivto,
In yov\ta for oflXm
and
as
t'ovXoy,
<$cyyt
cf.
before
v,
dypeo>,
often
is
ancient, y
in
Xu/co0cos,
as yveda for
v6<pos,
XT^LIT/,
form of
and
<papov,
in
ve(pos
or
j3Xe'<o)
yXaKw, \dpos, y\dpos
is
cf.
ov\os
',
for XVKO-
as well as
yvocpos, for Xevo-o-o),
y\r)/j.rj )
probably but a sigmated
standing for yXeô-co
modern Greek
t,
for Xeiô).
yXauo-o-o>,
\vacra>
jSXfVo),
stand for
as y\vi<o(peyyci
X,
vr]6a>, y\d<p<i)
'.
may
In modern Greek, as in
cupeo>.
Here we may compare

i.e.
it
prefixed to
XOKO),
con-
one form or omitted from
to the
the other.
all
hard to say in such

af//a, whether the y is to
is
it
yiarpbs, yaT/ia for larpos,
be considered as prefixed
In
for vytatvw.
no doubt
are
la.op.ai
modern Greek
in
laivo>
31
yXeVo), also the
compare yXemodern Greek
(rvvvf<pov, crvyv((pov.
The
y in modern Greek is often of etymological

significance, in cases where it has disappeared from the
classical form.
A.vy6v or 'A/3yoi>, for woV, preserves the oriletter
more
ginal avjdn far
truly
<0/3eoi>,
Hesychius,
than the Attic p.va.
//ma,
first is
from the
In
That
nasal.
this
Where two
was so
fact that avy-, eVy-, &c.
this position the
case with
The
than even the form given by

ovum; as does /uiya for
or the Latin
viz.
/3
after
nasal y
is
come
y's
6iy- )
dyKadi
we know
were always written ayy-, e'yy-.

its hard sound, as is the
second y retains
/z.
sometimes prefixed to a guttural
to strengthen a syllable, as in Sanscrit so
modern Greek.
together the
in ancient Greek,
Examples
in
in order
ancient and
Ak', ank'amt, diyydvu from root
from aKavQa (modern Greek), and
Say/ca^ca
for
A
= Spanish
harder.
have
</,
or th in then, except after
Thus a
Aei>s
and
lisped
z,
becomes
Zevs, dpifrXos for api'S^Xoy,
v,
8.
bp
where
it
sounds
Accordingly
we
for SopKds.
In
32
modern Greek,
often this
frpKabiov for Sopitddtov,
sorbed, as 7re6y for
7re8id?,
Only on
for UoSeuv.
we understand how
o-S
grammarians
whereas etymologically
stands for
ds,
being that
o-S
came
and
in
8s are
to
i,
in Doric,
represent
as
was accounted by the

compounded of 8 and a-,
extremely doubtful whether ever

it never stands for 0-8, the fact
that
ways of approximating the sound of
8 being so soft,
the half consonantal
modern Greek Mrrovfrwas
how
or
letter,
it is
and certain
The sound of
Most
the assumption that 8 = th in then, can
double
for o/zafi.
a palatal vowel has been ab-
and
0av/zao-Sa>,
To>0ao-8a>,
/ieXiVSo),
when
the case
is
'/iat'
so
it
we have
easily passes into y before

yia for 8m, &c.
Thus we
have reason to suspect that ytyvpa was originally 8iai<pvpa,

perhaps Aeolic for bialQvpa, although the accent and the
More certain
quantity are against this derivation.
tci>K&>
that
Stands for yta>Ka>, from 810x0) tamo for yiatvco,
earlier
is
it
modern Greek yepbs or ytfpbs for 8iep6s,

another form of vyuipos.
So we have too in modern Greek
If iepbs means originally
laKiovy 8taKioi/, yiaKiov, for a rudder.
strong, as some philologers think, 8iep6s, vyiepos, yfpos, and
Itpos are all different forms of the same word; vypbs is
probably the result of metathesis. So we see little reason
from
diaivco
the
to doubt the identity of
The
yvaXos, hollow.
{JaXor,
earliest
glass,
and
meaning of
yva\ov, yvaXat
vahov
from
was a hollow
transparent stone in which mummies were enclosed among

the Egyptians (Herod. 3. 24).
So aldepia yva\a, used of the
heavens
render
in
it,
not the
so
which the
many
yvaXov.
flies
much
'
vault of heaven,' as Liddell
as the hollows of heaven,
i.
e.
and Scott
the spheres
were supposed to be embedded, like so

amber.
The modern Greek for va\ov is
stars
in
Z=z
in English.
Schleicher himself completely discards the notion of pronouncing f as ds or sd. Etymologically, it stands for yi, 8t,

or
followed by another vowel, as
/3t
rpi/3yeo, Tpiftiat,
rpia>
modern Greek we
yaXdyios or yXdyio?,
get Smrd^co
ra-ouôa
yidXov,
from
dXoz>
zd@a\r)s for Aid/3oXo?,

i.
vlftyo),
'ix
from
vos >
before the letter
p.,
rpi/3a>,
So
yaXd&os
from the Latin
from
from
appi<prjs, an extravagant dresser,
of a- into
mentioned by Liddell and
wa>
dpp.dyia>.
diardyia),
rcrouyico,
the hollow print of the foot
e.
i/i'/3to>,
Zevs for Aieus, appofa for
33
in
for
.f^tf /
yva\ov, shortened to
fapi^qr, better written
The change
SiappiVrco.
Scott, is almost always
as Zpvpva, &uKp6y, &iepdXeos,
wypa,
îvvrj.
This fact
In modern Greek, <r before /n always sounds as
in
is of itself enough to prove the identity of the sound of
ancient and
modern
th in thin,
times.
somewhat more
forcibly
pronounced
than in English.
and it appears
was anciently sounded as
originally stood for the Sanscrit dh,
Schleicher's opinion that
But
hothouse.
it
must
this
have
been
in
the
to be
th in
pre-historic
Perhaps such forms as OT&K?) for

period of the language.
In modern Greek we
drriKT} may be relics of such a sound.
have
But that 6 was very like the

may be inferred from the fact that the Laconian
rdrtfot
English th
dialect
for the Goths.
changes Q into
<r,
as
o-dXao-o-a, o-eloy, 'Ao-di/a..
In modern
Greek we get dxavTo-oxoipos for dKa.v66%oipos. In Aeolic 6 becomes (p, as <j>r)p, (pXi/3co, <Xd<. So in modern Greek we have
<P\i@a>, <p\i@epbv for
0Xij3o>,
0Xt/3epoV, (prjKapiov for 6r]<apiov.
Doric x sometimes stands for
modern Greek
6,
In
as opvixos for Spvidos, so in
opvtxa for opvida, and, z^V*
57^^,
a^
for
K.
Like the English k before the guttural vowels; before the
in civitk, and
nearly approaching the Italian c
The best idea
with a very close resemblance to a palatal /.
palatals
more
34
I
can give of
sound on paper
this
is
perhaps
tk,
as
pronounced approximately tkeenos, tktn/ sound is

actually heard,
Kevrpov, Kirpivov, KCU,
dron, tk&treenon, tkeh ; not that a
but that after forming a palatal / (and our English / is mostly

In
palatal) the tongue is in the right position for forming K.
Crete, K palatal sounds just like the Italian c before e or
or our ch in chin.
In the same way the Sanscrit ch was
z',
formed from
sounds.
through the influence of contiguous palatal
k,
It is
therefore probable that the Italian c palatal
is
also legitimately developed from the old Roman sound

given
to c before e and 2, as in cecidi ; while the French c dental
and ch
and
palatal, the
c palatal
/j,
Spanish z and
are
more or
c palatal
th,
the
less unsuccessful
The
approximate the true pronunciation.
German
attempts to
sound of
palatal
<
evidently represents the intermediate stage through which

the guttural k must pass, and must always have passed, in
order to become the palatal ch.
In pronouncing K palatal
the tip of the tongue

coming right up to the
may be seen in
not
ep/cos 6d6vv
;
mouth
a Greek's
that the tip of the
tongue
actually used in pronouncing the K, but the upper
part of the tongue is brought so far forward that the exis
tremity necessarily reaches the teeth, and indeed protrudes a

little
beyond them. K palatal being thus so nearly allied to
T,
we
shall not
So we have
be surprised to find them interchanged.

in ancient
for Koipavos (for v

K.IJJUOV
and
for
Greek
n/ico, <mA/3o'co
<^reiai/a>,
i.
e.
especially in the
for
TII/OO-O-W,
the latter form
is
and K are
possibly for
common
also found
and
*),
ir6<a.
So
dialect,
/*M>
from
Tsakonian
rvpawos
at
<Kai/o> for
Conversely, repios Or
Greek, are clearly connected with
/cat,
(pKvdptov for <f)Tvdpiov,
trrtX/3oco,
fvQfidfa or ciidfidva.
meaning suitable, or similar,

and
rls for KIS, re for
see above, as well as for
for Tip&v, rrjvos for Kclvos, TTOTC for rroKf
modern Greek,
in
ot
to
Kaipios.
modern and
ancient
KIVCG>.
interchanged in Greek.
The

original
have
form of
ITTTTOS
and
KonreXa
nected with
was
a
KOKGWTJ,
So
IKKOS.
girl
KOTT-TO), KOTTTyi/cu.
in
KOOKO,
35
modern Greek we
an indentation con-
much doubt whether
be not also connected with the root
KOTT-,
d-Ka>Kr)
instead of being
a lengthened form for drf and whether 8ioKa>xr), &c., ought

not also to be written SiaKo)^, standing for
:
A.
Interchangeable with
v,
as in Doric r\vQa for rj\6a.
modern Greek, dwâvrbs becomes

Tsakonian stands
is
So, in
d\v<pavTos, while avdc in
for oA(pt.
also interchangeable with p
d/zeXyo>
and
dfif'pyto
are
same word. 'A/iepya> is the older form, and is

modern Greek for d/ieXya>. Here we must say
Buttmann is quite right in rea word on WKTOS dfioXy<5.
originally the
preserved in
jecting the translation
'
milking time/ but plainly wrong in
rejecting the derivation from d/ieXyo> or dp.cpya>.

of the word is such that no other derivation
Eustathius
may
also
Achaean word for

suggested by the word
and
sense
NUKTOS
d/xoXyoi
is
possible.
be right in saying that dpoXybs
old
the
The form
to
iVjudw,
derivation
means
dupr).
in
similar sense for
bruise out,
are
the
quite
dregs
and
plain
of
night,
OK^
t/c/idy.
and
an
is
is
But
natural.
most
poetical expression for the dead of night.

or
djuovpya, from d/xepyco, means, in both modern
'A/idpyj/
and ancient Greek, neither more nor less than dregs or
fitting
and
squeezings out ; that is, what is left after the

This is plainly the sense in
squeezing out of wine or oil.
lees,
the
which
it
is
2. 2.6, OVK
used to express clotted blood in Eur. Phaeth.
cz/ioXyoi/ f'o/jio'pere,
torou
ri'y e'crrti/
atfiaroy â/xat
7recra>i/,
where the cognate cgopop-yvvm, only another form of e'â/uepyo),

seems plainly used with a poetic sense of its identity in root.
No more
exact comparison could be used than the lees of
36
wine
for clotted blood.
strophe,
Who
more
1-3, beginning,
is this
The modern Greek form
Edom?'
well-known apocometh from
Isaiah's
Compare
'
Ixiii.
that
for dfaX^bs
archaic than the classical, inasmuch as
is
it
d&fp(f)6s,
is
derived
from the Sanscrit sagarbhjas. In modern Greek the common

form for rj\dov is r)p&av\ and epxapat appears also as ep#o/icu,
leading to the conclusion that eX0o> and epxp- al are not
For x an d 6, see above.
distinct but identical roots.
and
So, too, a\<ptTov, avBos,
and are verbal
participles
respectively for dX-d-rov

in the first case, as in
The
Greek.
sents the
that dX0e&>
6 in dXe#o>
apros are probably
formed from
and
dXe'o>
or
all
aXros with paragogic
0X1^6$- in
seems
identical,
standing
dXe'0o>,
t
inserted
ancient, Kamvos in
modern
to stand for
digamma: cf. aXcvpa or aXeFpa.

and dv0co>, dXSmW and ap8a>, are
which repre<f>,
I cannot doubt
all
cognate words.
M.
With regard to the pronunciation of
and the same may be said of
dispute
this letter there is
no
N.
the letters
When, however,
and
and N are combined with
become medials,
=
instead of tenues, ep.7ropos
In the
Jmboros, evrtpa - e'ndera.
same way the guttural nasal y, when placed before
converts
TT
T respectively,
/MTT,
vr,
these consonants
the K into
its
Moreover,
and
after
and
become
8,
/3,
^, v,
-y.
y nasal,
simple medials
instead of semi-vowels.
With 3 and 5 however this is not
corresponding medial,
oy/co?
recognized by the educated, although
it
oyyos.
is
universally pre-
mouths of the common people. This phonetic

law may be most shortly expressed as follows
/n, v, and y
nasal take after them the corresponding unaspirated medial.
valent in the
Exception
If y
be followed by
x,
the latter preserves
its

sound, and the same
we may
that
may be
p,
say,
said of
and y
v,
<p,
6 after
are followed
by
p,
37
and
8
sponding unaspirated medial, or aspirated tenuis.
In modern Greek therefore, as far as the sound
we may
erned,
so
is
con-
write indifferently, at least according to the
popular pronunciation,
= andra, avrpov Or
ai/8pa
eV8uj/oj
their corre-
= embe'no, avrpa or
cppuiva) or eîTraiW
= andron, aynos Or ayyos = dngOS,

avftpov
=
No one can doubt that this was
endyno.
or evruvo)
Greek from time immemorial, who will

consider such forms as Trareco and fârca, 'A/z/Spa/cia and
AyiTrpaKia, eVrweo and cpdvo), fVTf\fj(na and fv8f\fx.eta
O.JKOS
and ayyoy, Bpiyyos and OpiyKOs, cv&ov and eVror, ev86crdia and
the case in ancient
evTocrdia, pvvraKJjs
Between
/n
and
and
p,
pvv8aKrj.
and
and
p, p,X
and
vX,
/3
(or
TT), 5,
or r
respectively are inserted.
So we have
or
a/iTrXaKicrfca), TJIL$\O.KOV
TrXoj-
in ancient Greek,
is
for
or
â/iT/Xo'y, Kopop,7r\o
often prefixed, as
p.farrjp.^pia,
rjp.ir\a.Kov.
dvdpos, d/ij3Xa/aWa>
In modern Greek, x aM~
for K0p6p.r)\o, pirpe, p.fip, OI
<r/uKpoV,
ancient Greek;
o-p.iya>,
/3pe
for
modern
Greek.
Double
y,
s,
2<r in
o-
the later Attic dialect
in
KOTTV<POS
preserved in modern Greek.

terminations like -ao-o-w in <puXao-o-a>,
which
is
stood originally for

for yj instead of
but
and
Trpa/c.
Kopvo-o-w,
&c.,
but afterwards apparently also

as in Tao-o-o) and Trpao-o-oo.
Schleicher
*/,
or
^/,
imagines that in these cases rayrax
became TT, as in
must have been
the intermediate stage
So we get
in
and
-rrpay-
are softened from
modern Greek
<puXayo>, <pv\dfa,
38
< are sounded by the common

on the other hand, after $ and x,
This explains in ancient Greek
the forms oxQrj and awi), OTTTOP and e<0dr, avdu = a(f>6is and
a&ris = atyTis, fiTfvOev and fvdfvrev = evrctpdev and ev6c<f>Tfv, re-
Before
this letter
TT
and
people as $ and x > while,

& has more the sound of r.
spectively.
Has no exact representative in any European language

but is like a labial f, and answers to
that I know
and the
German w, as their corresponding sharp sound.
;
X.
German ch in Bach, but with this difference,

German ch becomes palatal by the influence of the
like the
is
that the
preceding vowel, while x

follows
The same
it.
Greek says
Where
affected only
is
thing applies to
German *x-o>, x- TO^VS.

the
German says fy-a>, dividing
e-yo>
to
the Greek ear the German
Thus
Z-x**, a-xn, ra-xvs,
the
Greek says
the syllables differently.
by the vowel that

and y. Thus the
the
7>
pronunciation of these Greek words sounds like !x tctf "X-7,

In the same way the German words lach-en,
TIIX-VS, tyio>.
mach-en, would naturally be read by Greeks Xd-xcv, pa-x f v,
>
while trag-en would
The
become
rpd-ytv.
haphazard and inkhorn, has

laKxrj, 2a7r0&>, O7r<pis, ftpoKxos,
when
and x as ph, and kh in

but the obsolescent relics,
prehistoric pronunciation of
required
left
and these
by the exigencies
for the
most part only
of metre.
Greek Khurdistan is written Kxovdi(rrdv.

X and K are often interchanged, as
In modern
foô/icu $e/co/icu, o-^fXls-

modern Greek
so in
(TKoXeto
o-cdXao-/za,
for
vxtfa,
especially after a,
<rxoXao>ta,
o-ôXeioi/
39
as
<m'<,
but also
for
as t.hp
the representative of
no
further
TTO-,
(u
consonantal)
cr,
requires
/3o-,
comment.
THE
ASPIRATE.
no longer heard in modern Greek, and we do not

know that it was ever sounded as h, though it is not easy to
This
is
having been sounded otherwise. The fact

the so-called rough breathing stood properly for some
conceive of
is,
letter
its
which had been
out at the beginning of a word,

Often too it was written where it had
left
more especially for o-.

no etymological meaning,
and often omitted where we
If it had any sound it was most

should expect to find it.
in Latin, extremely evanlikely that of h, and like that letter
The
a mere sign in all the modern Latin

dialects, except in French, where a distinction is made between an aspirated and an unaspirated h. But even in French
escent.
neither the
Latin h
is
one nor the other
between the h
custom
in
is
can detect)
habit and the h
the English ear
as
sounded
;
(at any rate so far

and the only difference
in harpe
is,
that
not before the other.
So, too, in ancient
is
it
to cut off the vowel of the article before the
the
one and
Greek the only
rough and the smooth breathing may

was the custom to turn K, TT, T into x, $, 6
difference between the
have been that
it
before words which had the rough breathing, whereas before

the
this
smooth breathing they remained unaltered; while even

characteristic was effaced in the Ionic dialect.
In modern Greek, though the rough breathing

heard,
it
affects the
is
pronunciation of a preceding tenuis
not
and
4<D
Several
show
Compounds,
as eê'ros for eVeVo?, ^fBavpiov for fjuravpiov,
that the people
matter quite
have exercised
independently
of,
their instinct in this
because occasionally at va-
riance with, grammatical traditions.
They
say too, a<'
ov,
0'orov, but KOTI, aTToXovs.
The law
of compensation with regard to aspirated con-
sonants, as seen in such forms as x^ TP a

&c.,
also
losing
wdpa, X LT<* V
modern Greek;
holds good in
its x>
'
>
Ktffav,
e.g.
becomes
our comparison of modern Greek pronunciation with what appears to have been the pronunciation of
The
result of
even in the minutest particulars, so far

as we can trace them, the same phonetic laws were at work
classical times, is that
in the time of
Homer and
of Thucydides as are at work
now, and that they produced the same
Can any one
results.
anything short of a miracle could have produced so exact a coincidence, except upon the assumption
believe
that
that the pronunciation
now
identical with that of ancient times
The
until
discussed, as
in the
main
at least
consideration of the question
we have
is
prevailing
is,
however, incomplete
in the next
we propose doing
chapter, the kindred subject of Accent
and Quantity.
CHAPTER
III.
Accent and Quantity.

QUANTITY,
peyeGos,
was the foundation of ancient Greek
we shall see, by no means its only regulating

In modern Greek, quantitative verse no longer
verse, though, as
principle.
and therefore the quantity of syllables has lost the chief

That quantity was
significance which it once possessed.
ever recognized in pronunciation apart from metrical conexists,
siderations there
know
is
but small evidence to show
whereas we
were introduced by Aristophanes of Byzantium about two hundred years before Christ, in order to
that accents
preserve the true pronunciation of Greek at the time when it

was becoming the vernacular of many Oriental races. The
apparent influence which quantity had on accent is to a

the result of an
great extent, if not altogether, imaginary
The reason that dvdp>7rov is not written
artificial theory.
by no means that
a long
but simply
because avQpwnov stands for dvQpaTroaio, dvdpa>7Toio, and the
accent did not admit of being put further back than the last
avdpwnov,
syllable
is
In
but one.
simply stands for os

forward.
With regard
to
ov
TroXewr,
is
o>?
is
syllable,
no contraction, but
is not drawn
consequently the accent
modern Greek,
it
is
neither correct to say,
ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
42
with Sophocles, that all vowel sounds are isochronous, nor

with Mr. W. G. Clark ('Journal of Philology,' p. 105), 'that
the stress in
modern Greek
is exactly like our own, and is

the
sound as well as raising the voice.
given by prolonging
Thus \6yos, ovos, avdpa>7Tos are pronounced \a>yos, a>vos, av-
The examples which Mr.
6POTTOS.'
Clark adduces are correct
as regards the fact, while they sufficiently refute the assertion

of Sophocles that all vowel sounds in Greek are isochronous.
But Mr. Clark has been misled with respect to the true
explanation of the lengthening of the syllables in question,
and that not only as regards Greek, but equally as regards
English.
Neither in Greek, nor in English, has the accent or stress

any power to lengthen a vowel sound, although the absence
of accent
may
in certain cases,
and
especially in English,
tend to obliterate the sound of a vowel.
In English as in
Greek, and in almost all languages, when a syllable ends in
a consonant, the preceding vowel is short; when in a
vowel, that vowel is mostly long; a very simple and intelligible
law of compensation, which in
Hebrew
is
an estab-
lished rule.
It is surely a strange thing that most scholars should have
concurred in regarding the combination or simultaneous
recognition in pronunciation of accent and quantity, as an
insoluble
problem;
for
we
ourselves
solve
the
problem
The accent conevery sentence we utter.

as
a
short
falls
on
syllable,
tinually
getting, picking, impossible,
critical; while a long syllable, whether long by virtue of the
practically
in
number of consonants
sound of the vowel,
is
heard, or by the long or diphthongal

perpetually found without the accent
:
abnormal, financial, fe'rfile, perfume, perfect, a priori, which is

nearly always so pronounced, in spite of the fact that the
first
i is
short in Latin.
many an other imaginary
So
that
difficulty,
we may
say of this, as of
solvitur ambulando.
43
any longer believe in the reality of the

supposed conflict between accent and quantity, who considers for one moment its origin, which is nothing but our
Nobody
will
principles of Latin accentuation.
application to
Greek of the
In Latin
a rule that the accent always
it
is
falls
upon
the
penultimate when long, and in words of more than two

So that one may say that,
syllables, never when short.
wherever it is possible, the long syllables receive an accent,
and the short ones are unaccented.

Every language has
its own law of accentuation, and this was the Latin law,
we know
as far as
and natural law
it
it
from Quinctilian, and a very simple
was; but perhaps there
other language on the face of the globe
so uniform and monotonous.
stress is
is
scarcely any
whose system of
Now,
just
because
the Latin accent, however fallaciously applied to Greek, does

in a remarkable manner tend to preserve to a great extent
(though by no means completely) the quantity of syllables,

the notion has arisen that it could not be otherwise preserved.
That
this
notion
completely false
is
is
practically
shown, first in our own language, secondly in Latin, in

which we have to recognise, and do recognise, the length
of the
many long
according
to
the
Greek as spoken
which
syllables
Latin
system to
it
is
impossible
accent,
in the present day, in
and
even
lastly
in
which not only,
as in every other language, are syllables containing several

contiguous consonants long by the very nature of the
case, but of the vowels
some
are always long, as
v,
i,
01, et,
and others common, as
e,
at, a>, ov, the latter being long
or short according as they stand at the end of a syllable
or are followed by a consonant.
Besides this, it is to be
observed that
all
the
common
vowels sound short before
p.
The accent, so far from altering the quantity, only tends

to make it more distinctly heard.
For instance, ovp has
the ov always short, but this
is
far
more
distinctly
heard
44
in (frayovpa than in ovpd;

this
more
far
is
always short, but

= egepeais, than
plainly heard in egaipeais
so, too, aip is
when belonging to one syllable, are

but this strikes us more forcibly in the pro-
in aipfTiKos.
Q.S,
always short,
nunciation of
7rpayp.aTiKo>s,
os,
than in that of
CXTTT^TLOV.
Erasmus himself never recommended

Greek accent in pronunciation, and very
between accent and quantity as
distinction
his lesson into the
mouth of a
bear,
who
the disuse of the

well draws out the
follows.
is
made
He
puts
to say
There are some men so dense as to confound stress with

length of sound, while the two things are as different as
possible. A sharp sound is one thing, a long sound is another.
1
Intensiveness
yet 1
have
not the same thing as extensiveness.

And
learned men, who, in sounding the words
is
known
their
might and main,
though
could
it
is
be.
short
Why,
middle syllable with all

it has the acute accent,
the
dvexov KOI OTTÔU, lengthened
just because
by nature,
in fact as short as a syllable
the very donkeys
might
teach us
the
between accent and quantity, for they, when they

the sharp sound short, and the deep one long/
bray,
Yet Erasmus is wrong in maintaining that the syllable
difference
make
formed by the
if
by
that he
ve in di/e'ôv is
means
sound, inasmuch
as short as a syllable can be,
has the shortest possible
that the
it does,
at the end of
standing,
a syllable, it is inevitably lengthened more or less.
The
followers of Erasmus in Germany, however vicious their
as
as
pronunciation in other respects, invariably read Greek so

that the accent shall be heard, and never dream that they
are sacrificing quantity.
Our
prejudice, then, against accents is for the most part

insular, and deepened moreover by the insular peculiarities
of our pronunciation.
in
This
is
especially
the
case with
v, which we ordinarily pronounce

The result
exactly the same manner, namely as you.
respect to long
and short
45
when we want to show the difference between

lor O and short v. we have no other means open to us than
long
f this
is,
that
on the long v and leaving the short

In Tjurêi and imevQwos we pronounce the
really long, and we only distinguish between
at of laying a stress
accented.
v as jyou,
i.
e.
the long v in the one case and the short v in the other
by flying in the face of the Greek accent, and reading
In this case,
the words respectively rjvrvxfi and vTrevdvvos.
so far from preserving the true quantity by the use of the
Latin accent,
we
are only covering a false one.
foregoing considerations must have made it plain

every one who has followed them, that the Latin accent
The
an
means of
marking the right quantity of Greek syllables. Such difference of quantity as is still recognised in modern Greek and
other modern languages, so far from being obscured or
altered, is only more strongly brought out by the accent.
is
neither
an indispensable
nor
infallible
And
although, as a matter of fact, the quantities of Greek

vowel sounds at the present day no longer exactly correspond to the ancient quantities, yet it would be very easy
to
preserve and recognise the ancient quantities
if
there
were any object in so doing. It is inconceivable that the

difference between a long and a short a or i in ancient
Greek was ever anything but a very subtle and evanescent

one, to a great extent artificial and based upon the usage
of scansion; and one, as we know, singularly inconstant
and varying.
The
lengthening of o, however, seems plainly to have

occurred subject to the very same conditions as in the
present day.
"OXos and ovXop,
/3o'Ao/icu
and
/3ouAo/nai, p.6vos
and
ov\ofj.evr]v, AluXov, vovos and vovvos, all present us with

cases of o lengthened by position, that is, because it stands
before but one consonant.
do we never find irovaos and
fjiovvos,
Why
TOVCTOS,
but always
Trdo-o-oy
and roWor, when the metre requires
46
Simply because
it ?
language the
double;
and
o-
felt
and
rdo-os
i.
e.
being consonantal, the
making
that
period
early
to be, as
it
etymologically
o-
that the greater the

less the pcyedos
is,
belongs to the preceding
impossible to lengthen the vowel.
it
of the
Greek
really
standing respectively for TTOO-O-OS

(originally) jroa-tos and roVtos ; of which the
TTOO-OS
rSffo-os,
at
was
syllable,
Thus we
see
consonantal peyedos of a syllable, the
of the vowel, and vice versd.
It is
therefore
incorrect to speak of the a in /3Xa being long by position ;

it is short
by position, and that just because the syllable is
In Aio'Xou, on the other hand, the o is

consonantally long.
long by position, or at least has a tendency to become so,
though short by nature.
Having
established, then, the variable
of quantity
among
the
ancient
and uncertain nature
Greeks,
except so
and,
was of etymological significance or depended on

syllabification, its arbitrary and artificial character, we will
far as
it
proceed to enquire what was meant respectively by accent,

Trpoo-oS/o, emphasis, or stress in Greek, and how it was related
and quantitative rhythm.

G. Clark, in his Essay on English Pronunciation
of Greek,' quotes in answer to the question how emphasis
to quantity
Mr.
W.
'
given, the words of Priscian
is
'
:
Vox
scilicet altitudine,latitudine, longitudine,'

'
Thus
a syllable
1
may
tripartite
be emphasized in three ways
by raising the note
2.
by increasing the amount of sound
3.
by prolonging the sound/
'
dividitur,
and remarks thereon:
'
Emphasis,' he observes,
may be given by employing
each of these methods, or any two of them, or all three
together.'
On
go
this
we have
together.
By
only to remark, that i and 2 usually

raising the note we necessarily, if we
47
employ the same quantity of breath, also increase the sound,

inasmuch as we economize breath. So the shriller whistle
of a steam-engine,
ceteris paribus, is
always the louder.
Emphasis by prolongation, though

very rare,
'
if it
possible,
is
certainly
ever occurs.
What we blend/ Mr. Clark
'
proceeds,
both Greeks and
and 3. This is not quite

We,
Englishmen, and certainly the speakers
modern
of most
languages, do not, as we have seen, blend
together i and 3, whereas the Latins did so far blend them,
that while they never lengthened a syllable because it was
Latins kept
distinct,'
meaning
that is
accurate.
accented, they did as far as possible accent
it
where
it
was
long.
'
In modern Greek the ancient tradition
that the stress, as a rule, falls
upon
is
so far preserved
the syllable which in
ancient Greek received the accent and in pronouncing which

the voice was raised/ 'But/ continues Mr. Clark in the words
already quoted and called in question,
'
the stress in
modern
Greek is exactly like our own/ which is so far correct,

and is given by prolonging the sound as well as by raising
the note/
Even were it true that the accent sometimes con'
tributes to lengthen the
sound of a vowel,
it
would be ob-
viously only an accident of the emphasis and not part of

The many cases (and they are the majority) in which
it.
a syllable
is
accented without any lengthening of the vowel,
show that emphasis is given in modern

as in ancient Greek simply by raising the musical or quasimusical note, and not by prolonging the sound.
But Professor Max Miiller, in one of his (I believe unpublished)
were
sufficient to
lectures, has discovered
an
entirely
new
difference
between
modern accentuation, which, though nearer the

on the whole than Mr. Clark's, is also very much
ancient and
truth
at variance with
He
what
am
compelled to regard as the
fact.
says that the ancient accent indicated a musical elevation
48
of the tone, while the modern accent indicates simply stress.

But what is 'stress?' Is it not an elevation of the tone?
Mr. Clark and every one
else has allowed that,
whatever
else they may suppose it to imply.

Now the only difference
between a musical and an unmusical intonation is this, that
a musical tone consists of regular waves of sound, while

is a jarring irregular succession of un-
an unmusical tone
That the ancients spoke more musically

equal vibrations.
than we do, especially the ancient Greeks, may be readily
admitted, but that they absolutely sang all their words will
not be easily believed by any one, and would render com-
between singing and speaking,

as the literature and records of any
pletely nugatory the distinction
which
is
as old at least
known
It is then, therefore, merely a question of

people.
degree as to the regularity, that is the music, of ancient
and modern intonation. Of all cultivated languages, English
is
perhaps the
least musical,
comes German as spoken

as spoken in the south.
especially in the pulpit,
except possibly Dutch.
in the north, after that
More
Then
German
musical are French, Welsh,
But the
Spanish, and Italian.
excited in preaching or public speak-
Greeks, especially when

like a tune is
ing, intone so melodiously, that something very
heard, of which the higher notes are always the more emphatic syllables.
characteristic
that if musical intonation really
of ancient
has been most
Greek
So
Greek accentuation,
this
was
feature
The
written signs for

faithfully preserved.
attributed
to Aristoare
we
have
them,
accents, as
phanes of Byzantium, but spme kind of notation for marking

Not only does
stress must have existed before his time.
Aristoxenus, Aristotle's scholar, treat of accents, but a verse
of Euripides has been discovered with accentual marks
written
used the
accent.
on the walls of Herculaneum; and Plato himself

word 7rpo<ra>8ia, the grammarian's term for a written
It is just
possible that Trpoo-wSia
may mean
in Plato
49
but this
only the accent as heard, and not also as written,
The Greek system of accentuation bears
s not very likely.
a close affinity to that of Sanscrit.
Excepting isolated dialectic divergences, as *aXo? for KaAo'?,

which for the most part have survived in various modern
dialects of Greece, the general system of accentuation was,
high antiquity would lead us to expect, everywhere
the same, and there cannot be the smallest doubt that the
as
its
Homeric poems were accented
Now
in the
main
as
we have them.
what relation did accent stand to quantity ?

The usual reply is, that it had nothing whatever to do
with
in
and
it,
just in this very point
between modern and ancient
But
this is not the
is
said to
lie
the difference
versification.
case, for, in the first place, the
word
foundation of modern scansion, as

the quantity of syllables was the foundation of ancient Greek
versification, yet is by no means sufficient of itself to account
1
accent,' although the
run of a
for the
line.
Both
in ancient
and modern poetry
the apxireKToviKT), or sovereign science, as the Rev. G. Perkins

well points out in the 'Journal of Philology' (vol.
i.
253-263),
not metre, nor quantity, nor accent, but rhythm, to which

the former are merely subsidiary.
is
The
recognition of the dominant importance of rhythm

due mainly to Bock, and the verification and development
is
of the theory to Rossbach and Westphal, who are followed

with some modifications by Dr. Heinrich Schmidt in his work
'
Die Eurhythmie/ of which only the first part, Die

Eurhythmie in den Chorgesangen der Griechen/ has at preentitled
'
sent appeared.
The
rhythm to metre and quantity

Perkins in his essay above
Mr.
by
can hardly do better than quote his
relation of
are so well expressed
alluded
words
'
The
alone
it
to,
that
master-science, that to
exists, is
which metric
the science of rhythm.
is
The
subsidiary,
facts
and
and
for
which
details of the
50
rhythmic what shaped stones and carved timbers

but
not
are to architecture,
dictating the character of the structure,
mere metrician are
to
themselves liable to be altered in subordination to the builder's thought.
And when we consider how strong and

faculty, how we can make a clock tick to
strange indeed
if
man's
this plastic energy.
rhythm
asserts its
own
self-willed
is
the rhythmical
almost any time,
it
would be
creation, language, refused obedience to

and a most
way, in which
Well, one way,

dominion over metre
important
is,
that while recognizing
and
them of their independent character and individual ictus, and makes them parts of new and larger
groups (to which the old rhythmic still gives the name of feet}, held
together by one dominant ictus. Take for instance Tennyson's Locksley
Hall. Assuming as we must that accent not quantity determines the
dealing with the metrical
feet, it strips
relation of the syllables in English verse, the metre
is
trochaic tetra-
Yet no one would think of reading it by single

There may
with
an
trochees,
equal stress on the first syllable of each.
be some arbitrariness, more or less diversity in our modes of grouping
and accenting, but
them we do. Most readers probably break
meter
catalectic.
group
the line into two rhythmical feet, each of four trochees, allowing for
the catalexis in the last half; though they might not be equally agreed
about the syllables on which to place the ictus. The scanning of some
of the classical metres by dipodiae instead of single feet, which is generally recognized as essential to the beauty of the verse, is itself a
rhythmical rather than a metrical process.

But rhythm does more than combine a succession of metrical feet
'
into a larger rhythmical foot with a single ictus.

It takes liberties
with metrical quantity, and declares that under certain circumstances
a spondee or a dactyl shall be delivered as a trochee, that the a 2

relation shall for the time cease, and become, if not precisely 2:1,
:
something
sufficiently
The proof that
near to pass for
the
it.'
modern rhythmicians
are right in their
is, that they have reduced the seeming anarchy

of Choric and Pindaric verse to order, law, and rhythmical
principle
harmony, appreciable even by our modern

before was mere prose they have rendered
ears.
What
into
poetry.
Quantity, then, is not all in all in ancient Greek poetry,

neither is accent all in all in modern verse.
Here
at
once the absolute opposition between accent
51
quantity is somewhat softened as soon as they appear

but subordinate parts of a higher unity, namely rhythm.
not wholly disregarded

impossible that it should be so.
Again, the quantity of syllables
in
modern poetry;
Glanced must be
is
it
is
to be a longer syllable than met; the

tongue cannot possibly get over the one in the same time
that
it
felt
gets over the other
strongest ictus always
be
felt
to
fell
and English verses
in
which the
the shortest syllables
upon
would
compare Lord
of Cowper, he must
If any one will
be intolerably bad.
Derby's translation of the Iliad with that

see that just in this respect the
rhythm of the former
To
superior to that of the latter.
illustrate
is
by an extreme and, as regards Cowper, merely fictitious

let us suppose that where Lord Derby translates
Prone
'
in the dust
he gnashed the brazen
which (rhythmically) would have sounded

it been
'
far
the difference
case,
point,'
still
Prone on the ground he gnashed the brazen
better
had
point,'
Cowper had rendered

'
which
Upon a sod he
is
'
bit a
metal head/
rather worse in point of rhythmical grandeur than

Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled pepper.'
But how much worse
may the rhythm be made, by

has no ictus, thus (the
which
lengthening every syllable
reader must excuse the time-honoured practice of nonsense
still
verses),
'
And
Stretched thus each bit each other's leg and head.'
yet the ictus
falls far
more
regularly (in as far as ictus

as identical) than in Lord
and word-accent may be regarded

Derby's noble
line.
Not only then
is
accent not everything
modern poetry, but quantity is plainly something. If we

now show that accent too was something in ancient
Greek poetry, then the difference between quantitative and
in
can
52
accentual rhythm will resolve
rhythm
in
all
itself into
one of degree, and
will appear the one great unifying principle, the all

of both modern and ancient verse.
Now, as Mr.
'We may
Clark remarks,
Elenchis,
c. iv.)
infer
from Aristotle (De Soph.
was heard
that the accent
in the recitation
of Homer, and from the famous story of the mistake made

by the actor Hegelochus in line 279 of the Orestes of Euripides,
we may
infer that
it
was heard
also in stage dialogue.'
Republic (399 a), Socrates, who is discussing with Adimantus which are the best kinds of music
for educating the warrior classes in his ideal city, says, OVK
Again,
in Plato's
olda ras appovias'
dXXa
KardXeiTre
JJ.OL
fKcivr/v rrjv apfioviav,
TroXe/UK// Trpdêi OVTOS avftpfiov Kal ev Trdar)
av
p.ip,r]craiTO
(pdoyyovs T
i]
ev re
/3iaia> fpy curia irpcTrovrcof
KOI Trpocrcodias.
This not only proves that in lyric poetry the accents had
some significance, but it shows moreover that there were
certain tunes, or classes of tunes, in which the rhythmical,
which as rhythmicians
tell
us,
must have been
also
the
musical, beat, coincided more or less with the natural enun-
and the accentual
ciation
On
the other
US, Aet
TTJV
cxpavfls
Troielo-dai.
(pcovfjv
stress.
hand Aristoxenus, a pupil of

ev
r<5
/ueXco&eii/
Now
ras
p-ev
Aristotle, tells
eVrmzcreis
Kal dvecreis
there are two ways in which the
natural or accentual stress of words
may be
obscured, either
by the musical beat (time) running counter to it, or by the

musical note rising just where in the natural stress the voice
would be depressed.
In modern verse some account
is
nearly always taken of
same time we often have two distinct

a
musical
one, and a metrical or accentual one
rhythms,
the accent, but at the
or
indeed
rhythm
cess
is
we may
say,
that
every accentual
or
metrical
capable of being accommodated (and in the pro-
of accommodation, more
various musical rhythms.
The
or less sacrificed) to very

musical rhythm modifies or

Disturbs the natural or accentual,
of
ictus,
its
called
it)
both by the non-coincidence
and by the lengthening
Greek song the
(or
Thus
of certain syllables.
53
TOVTJ
Greeks
as the
in a popular
modern
lines
ApeS/rare iraXiv epacrral ev$aip.ovas vap<i(r(rovs y
'Ho TOV Matou rovs Tfpirvovs KOL evwdeis TrapaSeicrovs'

Kat
TTJV
Trapdevov ore\|mrf
'Eyco 8ev
Si'
KOTTTCI)
fj.e'
fjris
cos
avdos K\ivei'
drredavcv fKfivrj
becomes, when sung,

|
'llo
TOV-OV-OV pal
Kai
fvcoSets
Kat
TTJV
'E-yw
Sei/
Xiv e-e-e-poorot
Trd
Ape\/ra-a-a-T
ov TOV-OVS reprrvovs
Kal ei/coSeis ira
TTO.-
Trap6e--vov oreâ-a-are
KOTTTCO
For the most
Si
part,
e/ie,
-paftfi-eiI
TJTIS a>s
u-a-avdos K\iVflfieifi
diredavev fKfi-Ct-fi-tl-vfi.
however,
we may
say that the musical
must bear a very close relation to the

closer, may we infer, was the relation be-
rhythm, in English,
accentual.
Still
tween musical time and rhythm with ancient Greeks, inasmuch as all their quantitative measures seem to have been
formed with a
own
an
verse
is
direct view to music,
whereas
accommodated
much
of our
to a tune
only accidentally
by
or vice versd, the composer and the poet
after- thought,
being usually two different persons.

The difference then between a recited and a sung verse
would be found in Greek neither in the metre nor in the
'
rhythm, but only in the tone, that is, the elevation,' of the
voice.
In other words, in recitation the accent was heard
;
might certainly be felt, as with us, but as far

as sound goes it was swallowed up in the music.
This is
the view of Dr. Heinrich Schmidt (Eurhythmie, p. 13), according to whom the verse ictus = a louder sound, the word
in singing
it
54
accent = musical elevation of
Mr. Clark, in the Essay

above referred to, propounds a view exactly the opposite,
supposing that the accent was heard in recitation only by
means of an increase in the amount of sound, i. e. by the
forte.
accented syllables being sounded louder than the

if this
were
came of
rest.
But
Mr. Clark's theory, beand the rhythm ? For he says, When
so, what, according to
'
the ictus
the rhapsodists recited epic
assembled multitudes
at
poems
Olympia or
in the
open
Crissa, they
air to
the
must have
chanted in monotone or nearly so, else they could not have

been heard by the vast audience. So also in the theatres,
who had
make themselves
audible to thirty
thousand spectators, must have chanted the dialogue in a
kind of ad libitum recitative.' How then, one naturally asks,
the players
to
was the ictus of the verse represented ? Not by more forcible

or louder utterance, for that, according to Mr. Clark, was the
in
way
fact
which
ictus,
is
elevation
excluded by monotone.
The
the very essence of rhythm, has been
because that
is,
Not by
which the word-accent was shown.
in the pitch,
is
He supposes that
overlooked by Mr. Clark altogether.
quantity constitutes the essence of rhythm. A more complete
mistake could not be made. A number of long and short
may lie together in the order in which they stand in
a hexameter verse, but ictus alone can separate them into
syllables
by a magician's touch, clothe the dead skeleton

of syllables with the life and vigour of a rhythmical succes-
bars, and, as
Mr. Perkins, in his Essay above quoted, well remarks

and we may
that we can make a clock tick to any time
the
add, a railway train often seems, by
rattling of its wheels
sion.
over the regular intervals made by the joining of the rails,

to beat time to a great variety of tunes, according as our
fancy, or perhaps an occasional jolt, causes us to place the
ictus here or there.
the hexameter,
if
Now
the ictus
this
would be
just the result with
had not been
distinctly given

the pause at the end of the
done something, but very
line,
and the
55
quantity,
would have
ear
towards leading the
little,
towards the right ictus, and the

would have been as uncertain, or nearly
general rhythmical effect

so, as the ticking
a clock or the jolting of a railway train.

must then have been to show the ictus.
took care of the
ictus,
The main
If
the
of
thing
reciter
the accent would take care of
itself.
Certainly the accent would only be heard in as far as the

departed from the completeness of monotone.
recitative
And some
for to
such slight departure did,

chant in perfect monotone is
I
all
doubt not, occur;

but as impossible
of execution, as it is wearisome to the ear. Yet, I must

It is
confess the great difficulty here is a practical one.
very hard to realize the distinction between a high and a
loud note, not indeed in theory, but in practice. It is hard

to say whether in the language of ordinary life syllables are
emphasized by being pronounced in a louder tone or in a
higher key
seem always
the two
this is really the difficulty to the

tive verse
is
not
how
practically
at the
same time
go hand
modern
in hand.
And
reciter of quantita-
combine quantity with accent, that

and is a problem which we solve
to
a very simple thing,

in every sentence
and
to
we
utter
but
how
to
combine,
distinguish, the accent of the word,
and the ictus or beat of the verse. Yet, after all, the difficulty
As we have before observed,
is one of small significance.
be
the accent would
always felt, whether heard or not, and
could be no more mentally ignored than
song, where very frequently
musical beat.
it
is
it is
in a
modern
in direct opposition to the
That notice was taken of the accent in writing verses will

we cannot
appear from the following considerations. First,
in modern song, where the musical
even
accent
the
ignore
beat by no
Here,
if
means
necessarily coincides with the accentual.
the coincidence
is
too
marked and
constant,
we
get
56
a jingling
and monotonous
musical beat
we
feel at
is
at
always
effect.
If,
on the other hand, the
variance with the accentual, then
once that the tune was never made
for the words.
same relation should we a priori suspect to

between the rhythm ( = scansion = musical beat) of a
Greek verse and its accentual emphasis.
In other words,
Precisely the
subsist
we should expect
the accent as a rule neither wholly to

coincide nor wholly to clash with the scansion, and this
is
Those lines in the ancient poets in
precisely the case.
which accent and rhythmical ictus exactly coincide, as well as
those in which they are exactly opposed, are the exceptions,

occasionally introduced no doubt by way of variety, but
avoided as a
Of
coincide, I
'
rule.
which the accentual and quantitative rhythm

borrow the following examples from Mr. Sophocles'
lines in
Modern Greek Grammar/ and
'
Glossary of Later and
Byzantine Greek/ pp. 21 and 50 respectively.

ii.
Iliad,
188:
OvTiva
Odyssee,
ii.
/3ao*iAâ
121
ii.
Tacoi>
Ib.
fJiiv
OVTIS
225
Kai
i/OT^tara
Ofjioia
Aristophanes, Ach. 68
"Avbpa Ttdcavbv
HrjvfXoTreirj.
ap.vfji.ovos
?]v eVat/)or.
o~TrapaTT(i)V
Kai
rapuTTW
/cat
KVK.WV,
Eq. 317:
Tots aypoiKOKrtv iravovpytos uxrre
Ib.
Ki^fiij.
MefTcop 6? p* 'oSvffTjo?
Ib.
avdpa
el-oxov
Vesp. 38
Ib. Lys.
Kav
310:
p.r)
KaXovvTGiV rou? no%\ovs
(})aiveo~dai
rra\v.

many more
sophocles gives
tf
which might no
instances,
doubt be considerably multiplied.
He also adduces, among others, the following examples

of a double rhythm, the one accentual, the other quantitative.
Quantitative Trochaics.
Aeschylus, Pers. 157-159:
*Q
J3a6vd>va>v avcurcra II(p(ri8a>v VTrepTarr)
Mr)TT)p
Qeov
Hv
SZepgov yepcua, âlpe,
r)
TL
Aaptiov yvvat.
evvarfipa Hsparwv, 6fov Se KOL
p.ev
(jLTj
8aifj.cov
e<pvs,
p-rjTrjp
TraXatof .....
Aristophanes, Ach. 676, 712, 718; Nub. 576, 585:

Ot yepoi/res
Tot?
TrnAaioi p.jj,<pop.(rda
oi
veoicri
Tbv yepovTa
rat
yap
yepovri,
v/zti/
els
i'S'
TOV veov ê
p.efjKpop.fO'ff
tavrbv evdeus
Accentual iambic tetrameters, or

as
all
the
modern Greek popular
Tro'Xei.
rfj
XaXoy â) K\eiviov.
evpvTrpaxros KOI
5'
vew.
TO)
emvriovi
vve\KV(ras.
o-n'xot TroXm/co/,
the
same
ballads.
Accentual Trochaics.
Ib.
Nub. 1045; Vesp. 241, 244; Lys. 313, 365:
KamH
riva
2i/n/3Xoi>
'ETT'
Se
avrbv
yva>fj.rjv
(pacri
a>s
Tts ûXXa/Soir'
e^cov ê'yeis TO. depfia Xovrpa
xpr]âr(>v
fX ftv
Ko\ovp,fvovs o)V
civ
TOV
"
7ray7 e ?
^Si'/cT/crev*
avrov.
aXXa.
v\ov T>V ev Sajuaj
Quantitatively scanned, these have the rhythm of the

Tj-oXiTiKo's-,
more
usually found as an accentual measure.
Rare as such exceptions
are,
we cannot
attribute
them
to
Their comparatively frequent occurrence in Aristophanes is in itself suggestive. Is it not extremely probable
that such lines were inserted by the poet, that it might be
accident.
58
optional to the actor, as he judged best for comic effect,

either to say or sing them, that is, to
say them according
to the accent, or to sing them according to the
quantity ?
That accentual rhythm was perfectly well understood by

the ancients, and was in fact among some nations at least
much
older than quantitative,
nian measure
old
German
the
same
among
poetry, as the
Romans,
'
The
almost certain.
is
Satur-
the epic metre of the
Niebelungenlied/ are essentially
as the English popular measure, so often found
in nursery rhymes,
'A
the
and
ballads.
captain bold of Halifax,
Byron compares,
who
lived in country quarters,'
with
EiTre p.as
Kai
We
TTJV
2>
(pi\(X\rjva irS)S <pepeis rfjv
a.7rapay6pr)Tov TO>V
cncAa/SiW
TOVDKUV rvpavviav.
have just seen the same metre, both accentual and
quantitative, in Aristophanes.
In Latin and German
form
1
it
occurs in a somewhat mutilated
as indeed not unfrequently in English,
e. g.
The king was in his counting house, counting out his money,
The queen was in her parlour, eating bread and honey.'
|
In the
first
line,
if
we
divide
it
into
two
Ko>An,
to use the
language of the rhythmicians, we get an external catalexis,

in the
which we must remedy either by pause or by TOVTJ
second line we have both internal and external catalexis,
:
which we must remedy, the
by
first
by
TOVTJ,
and the second
or pause.
Compare the Saturnian verse:
TOVJ]
Quod
re sua difeidens dspere afleicta

hc'ic vovit voto hoc soliito
Parens timens
Decuma
facta poloiicta leibereis lubentes.
More uncouth and

metre
truncated
still
is
the old
German
epic

'
59
Gunther und Hagen die Recken wohl gethan.

Beriethen mit Untreuen ein'n Birschen in den
Tann
Mit ihren scharfen Spiessen wollten sie jagen gehn

Baren, Schwein und Biiffel was konnte kiihnres g'schehn.'
;
How
'
such lines/ observes Mr. Clark, referring to the

iriKoi above
quoted, would have puzzled Aristoxe'
nus or Dionysius
'
!
Dionysius himself gives us a pretty clear answer

question what he would have thought of the accentual modern heroic measure, when he gives as accentual
I think
to
the
the following lines which scan precisely in the
(rrpoarwdiKovs)
same way
Ou
/SejS^Xos
8'
Kayo)
MS Xeyerai TOV veov Aiovucrov
fêpyao-irjs
[reading corrupt] wpyiaa-^vos
Hephaestion's Enchiridion completes the

IleXovo'iaKoi'
We
that question
more
it
What was
return to the question,
accent in quantitative rhythm

will
thus
Kf(paios Trapa TeXâ.
now once more
will
k'OSet'CDi'
the value of the
triplet
jyxoj.
be necessary
to
To
answer
remind the reader once
rhythm is the dpxireKToviKr] of all verse, and

and
accent only the subordinate means of which
quantity
rhythm is the end. But rhythm would inevitably degenerate
that
into jingle
if it
were not
verse which scans too
and
some counteracting tendency.

easily runs away with the reader,
for
rattles off with ever-increasing
Now
there are two available
rattling tendency.
Both are
rhythm.
speed
like a railway train.
means of checking
The one
is
this jingling
quantity, the other
is
or
accent.
whether in quantitative or in accentual

Accentual rhythm is perhaps more liable than
available,
quantitative to degenerate into jingle, because the natural
accent of each word gives at once the rhythmical ictus ; the

verse consequently tends to scan itself.
This tendency may
be remedied partly by the inherent quantity of certain long
60
upon which no accent
falls
by introducing
which
is given by the general or
accentual
scansion, and
pervading
the actual stress on particular words; so that the wordaccent shall only generally, and not in every case, represent
the rhythmical beat. Both means are needed, because, firstly,
syllables
an occasional variation between
partly
that rhythmical ictus
accentual rhythm, quantity is of so little account, that

retarding tendency is not sufficient of itself to prevent
in
its
a verse from becoming jingling and monotonous; and

secondly, the variation in accent must be restrained within
narrow
it would
spoil the music of
somewhat monotonous and
limits, or
Compare
the
the rhythm.
jingling
rhythm
of the ordinary modern Greek

y
KaXu
ttov
To
TO f-ôvv
TO.
Set/
\dpov
KaXoKcu'pi
/Sovfa,
Xdpov
Travreôvve,
7rpo/3ara,
fiv
KaX6p.oip
KOI TOV êt/xcoj/a %iovia.
Tpfis dvo~p(op.voi /SouXozreu TOV adrj va
'O evas Xeyei, TOV Mai' va
(3yfj,
TOVS filXyo-fv OVTOV
t-avOrj
dvo'pa>p.evoi
p,f,
povrovv
TO.
p.ov,
pov^d
'
'Eya> TO
pavâ ftydvu
Kai Ta KaXiyoTraTTOfTO'a
HdpTC
Na
Na
va
7raa>,
va i8a
Kopjj,
'K.oprj,
ifiw
f]
p.dvva
with the lines quoted above
Aptyare
TOV
(pvcrovv
KOI
p.ds voydet 6
KOI
TO.
/^laXXta
TO.
Ta
/iaXXta
Xapoy.
Koj3u>,
o~Ku\a T dmGovo).
e'/ie '$
p,ov,
TTCO?
TOV Trdvo)
ffklftorai
KOQ-/LIOI/,
yui
pov, TTWS K\aiovv yia
r* ddepfpia
crov 's
(f)V\\a.
KOI
T d8ep(pia o~ov
<rc'va
o-fva
T^ pdvva
KaXo/catpt,
TO.
TOV KUTO)
ep.e 's
TTJV
dv8pa>p.voi p.nv,
p,e,
Trao),
'
TO,
's
's
(TOV,
KOI TO Ka\iyi crov,
ro'ctKiVoui',
aAXoj TO
K' 6 TplTOS TO XlVOTTtopO, TTOV TTffpTOWe

Koprj
ol
8ev Kaprepovve'
fls
TTJV
TOV
xP
povya Ko
7rd\iv (pao-Toi fuSm'/uovar vopKiaraovs
'Ho TOV Maiov TOVS Tfprrvovs KOI
eutoSety

Lai
TrapQevov ort'\ârf,
TTJV
'Eya> 8ev Korrrco BL eue'
Aev
KOTTTft
XAeudei
Awarat
dvepao~Tos
TTJV
K\d($ov TrXeov'
p.vpo~i.vr)s
Kwrrdpio-anv,
TTevBifj-a,
K* eya) riyarrqcra TTOTC, K

e'A
Afv dvai 6
(tXlffl*
obvvrjv TOV TO avBos TO a>paiov.
fj.di>oi>
dez/
livdos
dirtBavev eKftvq,
Bfftaprjufvrjs KeâXr)? ro
AXXu
cos
rjris
61
1707x01/77 era
Ma'toy
jSios
juercoTroi/
e'ya)
dvTrjyaTrrjdrjv'
<pev
TT\T)V
va Spe^y
va are^?/.
e\r)(T^.ovf)6r]v.
atclu/tos*
6eV
MapatVoj/rai at dvdrjpal TOV epu>Tos
Kat (pfvyfi
'Os
Here
vfGTTjs p,as,
f)
op/cot (Trade POTATO? els
will
it
metre for
acrrpaTrr)
<rrr]Qr)
yvvaiKfla.
be observed Speâre stands as regards the
8pe\â're,
epaorat for cpao-rat,
for Swarat, dvdrjpal for
on
a>s
ftvQrjptu,
jfrt?
for
jyri?,
for aorpaTrr;,
do-rpaTrr)
8Ji/art
and SO
the word-accent sometimes clashing with the ictus, as
in Speâre, Swarat,
fainter ictus, as in
sometimes standing
in the place of the
The
quantity
of certain syllables has also a retarding influence, as in
Stands irrationallter for am/yon-rî/.
I
dvTr)yairr}6riv, which
do-Tpairrj, peftaprjuevris, KetyaXris.
consider the above one of the most perfect examples I have

in any language, of melody without monotony, and
met
rhythm relieved from
jingle.
In quantitative verse the same principles may be seen

at work, but as accent is here the secondary element, and
one rather
retarding
felt
force
than heard, the influence of quantity as a
comes more prominently forward.
hexameter, according to
consisted of dactyls, as
'AvSpd
p,oi
('went
its
Movaa
original
The
rhythmical intention,
7ro\vTpo7rov os p.d\a rroAXa,
with one spondee at the end to indicate, as it were, that

the rhythm had run itself out of breath, and must
pause,
before beginning again.
Here the long syllables, with the
62
exception of the final syllaba anceps, all receive the ictus.

Spondees were then substituted for dactyls, in the hexameter
verse
'Tardior ut paullo graviorque rediret ad aures.'

It
is
true that, metrically, the long syllable
as equal to two
is
is
regarded
short syllables, but the rhythmical effect
now, long syllables occur without the

one doubts that the spondaic hexameter is slower
different, because,
No
ictus.
and more majestic than the dactylic. A stronger measure

was adopted to restrain the impetuosity of the iambic tragic
in
verse,
accordance with the principle that Rest
chief characteristic of
Greek tragedy.
Here
is
the
alternate
in
feet long syllables were substituted for short at the discretion

of the poet. The ear tells us at once why the long syllables
were only allowed in the first half of each perpov: that is,
before the second, and not before the fourth syllable. These
second syllables received the stronger ictus
therefore the
;
long syllable immediately preceding was parhad a long syllable stood before the
effect of the
tially
neutralized
weaker
ictus,
it
would have
overpowered
it,
and
spoilt
the rhythm.
So much
check
We
for the influence of quantity considered as
to the rapidity of rhythm.

shall
now proceed
to
show
that accent
had
also a real
though a secondary importance in this respect. The verses

of Virgil are acknowledged to run more smoothly than
those
of
because
Lucretius.
Why?
Mainly,
without
doubt,
scan accentually as well as quantitatively,

not indeed completely, or they would be mere jingle, but
Virgil's
comparatively.
Compare,
'
for instance
tii
patulae recubans sub tegmine fagi
Silvestrem, tenui Musam meditaris avcna,'
Tityre,
63
with
Quorum Agrigentinus cum
'
primis Empedocles
est.'
The fact is, Virgil seems to have exquisitely struck the

mean between lines that scan themselves and lines that can
None read like mere prose, none are
ardly be scanned.
ere jingle.
Lucretius mostly fell into one of the two opposite extremes.

Either his lines read accentually, are mere prose, or they
scan themselves, which, though with him a rarer, is a yet
greater defect.
'
.iuch
Hie
lines
E.g.
est vasta
Charybdis et hie Aetnaea minantur.'
and are
are great favourites with schoolboys,
proportionately rare in Virgil.

If we compare the Latin hexameter with the Greek,
main
find the
shall
difference to consist in this
that
we
in
Latin, accent and ictus nearly always coincide at the end

of the verse, the contrary being only possible when the last
word
is
a monosyllable, as in
I'
Empedocles
inasmuch as the
last
e"st
odora canum
syllable but
invariably receives the stress.
one
in
'
vis
Latin,
if
long,
In Greek, on the other hand,
such endings as
aXye' edrjKC,
are
Aavaol(riv
dpyyuv
common.
Greek verse has thus the advantage of very great variety

as compared with Latin.
At the same time, the relation
of accent and ictus is so nicely observed, that there is hardly
in
all
Homer
a line which, accentually read, sounds like
mere prose.
The same holds good of iambic verse, while in the choric
measures there is nearly always an accentual rhythm, which,
64
is
does not exactly coincide with the quantitative,
it
though
generally sufficient to indicate

'lo>
ODS
yevfdi.
TIS
Tis yap,
TCLS
f)
example
KOI TO /n^5
dvrjp
TrAe'oj/
evdatp-ovias (pepei
a.7roK\ivai
'
TOI TrapaSety//
(TOV
TOV o~bv Sat/zova, TOV vov,
Or
for
TOCTOVTOV oaov do<elv
KOI 5oaz>r'
To
ftporwv,
"(ra.
vp.cis
it
 y\<acr(rr)s d<paTi]s.
Here
the last line gives the clue to the quantitative scansion,
but a regular accentual rhythm runs through the first two.

In the iambic trimeter the Greeks seem specially to have
avoided the regular coincidence of ictus and accent at the

end of a line. The immense majority of verses, whether in
Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, or Aristophanes, have no
accent on the last syllable, and at least thirty out of every
the accent on the last syllable
fifty will be found to have
but one.
became a
The
later imitators
observed
this,
and
it
finally
end of every iambic verse should be

The same desire to check the
accented on the penultimate.
too rapid run of the iambic trimeter was the origin of the
rule that the
choliambic verse.
cented on the
last
All the choliambics of Babrius are acsyllable but one.
Thus,
in the desire to
into the opposite extreme

avoid jingle, the later poets
of harsh monotony, which the fine taste of the great originals
There is, then, a law in the very
enabled them to avoid.
fell
lawlessness of the Ancients
'
Ars
est celare artem.'

What has been
65
called the clashing of the accentual with the
quantitative beat constitutes the real beauty of quantitative
measure.
It
this
is
TVTTOS
which makes the charm and
dvTiTVTTos
melody of the old heroic verse. The accent and quantity

of these two words as well as the thought expressed in them
:eem to me exactly to embody the idea of beauty in quantiwhich
tative versification,
is,
as beauty always
Where both
of contrasts.
is,
the
harmony
coincide, as very rarely in Epic
poetry,
'
Indignor quandoque bonus dormitat Homerus,'
ien the other part of the line

(in which, happily for
this
coincidence
takes
llustration,
place) is realized
my
Kal
eVt Tr^/zcm
Ttr]\L
The rhythm of Greek

and
centual,
to
is
KfZrai.
prose was, no doubt, wholly acif read
my mind completely destroyed
according to the Latin accent, as
and
I will give as
universities.
is
done
in our schools
an example the concluding
words of Aeschines' oration against Ctesiphon

a)
ovv
[icv
TO.
ft1
fteV
0)
yrj
Kal
Ka\a Kal
rj\if
TO.
Kal dperr] Kal crvveo'is Kal TraiScia,
alcr^pd, fteftorjOriKa Kal flprjKa.
77
Kal
Ka\S)s Kal ai(os TOV d8iKr)p.aTos KaTrjyoprjKa, flirov a>s fj3ov-
fipr)neva>v \6ya>v
Kai CK TO>V 7rapaAfAetju/ifi>a)j/ avTol TO. 8iKaia <al
Ta
o~v/Ji<f)epovTa virep TTJS TroXecos \lsr](pi(rao'6.
Compare the following words from the conclusion of a

modern Greek funeral oration on Lord Byron
:
2v
8e,
(f>pio~o~ts
TO
VTTfprj(f>avov
o~rjp,pov djro
edatpos
TOV OTTOLOV
O-QU,
ol
2OYAI,
eprjfjiov
TOVS fyovs TOV
Krj8evop,ev
6<p6a\p,oi}
f)p.els
Kal
eyKaraXeAftfi/tevoi/,
?roXe/iou,
rjo-i/x^s
TCKVOV
dia iravrbs KXfio~6evTes }
TOVS
eva>
6opvj3ovvTas
<rou
8ev 6a
irpocr(pi\es,
o~e
66
In conclusion, with regard to the practical question, how

are to pronounce Greek, I can only state, from my per-
we
sonal experience and that of others similarly circumstanced,

my unalterable conviction, that the man who has once
learned to read Greek fluently, with accent and intonation

as the Greeks read it, will never be able to tolerate either
Homer or Xenophon or Sophocles read with the Latin

accent and the miscalled Erasmian pronunciation.
Any one who has followed the arguments and evidence
adduced in the preceding chapter, must, I am sure, be
convinced that the way in which the ancient Greeks pro-
nounced
language was
their
at least far
Greek pronunciation, handed down

unbroken
more
as
like the present
has been by an
it
of tradition, than the wholly arbitrary system

which the followers of Erasmus have invented while few
line
have ever questioned, I may say among continental scholars

no one has ever doubted, the propriety of reading Greek
according to the accent.
moreover, the Greek accent alone preserves the true

rhythm of the noble orations of Demosthenes if a practical
If,
familiar sense of
to
show
it
good one,
is
absolutely necessary, as I have tried
in order to distinguish a
is,
is
it
it
not time
bad verse from a
we abandoned, once and
for ever,
method, whose only justification is that it

enables Englishmen to speak Greek so that, in the words
of Fuller, they can understand one another, which nobody
a barbarous
subjoin a short sentence, with an interlinear

English transcription embodying the chief peculiarities of
else
can?
modern Greek pronunciation:

*O ovpavos Kcii 17 yrj OVK eVAao^trai/
O ooranos tkeh ee yee ook eplastheessan
Ti>x6r](Tav
teekhtheessan
oXiyov
KOT'
oleeghon
kat'
o\iynv
ole^ghon
ov8\
fiiBvs,
aXXa
avtir-
ephthe^ss
alia
anep-
ol
oodh, ee
(ivdpconoi
01
viol
anthropee
ee
ee-e6

rov
Qenv
too
theoo eebhr^theessan exephneess
<
TOV
eai(pvr)<;
rjvpfffrjtrav
TOV
ftdQovs
rAeiot
a)S
telee-ee
oas tkSh neen
KOI
o~KOTovs
6j
teal
âoTiK^s
ovS'
vvv,
oodh'
(rvyxyo'fws
ek too bhahthooss too skoa-tooss tkeh khaoteekeess seengkhe6ss8oss

dyyf\(DV
o~d\7Tiyiv
angelloan salpeengxeen proekleetheessan
aAXa
dyaTTwa-t,
TIOVTS,
(rcoTijpias
ahlah peri -tees eh-ahphtoan
ah-gh-ah-poassee
<pevyov(ri
aoTr\iav,
TTJV
deezondess phebhghoossee
iroXffjLOV
ton-bolemon
oodhfe
lavT&v
rfjs
TTfpl
TOV
ovSe
7rpoK\fi6r)o~av,
teen ah-oa-plee-ahn
(pv&fi
feessee
(frpov-
soateereâhss phronKOI
e^TTiTrrova-iv
tkgh
embeeptoosseen
epicri
KOI
p,d)(ais,
KOI
TTJV
avdrjv
TOV
"Apeos
erreessee
tkgh
mahkhehss
tkSh
teen
ah-bhdheen
too
'Ahrfios
ai
p.avddvov<n.
phthenggestheh mahnthahnoossi.
N.B.
there
is
The
circumflex accent sounds as the acute,
no reason
to think that this
and
was ever otherwise
way of recording the fact

had swallowed up a barytone by
the circumflex being simply a

that
an oxytone
syllable
means of contraction
the acute accent, therefore,
is
the predominating one, while the grave would be
plainly
felt
just
form was present to the

becomes dyairq, there is no reason
in proportion as the uncontracted
mind.
When
dycnrd-cl
lum, which
is
by
is
is
is
As
the acute.
that the syllable
as
heard any more than the IWTO subscripswallowed up by the a, just as the grave accent
to think that the
to the written grave accent,
on which
it
it
indicates
stands receives a slight stress
compared with the unaccented syllables, but one which

almost lost by comparison with the accent of the word
which follows
it
reads almost as
so that a word accented on the
if it
were part of the next.
last syllable
CHAPTER
On
IV.
the Origin and Development of
Modern
Greek Accidence.
IF the question were asked, what is the origin of the

Greek of the present day ? is it the offshoot of Byzantine
literature, the creation
and
sophists,
in the
of Church fathers, or of philosophers,

is its source to be looked for
rhetoricians, or
common
dialect of the
Ptolemaic
era, in the
idioms of
Dorians, Aeolians, and Boeotians, or the vulgarisms of the
Athenian market-place
it
had
its
beginning in
none of them
in
the true answer, perhaps,
none of these and
alone, and
in all of
in all of
would
them
be,
:
in
them together.
In speaking of the history of a language we should bear

mind the distinction between its outer and inner part, the
form and the matter, the skeleton of grammar, and the life
which makes that skeleton a living body with a living soul.
These two
parts of language should never
and yet
is
there
is
be confounded,
sometimes hard to keep them separate. For
an essential, as well as an actual connection between
it
them, which
The mere
may be
set forth as follows.
shapes and changes of words in a language

its grammar, while the thought of which these
called
be
may
shapes and changes are the expression may be spoken of as
ON MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE.
69
the metaphysic of the age to which it belongs.

But between this outer part the grammar, and this inner part
the thought, comes a third something, which is neither
altogether outward nor altogether inward, and which, for
want of a better name, we may call the logic of a lan-
guage, or the way in which

in words.
the thought
finds
utterance
Now, just as the metaphysic of one age will tend to become the logic of the next, so logic will in its turn become
petrified into grammar, as we shall soon see by examples in
Hence the difficulty of drawing a
the language before us.
rigid line of demarcation
and
the thought
itself.
between the mere vehicle of thought

Grammar and thought, linked as
they are in the nature of the case by logic, which is the way
which the one finds utterance in the other, merge together
in
by scarcely felt degrees, like the waves of the stream of time

which bears them along, so that it is often hard to say
whether we are treading in the domain of philosophy
or of grammar, or lingering on the border-land between
the two.
The combination
however no
nomena
of causes in producing
excuse for confusing them,
are to be explained
phenomena is
when those phe-
and when we are attempting to

we must beware of attri-
write the history of a language,
We
buting every change and development to one source.

should begin by inquiring whether there be any part of
language which is quite independent of the progress of
human thought. If there be, we may then proceed to inquire what are the causes which
Then we can go on
may have
affected
its
de-
to consider the influence
velopment.
of intellectual progress on such part of language as must
be considered liable to be affected by it.
Nor can we be long in admitting that there

language which may be changed independently
is
that in
of the ad_
ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
70
vance of thought, or remain unchanged in spite of it and

this is the mere form which words or inflections assume,
which is a very different thing, it must be remembered, from
;
in their
changes
usage and meaning
To make
disuse or introduction.
It
or,
again,
from
their
by an example.
this clear
plainly, as regards the history of thought, a matter of
is
indifference whether the
word
olvos
be written with or without
a digamma, whether we write cvrl as in Doric, eo-rt as in

Attic, or five as in modern Greek, whether ecouroi) as in
Herodotus, eavroC or avTov. It is very different when the

Homeric demonstrative 6, 17, TO becomes the simple article,
or
when
the infinitive
the subjunctive with
mood
in later
Greek
In accordance with the above remarks

the following pages,
words and
is
supplanted by
tva.
first,
to
is
it
proposed
in
consider the mere forms of
or the purely outward part of the

then
the
;
structure, in which the movement
of thought already begins to play a part
finally, the use
and formation of words, in which the inner life of the laninflections,
Greek language
guage
attains its greatest significance.
First, then, as to
I.
It
this
mere grammatical forms
THE ACCIDENCE
OF
or,
MODERN GREEK.
must not be supposed

head
is
in
common
of educated men.
that every form discussed under

use in the language of literature and
The
cultivated language
for the
most
part preserves the grammatical forms of the age of Thucydides, avoiding, as a rule, all the extremities of the later
Attic dialect, as, for instance, 6d\arTa for &iXa<ro-n,
povrjvos
for
xtpvovrjo-os.
In the language of the
people, however, the following peculiarities

noticed.
or x fp~
common
may be
briefly
O^ MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE.

a.
o'a,
and words
in the plural
b.
made
like
it,
make
Jl
in the genitive
TIJS
dogas,
dais, ace. ral? Soâty = ray Sd|a9.
fj
host of nouns belonging to different declensions are

Thus rap-ias, "A\vs, Mapi-i?, Or Mdprrjt,
to follow One.
contracted from Maprtos,
ndpis,
"Ap???,
K<pa\as,
in
are,
the
declined alike, namely, by cutting off

singular number,
the sign of the nominative -$-, in the genitive and vocative,
and changing it to v for the accusative.
all
This v is dropped in pronunciation where the phonetic

laws of the language admit it.
c.
The plural of many words, especially of foreign origin,
formed by adding -dfs to the stem, as Traa-dfes from Traa-as,

p.a'ip.ovdes from
p.a'ipov, monkeys
p-awddes, from
pashas
is
p.dvva,
fj
17
mothers.
These plurals are always paroxytone, whatever the accent

of the word in the singular.
d.
or ov, take
Many feminines, whose root vowel is
s
in the genitive singular, as
case
is
mon,
g.
eVe
as
fj
Of
as TO
ypd-^tfjiov,
genitive
ypaîp.aTa.
the pronouns,
eVei/a, r)p.fls
ep.as
vp,els
and
pay.
becomes
o-a?.
The
the personal
com-
\eyovo-t
ep.e
often appears as epeva, and a-f as

(pels, and in the accusative
becomes often
The
o-els
latter,
and
and
article,
pronoun
In the verbs
h.
i/ioi>,
alya, 6 Trarepas, 6 /SacrtXeas.
the place both of fjpas
aas,
Ko>, TTJS
Metaplastic nouns or secondary formations are
and
both
TO.
plural
ypa.ilfip.aTos,
f.
77
nouns of a compound de-
irregular
clension, especially verbals, in

TOV
p.a'ip.ov, rijs p.a'ip.ovs,
Ko>s, TJ/S Koi).
f/
There are a few
e.
f)
of the classical form, which in this
KOJS (exactly the reverse
used as an
enclitic, supplies
^p.wv.
catls-,
ace.
as enclitic
and
and
enclitic possessive
proclitic, is
used for
in oblique cases.
becomes
\eyovv Or \eyovve.
For
eXeyoi/
we have
72
e
Xeya
for eXea?, e'Xee s
v,
we
find Xeyeo-at, for \(yop.e6a, Xeyd-
and various other forms down
For eXcxfyv we get f\x&l Ka

X<?e for Xeot>, and do. passive
to the tragic
In the imperative aorist
Xe|ou for
third
'Aya7raj(rt
often
is
person
act.
Ae^//.
In the present tense of contracted verbs in do,
*'.
the
uncontracted, as dyandei for dycnra.

dya-rrovv or -oCj/e, sometimes
appears sometimes as
as dyarrave.
l,
In the passive,
for e'XeaTe, eXtgerc.
instead Of Xey^ or Xeytt,
'Ayanovp-fv is written for
and the
whereas
ayctTrco/zei/,
voeti,
become vodei, &c. eVt/z<v is eVt-o'o becomes -di>w, on the

-fs, -f
analogy of 5wo> for
urw for eVrwco
so Seco becomes fieVo).
In ancient
like generally
Greek we may regard cuV&> (pronounced ej>o>)

ening of eo), and ai/co as a strengthening of acu.
as a strength-
The verb et/u presents all the appearance of a verb in

/.
the middle voice, being conjugated thus: etftm, efo-m, f'j/t,
etfieâ,
da-Sat
/^.
ftcr^f,
eii/e
imper.
The
impf.
fjôvv,
?j(ro,
^TO, fjp.f6a,
rj<r()f,
rjrov
inf.
eo-o.
present participle active often appears as an indeThe feminine

ovras, Xeyoi/ra?, &c.
clinable metaplastic in as
however by no means disused. The only other

\eyavara
participles in use among the uneducated are the present
passive and perfect passive, the latter minus the redupliis
cation, as ypappevos,
ticiple
dXifjipevos,
The
6pap.^fvos.
present par-
sometimes appears as though formed from the con-
jugation in
however,
is
-pi, e.g.
fpxdpevos, \tydp(vos.
never found in the
The
common
termination
-/it,
language of the
people.
Such are the main features of modern Greek accidence.

Let us attempt to account for them and to trace their development.
We
will
begin by inquiring what causes remain to us,
when we have eliminated those which belong to the intellectual

movements of the Greek mind, and, of course, could explain
OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE.
73
nothing so merely external as the bare accidence of a Ianguage.
amongst the influences which would remain
First
to
be
the levelling tendency common to all languages, or, in other words, the ever-increasing desire to do
away with irregularities in grammar.
considered
It
is
may be
said that all language
intention, but in the

ness of matter, that
is
originally regular in
formation of words, the stubbornthe difficulty of pronouncing certain
first
is,
combinations of sounds, causes irregularities in the result.

These irregularities are then transmitted from race to race,
the reason of them being forgotten, their existence becomes an inconvenience, and a levelling tendency
and
sets in
So
1
.
in English
clomb, he holp,
given
way
we now
and
in
say, he climbed, he helped, for he
Spanish the participle apreso has almost

Here then at once we see the
to aprendido.
explanation of such forms as TOV "Apr), TOV "A\v, &c.

instance of the latter form, so far as I am aware,
first
The
is
to
be found in an anonymous writer of the tenth century,
known
as
Theophanes Continuatus.
In Constantine Porphyrogenitus, also an author of the

959), we get p.ovoyfvf) as the vocative of
tenth century (905

fjiovoyfVTjs.
Porphyrogenitus, as
he
tells
frequently the current forms of the vulgar
excepting in his Life of

artificial
language
in
numerous modernisms
St. Basil,
be
himself,
used
Greek of his day,

is
written in an
of classical writers.
His
noticed in their place.
The
imitation
will
which
us
very same tendency made the ancient Greeks say TTJV epiv
instead of TTJV epiSa, TOV yeXwv for TOV yeXoora, and the like.
Accordingly Sanscrit is more irregular than Greek, and Greek

than Latin; that is, the older a language is, the less regular is its
grammar.
74
We
have also
is
epos, epov for epcos, epara.
point of view this
one of the forms of the tendency
noticed, for
it
is
plain
if
we
may be regarded
above
to simplification
turn ficunXfvs, ytpav, "Apa^,
we have got one scheme
dvfjp,
and decline them
into /3acriXeas, yepovras, "Apaftas, avdpas,

like Ta/itW,
Another
the tendency to metaplasms or secondary
From one
formations.
as
Homer
in
similar influence
all
of declension instead of
remains to be explained how such a form

as avdpas could arise from dvyp, Or /3ao-iAe'a? from /3a<nAevs.
If we turn to the Septuagint we shall find our answer.
But
five.
still
it
There such forms as rbv f3acri\cav, TT}V alyav are of frequent

occurrence, and it is plain that such forms postulate the
nominatives 6 fiacrtXeas,
Yet such forms are nowhere
alya.
fj
found
till
we
enter the confines of
modern Greek
(if
we
except a few names of animals and birds occurring in Aristotle's Natural History, as, for instance, dcrKaXcairas from d<rKaXcox//').
These metaplastic accusatives may have
first
existed
and the nominatives and other cases may have been

formed from them. Yet the fact that the original form of
alone,
was
yepwv, K.T.X.
only yfpovrs
the classical
ytpovrs, may explain why yepovras, which is

made pronounceable, is the vulgar equivalent of
yepw. For were yepovras simply metaplastic, we
should expect always to find only yepovra as the genitive, but

yepovros, dvdpos, Trarpos, &c. are the more usual forms even in
the vernacular.
In
all
likelihood the v
was added
to the old
accusative merely from euphonic reasons to avoid the hiatus.

It may be that it was almost silent, or seemed so to a Greek
ear,
when followed by
a consonant, even
essential part of the word.
day, and the explanation of

liarity
This
it
is
of Greek pronunciation.
is
when
it
formed an
the case in the present
to be
found
in the pecu-
All consonants are
pro-
nounced by the Greeks with the utmost force and distinctness of which they admit; and v, being incapable of emphatic
utterance,
is
by comparison scarcely heard except when
75
followed either by a vowel or some consonant, the pronunciation of which it affects and thereby preserves its own
Thus
existence.
whereas in
in
rrj(v)
in
TT)I>
2aô(z>)
of rty is never lost,

completely evanescent ; while
v
AiyuTrro(v) the
it
is
rrfv 7r6\iv
Now
(pronounced r^-bolin) it is preserved.

where the v is so evanescent a letter, its presence
naturally imagined wherever
and
would soon be
it
would
facilitate
is
pronunciation,
be written, though not

sounded, even where there were no such reason for its
introduction.
There may however have been a special
it
to
liable
reason for accusatives like alyav and Qao-iXeav.

Comparative
v
teaches
us
that
a
in
accusahas
been
these
lost
philology
tives,
as also in the
if this
same
o-c
pronouns
and
f'p.e.
What wonder then
should have lived on in the mouth of the
common
people, and appeared in the Septuagint, the language of which is so evidently, as far as it departs from the
classical standard (a few Hebraisms of course excepted), the
This consideration suggests a

vulgar Greek of the period.
further explanation of the grammatical phenomena of later
and modern Greek.
and well-known
fact
This
that
nothing else than the simple

archaisms are constantly per-
is
petuated in the language of the vulgar which have long

since been lost to literature.
Our own dialects are sufficient
proof of
this, to
rechl, kie,
we
go no
do'n, for
further.
/ cannot,
Witness
can-na, he's no
he's not right, cows,
we
do
where we have sounds or grammatical forms preserved to

us which cultivated English ignores.
Now to speak first of
the language of the Septuagint, no mistake could be greater
than to imagine that it was an artificial dialect, the results of
an indiscriminate reading-up of the language. According to

this theory, as
recently enunciated by the Grinfield lecturer
on
Oxford (Michaelmas Term, 1868), the

Greek of the Septuagint is a farrago of words culled at
random from Epic poetry, Attic Prose, and every conceivable
the Septuagint at
76
and with a grammar, we are left to suppose, invented

by the writers themselves. With the utmost respect for the
learned lecturer, I would submit that such a theory is imdialect,
probable in
itself,
the Septuagint.
and does not explain the phenomena of

inconceivable that there should
is
it
First,
not have been found, even at the time when the earliest parts
of the translation were made, Jews at Alexandria perfectly
Greek
familiar with
translators
as a
spoken language.
had not been
if
Again,
familiar with the language,
the
it
is
impossible that they could have escaped grammatical slips

such as using an imperfect for an aorist. Finally, the pe-
forms and usages which are found are easily explained

a
to modern Greek and other unclassical Greek
reference
by
For example, 7riao> is not peculiar to Doric, but
writers.
culiar
occurs in the Revelation of
modern Greek.
'ESoAtoCo-az/
and
common
St.
John, and
is
an imperfect from
is
in
8oAio'o>
(3rd person plural),

explained by the consonantal
form e\eyocrat>, a Septuagint form, &c., and further illustrated
is
by the modern Greek forms

3rd person plural
We may
say
if
we
is
efioXtoCo-a, eVi/xoCo-a,
respectively
like that
c8o\iov<rav
such a form as
yotrav for eXfyov follows the
of which the
and
eVt/xovo-av.
eSoXiovarav
in
/, but
or eAe-
we must
conjugation
not forget that there was originally no other conjugation,
and that the a- in the 3rd person of c8o\iovo-av is, etymologically speaking, just as
arrao-ai/, erideaav.
its
much
the
<r
in
its
right place as in ISidoa-av,
does in
this position is
indeed
has no place in Sanscrit, and as far as I

But if it was
presence has not been explained.
a mystery, as
know
What
it
it seems to have been, convenient to insert it for

reasons
here, we can see that it would be especially
phonetic
so if the usage of the language at any period required the
found, as
Such a form as e'SoXioCa

imperfect to end in a instead of ov.
for
a
It is true that o- is in
would plainly clamour
sigma.
Greek more often left out than inserted ; but the tendency
fj
do the one, implies, as a general rule, the tendency to do

It is a moot point whether y and v in such cases
the other.
to
as
cv0i>-s, OVTCO-S, ales,
ativ
are ephelcystic or etymologic,
i.e.
added when found, or omitted when absent. With atis might

be compared in modern Greek TiVorey. In such cases the
force of analogy
must be taken
Now
into account.
that a
was, for the termination of the imperfect, at least as old as

ov,
is
as likely as
just
not.
aorist
as
Originally,
Sanscrit, the termination of the
ist aorist
we
see from
and of the 2nd
and imperfect were the same. In Homer we have

and r)a in Ionic both erjv and ea for rjv, I was.' In
'
eov,
order to account for the diphthong

contraction
however, we should
ov,
was changed to a
8oXiW from eSoXtW had taken place,
lave to suppose
either that v
case the accent in such a
word
as
e'SoXtoCo-a
after
in
the
which
would be a
mystery, or else, as appears to me to have been the fact,

there was a paragogic vowel slipped in between the o and
the a.
This seems to have been so in the case of fa for
ea,
erjv,
and
?jev
for
eev,
and
fjrjv,
which would appear to
present us with a pair of paragogic e's

that may be, we have the termination
However
(e-e-e-ev).
-a-a for the

imperfect
of contracted verbs in modern Greek, and of contracted
verbs only.
In the Septuagint we have the termination
.
-a-av
in the 3rd
know no
a-
has just as
person plural of
trace of the
a-
in
many
verbs, but as far as
any other person.
much
Yet the
to exist in
right (pace grammaticorum)

any other person as in the 3rd, and it is my belief that in
many parts of Greece where in the first person a was the
favourite termination (e?Sa for eldov, etna for euroi/, which we
have in the Septuagint and

o-ovo-a,
New
Testament),
e'SoXtoCo-a, e/u-
&c. would inevitably arise.
At any rate, it is important to remember that all the Greek

was spoken from Homer's day to the era of the Pto-
that
lemies
is
not to be found in books,
still
less in
Grammars,
78
above
and,
modern
that vulgar
all,
times
both of ancient and
dialects
should be expected to
contain
far
more
archaisms than innovations.
Let us see whether

the explanation of
modern Greek
First then as to
forms.
How
the nominative 86ais for 86ga.
the
us further in
this principle will carry
are
we
to account for
'
Schleicher, in his Comparative Grammar/ following

as I believe in the steps of Bopp, postulates 8oga-i~as or some
i
such form as the original plural of

Professor
state that
Max
It
86ga.
Miiller differs
from
is
but right to
but at
this view,
remarkable that the modern Greek form supplies exactly one of the stages of transition that the theory
of Bopp and Schleicher demands. As to the accusative rals
any
rate
is
it
dogms, that
is
archaism.
the Aeolic form,
and as such an acknowledged

be a representative of
Tats 86gais is ascertained to
ravs 86gavs, the modification of the
of the
vowel indicating the loss
v.
Turning next to the pronouns, we have already observed

and eVera for epe and o-e preserve the original v
that cpeva
(in Sanscrit
referred to
foe Is.
it
is
as the
As
m, mam, and tvdm] of the accusative.

Plato
by
to the
(except
for
'
TOVS,
article,
the accent in fhe latter case) the
Homeric usage,
dTrea-vXrjare
418 c)
and proclitic use of the
(Crat.
enclitic
'E/ms- is
as an older form for
e.g.
T6i/
he spoiled them.'
same
he killed him
'
eWoraxre,
Passing to the verbs,
find in Aeyovz/ or \eyowe the traces of the old
;'
we
form Aeyom
(exovi is quoted, I believe, by Hesychius as a Cretan form).

In the passive the forms Atyeo-m, 2nd person present, \fy6paorre or Aeytfyce vGa as well as fayopefav, are so plainly archaic
forms that they need no explanation. In St. Paul's Epistle
to the
Romans we have
already Kavxavai,
thou boastest/
In the imperative aorist active \fge for Aeo> is Homeric.

As to the imp. aorist passive A/ ou, I cannot but agree with
Dr. Mullach that
it
is
the classical middle
aor. imper.
of

erbs in
in
/it
79
used as a passive, there being no middle voice
modern Greek,
as there
Few who compare

sponding modern
was none
such forms as
vrdo-ov, Segov will
in the
KOIVTJ
8ia\(KTos.
with the
a-rda-o
be able to doubt
corre-
this.
The verb elp.cn (dpi), so far as it presents us really with

a middle form, has the precedent of the Homeric eo-o, which
is precisely the modern Greek imperative, not to speak of the
future eo-o/wu.
But nearer examination shows us
The
conjugated throughout as a middle.

singular
and
plural cwai or
five,
the latter being
that
ip.ai
is
third person
more
correct
in pronunciation the two forms are the

for emu and elvrai.
Now the formation
not
plainly
writing, while
is
same,
rf this
tiot
The
word we
are able to trace through
which
its
various stages.
which in the
appears
Doric dialect was the same for both numbers. This evrl
oldest shape in
is
it
eWi,
appears already in classical Greek as cvi in such phrases

It is not unlikely that it was the
as OI'K ew, evLOL for COTIV oi.
though known to
such short phrases as the above. In the
Acts of the Council of Constantinople (536 A.D.), we find
In Ptochopro(vi used simply for eWi, 'Tis *vi Neoroptoj.'
vulgar
word
in regular use for eWi or eWi,
literature only in
dromus, the first Romaic writer, we get eW, and soon

wards the present form elvm or five.
after-
One other principle which seems to have been at work in

the development of modern from ancient Greek is the principle of
From
extended analogy.
this
point of view
modern
Greek may be called the logical result of ancient Greek. In

ancient Greek the dual number was disappearing in modern
;
The
Greek, as already in the KOIVT) SiaXeim>?, it is gone.
middle voice as a separate formation was on the wane. In
the New Testament we have d-rrfKpidrj for dncKpivaro, much
earlier eftexfy f r
fâro
in
modern Greek
the only relic of
the ancient middle appears in the passive imperative aorist.

In later Greek we have many instances of a
tendency to
8o
dispense with a separate form for the perfect, using the aorist
instead.
In modern Greek the perfect has disappeared,
leaving perhaps a trace of
aorist as efyjjKa for evprjKa.
and
cvprjKdv
f(i>pa.Kav,
for
its
former existence in such an
Already in the Septuagint we get

Verbs in fu
vpr)Kacri and ecopaKaori.
have entirely disappeared in modern Greek, leaving behind

them only such remnants as the participles
pevos
above noticed.
The
termination
q/ca
in
seems but a following out of the analogy of

e6w, e6r)Ka for edrjv, and so forth. Mr. Walker, High
Master of the Manchester Grammar School, has called my
<pr)Kct,
&c.,
for
attention to the fact that the termination
KO.
for perfects is
unknown to Homer.
Under the head of extensions of analogy we may place
the double or mixed declensions, as TO ypfyipov, TO. ypa\îp.ara,
It is
with which we may compare TO oveipov, TO. oWpara, &c.
almost
worthy of notice that the plural ra
known
I
to the
common
people
(in
have been corrected myself by
man who
barely
knew how
oveipara is the
Athens
my
at
any
only one
rate),
landlord in that
and
city,
to read, for saying TO 6Vipa.
Phrynichus, the grammarian, notices the increasing use

of this termination -t/zoi/, and complains particularly of the
employment of
One cannot
TO yf\d<np.ov for TO yeXoioi/.
but
be glad that the forms prevailed in spite of Phrynichus, for

They constithey are a real gain to the Greek language.
tute a class of verbal substantives with a shade of
meaning
not accurately expressed by any other word.
Certainly
there
is
no adequate ancient Greek
translation of dôvo)
The
irnigipov o-fraOiuv, I hear the clash of mingled swords.'
force of the termination -tjuoi/ is that it places the word to
'
added midway between concrete and abstract;

but TO Koîpov a
e. g. Ko\lfis would mean cutting, Ko/i/ia a cut
number of cuttings or stabbings, and is used to describe, as
which
it
is
no other word could, an
internal pain
German
Leibschnei-
81
In the plural, as well as in the oblique cases of the

which
singular, it is rather the concrete side of the meaning
den.
comes
Hence we have
into prominence.
priate to a concrete
meaning
may mean
either
The
ypa^t/xaros, ypaîp-ara.
same explanation no doubt holds good

which
the endings appro-
dreaming
with regard to oveipov,
in the abstract, or a
dream
while ovcipara means always particular dreams.

It remains that we should notice the influence of dialects
in the forms
The
modern Greek.
of
KOIVT]
it
was
was
it
was
StaXe/cTos-
robably so called quite as much from the fact that

o dialect in particular but a mixture of all, as that
Pindar's language was called by grambecause they regarded it as a mixture of more
generally understood.
marians
Koivf],
han one
Now
dialect.
the fact that the
Greek of the Septuagint presents us

one reason for
with forms belonging to different dialects is

the false notion above referred
their
words
at
random from
to,
that the translators took
much as an
own day. We
the several dialects,
schoolboy might do in our
nndiscriminating
_ire apt to forget
to the
that the
Greek language was
just as familiar
the Septuagint, as their own

as
they adopted the language of stammerJust
in Babylon, so they spoke Greek under the Ptole-
Hebrews who wrote
'
tongue.
'
ing lips
both spoke and wrote that

language with greater ease than their sacred tongue. The
only natural explanation of the appearance of Doric forms
mies;
like
and, in
7riao>
Septuagint,
period,
and
is
all
likelihood,
rare
Homeric words
that they
nia^w
is
catch/ and in this
like
dyepwôy
in the
were current in the vernacular of the
day the modern Greek for

sense it is that it is used in the Bible
to this
Latin opprimere), while dyepaxos
is
actually
'
to
(cf.
found in the
ballads collected by Passow.

We are conreminded
of
the
existence
the
tinually
throughout
history of
the Greek language (at any rate beginning with the time of
Romaic popular
82
Aristophanes), of a
common spoken
from the cultivated language of
As
to the surface.
often as
it
dialect quite distinct
literature,
but seldom coming
strove to raise
its
head,
some
tyrant grammarian, a Phrynichus, a Dionysius, or a Choeroboscus beat it down, till at last a poor monk, nicknamed
Ptochoprodromus, in the eleventh century, by his example

liberated Greek for ever from the shackles of the grammarians, and showed that a language has neither power nor
beauty except
it
be
free.
Meanwhile, of course, the language of literature, of the

schools, and of the law-courts was comparatively stationary,
while that of the people was continually developing and
changing, as must ever be the case with a living spoken lan-
guage.
No
doubt one of the
was
the popular dialects

in one.
Probably
it
changes that came over

became mixed and merged
first
that they
was only a very old Megarian who, even

would be heard in the Athenian
in the days of Aristophanes,
market-place expressing himself thus,

ap,/3aT
irorrav fJiaSdav at
Constant intercourse with
soon soften down

political
divisions
fvprjre
men from
TTO.
other parts would
dialectic distinctions, especially
were
Doubtless the Attic
lost in the
when
all
Macedonian monarchy.
most cultivated
dialect, as that of the
portion of the nation, would give the leading tone to the

now}) SiaXe/crof, but at the same time we should quite expect
This is actually the case
isolated provincialisms to survive.
not only in the language of the Septuagint, but also in the

The modern Greek, when
modern language of Greece.
speaking in the vernacular of his country, says p-ixpr) with the
lonians of Old, doas with the Dorians, raly rt/zaty for ras np.as
with the Aeolians, eo-o and $e{)e for lo-dt and 0eOoi/ with the
Epic poets.
Yet we may be well assured
or vine-dresser
who speaks
in this
way
is
that the shepherd
as ignorant of the
83
language of Dorians, lonians, or Epic poets, as a South- Sea

As peculiarly characteristic of the Boeotian variety
islander.
we may notice the preference of ov for v. So

modern Greek we have KovrdXiov for wrdXiov from
of Doric Greek
too in
KvrdXr], TpovTra for Tpvira.
as
a-ovcrdfjii
and
for
a-rjcrafjuov,
Sometimes
this ov represents
voviriais for (rrjiriai;
compare
an
77,
Kpovvos
Kprjwi.
With reference
to such forms as vodo> for
remind the reader,

on pronunciation,
that, as
da>
we have seen above
and
>
voea>,
we may
in the chapter
So too
were originally one.
eXfey for ?Xeas is only another instance of the equivalent

value of short a and *.
This again we see in ptXrepos, /3eXTiW, from /3eXi-o's, which means that which may be put, placed,
or thrown;
standing for
/SeXros
adjective of /SaXXcu
circumstances compare TraXra and

of fieXrepos &C. compare
the
regular verbal
and
/SaXroy,
(for the change of a
TreXr?/? ;)
under similar
for the
(pepraTos, (peprcpos,
from
etymology
(pepTos,
i.
e.
is bearable;
hence in the comparative degree more
The forms paXrbs and (peprbs are
bearable or preferable.
common verbal adjectives in modern Greek.
what
The
paragogic
tendency to become
in such
t;
most ancient form, as
words as
eXXoye'o>,
so &arda), the
I
believe, of
passed through the following stages

rayos,) fiiarayta), fitaray/co, Siarabo,
modern Greek and
Starao-o-o),
Siarayeo)
8ia.rd(T(Ta>.
had a
&c.,
must have
(I
Tayeco is
am
a 8z-
found in
Aesch. Persae, 764.
The disappearance of the dative case from the common

vernacular of Greece belongs rather to the head of Accidence
than Syntax, as I believe it is mainly attributable to pronunWe have seen already, that in the vulgar dialect
both a and ot tend to become ou. This will account for the
ciation.
fact that TO)

ewre,
p.ov
dire.
eltre
becomes
Add
especially the later
in
modern Greek
TOV eme,
to this the fact that the
and
/*ot
Greek idiom,
Greek idiom, often places the genitive as

G 2
84
a kind of gen. commodi, in which position

for the dative, as 'Edepaircwev avrov
rrjv
it
ETC.
really stands
Ovyarepa, a
mode
of
expression which meets us in almost every page of the New

Testament, and the wonder will rather be how the dative
should so long have maintained

have finally disappeared.
its
rights,
than that
it
should
CHAPTER
V.

Syntax.
HAVING now,
as far as our time and space allow, disof

the
mere
posed
grammatical forms of the modern Greek
language, let us go on to examine
THE SYNTAX
OF
MODERN GREEK.
Here we have left the region of archaisms and dialectic

forms, and enter the territory of the history of the human
mind.
To the mere philologer the former part of the
inquiry may seem the more interesting; for the philosopher
the succeeding portion will present the greater attraction.
That we may obtain in the outset a general view of the
difference in structure
and expression, we
will
compare part
of the eighth chapter of Plutarch's Life of Caesar, as translated by Mr. Rangabes, with the
original as written by
Plutarch.
yvapr) \onrov avrrj e(pdvrj
Ot/rco
de -nyy
yvut^s
(pi\dv6pa>7ros, Kal l(rxvpbs 6 \6yos
6pa>7rov <pavi<TT]s Kal TOV
OOTIS fppedr) 7Tpl avrfjs.
dwarfs eV
At' 6
avrjj
(f>i\av-
\6yov
prjQevros
ov
THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
86
avTov eycpdevres
p-ovov 01 /ifra TOVTOV
TTCtpeoexovro TTJV Trpdrao-ti/ O.VTOV,
7rpoo-(Tid(vro, TroXXoi
aXXa
?rpo
ov fiovov
of /tier'
KOI TroXXoi
ra>i>
7Tpoop,i\r)-
dpvovp,fvoi ray
TWV
iSt'ay
aurou ray
Kdrawoy
KOI TOV KarXov.
5'
f]vavrio)drjcrav
T)
p.fd'
Owroi
opp-rjs,
KOI
a>s 6 Karcov /ufra roD Xoyov ep-
<cai
virovoiav
/car'
avrov,
fâvecmj KOT* avrov
/3iat'a)y,
/cat
pi\ê
01 p.ei/
oTrcoy
av8pes Trapedodrjcrav
Kara 8e TOV Kai-
davaTcoduHTi'
ev
o~apos)
o>
X^y, TroXXoi
i/e'cai/
jSou-
riyy
ef-fjpxcTo
roil'
roif (ppov-
POVVTOJV TOV Ki/cepcova rore,
opp,r)-
ra î<p;
eorprâv yv/j-va
'AXXa Xeyerat
o-avTfs,
Kar' avTov.
6
KouptW,
8ta
roi>
7Tpi/caXu\ây rorf au-
r^y
f^rjyaye'
ort
rrj^fvvov
TOV
TOV,
Kai 6 RtKepcoi/, oraz/ 01
veot TTpoo-f^Xfâv eiy avTov,
on
evevo-fv a7ro0ari/ca)y, (po/Sf/êiy roi/

drjpov,
KOI
f)
p.c-
Karcoi/a
ro
7rapdvop.ov
Se
rou'
6eV
decapuv.
Trepi
r^y
Kanjyope^To
<!)(pf\Tjdr)
rJTis apt'o-n;
roi/
veaviKws
T(ov, Kdrcoj/oy 5e /cat
TO)
ap.a
irepirfkBe.
fvavria>6fvTT^J/
VTTOVOIGV
o~vvf7rpio~avros
Xdya)
avTa> KOI o~vyKaTfavao~Tdvros ep-
aVSpey aTroda-
pco/iej/coy,
ot
vovp,evoi
irapedodrjcrav,
fie
y
7-77
p.i/
Kat'crapi
/SovX^y e^tdvri TroXXot
KiKepwva (ppovpovvrwv rdre

yvp.va ra
o-%ov.
777
î^)j;
'AXXa
crai,
o-vv^pap-ovres tff-
Kovptooj/ rf Xeyerai
avTos T
vfavio-Koi
i/ec
7Tfpt/3aXa)v VTTff-aya-
TTjftevvo)
ytlv,
6 KtKepcoi/,
(poftrjdfls
TOV
a>y
of
dvavev-
7rpoo-^\-âv,
dr/p-ov,
TJ
TOV
KOI Trapdvopov
(povov oXcoy (idiKov
ToCro
f)yovp.fvos.
o?8a
oTrcoy
/nei'
KiKepcoi/,
GUI/
etTrep
ou/c
^v
Tovro
vcrrepov a>y apiora rai jcatpa) rdre
7rapao~xovTi
TOV
KarXov
KOI
TovTatv
7rt
TOV (povov oXcoy aftiKov
ir>s 6
(Is
yvotpas
aTrenrdp-fvoi irpos TTJV fKfivov
crcipa TOV
OTOV rjXdfv
reov
/cat
elprjp.evas
ea>s
TOV, ea>s
8c
VTrarti'ay
Xoyoi/
6' vorrtpov
Tore (K
on
TTJS cvKcitpias
Trapouo-iafero fty at>-
Kara rou Kaio"apoy, aXX'
\iao~fv ev&TTiov TOV
Kara
e'8et-
dyfjiov, OO~TIS
VTreprdrooy rjvvofi TOV Kat'crapa.
vov TOV Kato-apoy.
rov
KatVapoy
OF MODERN GREEK SYNTAX.
87
are all ancient Greek; but there is a

the old simplicity of expression,
from
strange departure
combined with a sort of effort to say a great deal, and a
Here the words
which
certain indescribable insincerity of language
The mere
a history.
same
words, the outer shell, are still the

himself, or even Thucydides, might in
as Plutarch
connections have
certain
is in itself
employed
change has
but
It is as though a new
passed over the spirit of the whole.
soul had taken up its abode in an old body, or as if, to take
a simile from an ancient story of Sacred Writ, the rough,
out-spoken, stalwart elder brother were being counterfeited

The hands are
and supplanted by a wily younger one.
'
the hands of Esau, but the voice
We
will
now proceed
the voice of Jacob.'
modern
we may follow
to consider the syntax of
Greek somewhat more
we
is
particularly,
and
that
begin with that part of syntax which

seems most nearly to enter into the accidence of the lana definite order
will
guage.
The compound
may
fairly
In modern Greek the future
attention.
first
three ways.
tenses of the verbs
By
is
claim our
formed
the particle 6a with the subjunctive
in
by the
used personally, and followed by the infinitive

and, thirdly, by the same verb used impersonally, followed
verb
0e' Aa>
Thus
by the subjunctive.
ypa\|m(i/)
for ypa\/ât(?)
but
such
analogy, and
$e'Xei
becomes
('"")
contraction
am much
particle, to speculate
on
6a
ypa\^(o.
as a contraction for
usually regarded
yprtyoo
or
ypd-^co
0e'Aei
6JeAa>
-ypa-^co,
Qa yp<tya> is
va = 6e va = 6a
would be quite without

upon 6a as a mere
disposed to look
the etymology of which
would be
hazardous, though
may be either a part or a fragment of
a
a possible dialectic form of which would be 6a-Ka cp.
rax
it
>
Kidav
and x iT
have
>
fvdevrev,
fvrevdev.
particle 6e or Ba in
this very
(We and aWe fWe e'X&u
:
is
in
cannot but think
we
the optative interjection
modern Greek eWe
va e\dy,
which
88
might be also written

force to
rax,
i'o-o)?,
tl
that, in
modern Greek,
without
Ba.
to
"", &c.,
*
rax
am
the
is equivalent in
evident from the fact
is
and
X^
In ancient Greek
eXdot.
ftTTcoy
That 6a
6e va e\6rj.
TS,
*e,
to-cos
e\Qrj
may be used
ci-0c e\6oi is
plainly
more
equivalent
inclined to regard 6a as a
simple particle because its use with the subjunctive corresponds to the use of <e in Homer, with the same mood, while
employment with
the imperfect, as 6a firfdvpow (vulg. 6a

eTTcdvpovo-a), answers precisely to the classical eirfQvp.ovv av\
only that this usage is more exact in modern Greek, it being
its
impossible to say 6a
would mean,
did wish.'
aorist
in
errfdvp-rjcra
same
the
This
sense.
'
should have wished,' but, I probably

not,
It is worth consideration whether av with the
'
Greek has not sometimes the
indicative in ancient
However that may be, with 6a, if it be a

we
have nothing at present to do. Qa TroXesimple particle,
e
MO-O) is just as much in the spirit of ancient Greek as
same meaning.
TroX 6/117 (rco.
But with 0\a>
ypd\l/fi
GcXo) ypityfi explains

to
and 0eX
grow discontented with
ypfya) the case
is different.
But what induced the Greeks
itself.
their simple future ypfya>?
seems to have been nothing
else
It
than a certain wastefulness
of speech always observable in the Greek language, as in

such phrases as ervxcv <*>v, /xc'XXtt Troieli/ (which latter is after all
but another kind of
compound
future)
but this tendency
words always increases in proportion as solidity

of character and depth of thought begin to wane.
Inanity
to waste
always vents
itself in
expletives
and
it
is
no wonder
that
we cannot
oaths.
write Cicero's Latin without swearing Cicero's

Now every needlessly forcible expression is only
another kind of expletive ; it fills up a proportionate void in

the mind of the speaker and the hearer, and may be com-
pared to a
still
printer's trick
more
of
feeble resource of
italicising.
modern
The Nemesis
times, the
of waste
is
want
OF MODERN GREEK SYNTAX.

and so we
come
to
mean,
'
phrase for
the
'
I shall write
mode
explicit
the need arises of a separate
This accordingly
I will write.'
more
still
of speech
'va ypfyco.
This use of
where
extremely common.
is
it
ee\o> ypcn/m having
find in the present case.

'
But
is
tfe'Xco
expressed by
Iva y/xtyco, $eX&>
New
Testament,
this leads
again to a
begins in the
Iva
89
ypdâ in this and other cases is to be

equivalent to ypfycu, what are we to do if we want to say
Iva ypfya in good earnest?
We must have recourse to a
This
further periphrasis, and say dia Va (Si' Iva) ypdâ).
need
further
like the career of a perpetually insolvent
is
process
if Iva
at
debtor
The same
interest.
prinborrowing money
compound
ciple may be seen at work in a vast number of words and
To
expressions.
becomes
too weak
(Vat'?)
diapearov, dva
any
grOWS
preposition &a, through,

is
dvdfjiea-ov, /iera
felt
to
be
and accordingly
6p.a8rj
pressed into the ranks of the prepositions.
Tis
nolos
and
New
T\S, /cany, Kavets,
and
one,
vvv; Trds
in the
into
to express the relation with,
is
becomes
one,
The
notice a few.
some.
enaaros
Tapa
become
or
Kafj-Troaos
= respectively some
&pa) supplants the simple
(rfj
KaQfls, first,
as most frequently
Testament, used only in the accusative
/ca0' ei/a,
but soon regarded and declined as one word, as already in

the epistles of St. Paul
quale, el cual,
TTOLOS
le
with quel,
TTOIOS TIS,
and the
quel,
c.).
os
oo-rt?
in Italian,
For the old
common
people
indeclinably, like wasfiir in
meant
and
become
6 owolos (cp. il
Spanish, French, as also

the Greeks often say
TTOLOS
ri \oyfjs
German).
(the rl being
Ti \oyrjs
used
must have
'
'
of what vintage or gathering ?

Examples of this kind might be multiplied without end ;
but the limits of our space warn us not to linger too long on
originally,
any one
'
Aristotle,
The
however full of interest. We would rather

and
draw the outlines which we think, with
way
any one may fill up for himself.'
subject,
point the
third or impersonal
form of the
future, &'X
ypfya,
we
THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT ETC.
90
prefer to consider a
little
later
on when we come
to
examine
Greek systems of thought upon the development of the language. We will say now a very few words
on the compound perfects. Of these there are two, ex (yf )
ypap,p,evov, which is simply a more explicit way of saying
yeypcxpa, and will be quite familiar to the classical scholar,
and f'xa ypfyfi from e^ 00 ypaâi, which is difficult to explain,
the influence of
rather from the want of illustration
and analogy in ancient

Greek or other languages, than from any inherent unreason-
ableness in the thing itself: yet we may compare the use of

the German infinitive for the participle in phrases like ich
hale ihn sprechen wollen, &c.
Perhaps the idea present to
the minds of those
TO ypdfaiv,
mean
'
who
and even
if
used
first
it
may have
the case required
it
been, that as
TO ypfyai,
the writing,' so e^to ypd-âi might be used for
'
might
have
a writing,' of anything as a deed done, yeypaêvov /zoi eV.

At any rate, he who is not scandalized at CKU>V emu need not
be offended
It
at ex
ypd\âi.
might be worth some one's while to see whether in
certain cases OVK e^to ypdât, OVK f^co
and the
like,
may
OVK
x fl <wro8ai,
not admit of a perfect sense, as used by
Herodotus and other
flirfiv,
With reference
modern Greek, it is
classical authors.
both the future and perfect tenses in
be observed that being duplicate, according as the
to
to
infinitive
aorist or imperfect
is employed, they give a greater precision

of meaning than the simple forms ypdâ> or yeypcxpa are
rpa\ô> in ancient Greek might mean
capable of expressing.
either 'I will write' (e.g. a letter), or, 'I will be an author.'
In the one case it would be in modern Greek, da ypa\//-a>,
0e Aa> ypd\l/i,
ypdfyci,
Or
or #e\fi ypaô)
$e'Xfi ypd(pa>.
in the Other, da ypdfpa, 6t\a>
CHAPTER
VI.

Phraseology.
LEAVING for the present the subject of

some changes in the meaning of words.
syntax,
let
us notice
In the language of Greece as it is in our own day, we

shall be surprised and interested to find the eminently Greek
tendency to euphemism carried out to a still further extent
than in ancient Greek.
but
'
means no longer murderer

'
AvQevrrjs
'
Possibly during the period of Turkish suprethe Greeks thought it came to much the same thing.
master/
macy
have put under the head of euphemisms, though it

appears to be a kind of inversion of the euphemistic ten-
This
dency, inasmuch as a bad meaning has given place to a

But in all probability it is a real euphemism.
A.vdevT7)s in the sense of murderer probably stands as a
better one.
separate
idiom from
avdevrrjs,
master.
Avdevrrjs,
meaning
according to its derivation the very doer,' was employed

to denote the doer of a particular crime.
This etymological
'
sense
'
real
doer
'
was most
likely
never
lost
among
the
common
people, and when, as especially under the Turkish

dominion, fieo-Tnm/s was felt to be an odious term, avQevrTjs
would be applied to the master, half to soften down the
bitterness
of the relation in the
mind of
the slave, half
92
and fawningly towards the master, as though the

meaning were he is the real doer of all that is done, we
flatteringly
'
are nothing but the tools/
more palpable instance of

'
euphemism may be found in such words as o-Koro'i/w, I

of an animal dying; compare the
darken/ for kill, ô<a
French crever, and the German crepiren. The meaning is
literally
'
of course
to
Xdpav in the popular
make
a noise.'
dialect,
gically(?) 'the joyful God.'
Death
is
still
called
Xdpos or Xapuvras, etymolomeans 'the
BcunXevct 6 fj\ios
sun
sets.'
Such euphemisms are quite in the spirit of the
Greek language in all ages.
Who does not remember at
the sound of O-KOTOI/OO the grand Homeric periphrasis for
death,
O-KOTOS
oo-o-e
xaXuêi/?
and who
that
gazes on the
Greek shepherd has so often done, from

some commanding height, but feels the majesty of the great
Ruler of the skies more sensibly as he lights up with his last
golden rays, ocean, islands, clouds and mountain tops, and
owns the fitness of the words put by Campbell into the
mouth of the Last Man' who sees the sun set never to rise
setting sun, as the
'
again
'
Yet mourn I not thy parted sway,

Thou dim discrowned king of day' ?
If there is a difference between the euphemisms of ancient

and modern Greece, it is perhaps that the modern ones are
more stereotyped and fixed that the language of poetry has
;
become the language of life.

Thus much of the euphemisms
There
in the
Greek of our own
however many a word which bears the

day.
impress of a deeper and harder kind of thought than that
which is content with softening stubborn facts into gentle
is
metaphors.
The biography
of a
new word and expression would
be a page from the history of philosophy.
often
OF MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY.
The whole language
93
in its vocabulary, as well as in its
appears to have undergone a change from truth to

from Nature to Art. If it be asked, When did this
structure,
fiction,
With the beginning of specuthought an answer perhaps none the less true because
change begin
lative
it is
the answer
is,
indefinite.
What
what
has philosophy done for language generally, and
for
Greek
in particular
might prove no uninstructive
The most comprehensive
enquiry.
would seem
for
things.
to be, that
it
The main
reply to the question

gave terms for thoughts as well as
feature of a language before
the
beginning of speculative thought, is a kind of honest simMen call a spade a spade, not an agricultural
plicity.
implement.
Before philosophy,
human
a mere registration
PhiloIt asks only what is there ?
of given phenomena.
how
it
there
?
and
?
is
is
there
it
then,
lastly,
sophy asks, why
is it
there at
all
When new
given
research
questions are asked,
and new answers require
is
new answers must be

new words, or at least
words with new meanings.
Even
words
the Ionic philosophers have
to the colloquial
handed down a host of
language of to-day.
Such are
fao-is,
OTOIXOI>, e^drpia-is, dvadvîaa-is, dvaXva-is, Kocrpos, aneipos,

Could any of these words write its own
TTVKVQHTIS, dpaitiMrig.
apX*},
Had any
biography, what a strange history that would be
of them been gifted with the tongue of a prophet, how it
would have amazed the sages of old
!
The
unlettered Athenian in the Cafe de la Belle Grece, as
he melts a lump of sugar in a cup of coffee, little dreams

that the name by which he calls the process (dvaXvais) meant,
mouths of the old Ionic philosophers, the dissolution

of the elements of created things in decay or death; and
in the
scarcely could Heraclitus, with
all
his
admiration of anti-
94
have divined that
pathies,
and
the divine order of nature,
should
void,
be wedded
ever
and mean a
one
in
together
'
formless
the
aTTfipov,
Kotrpos,
expression, Koa-pos airfipos,

countless multitude/ perhaps a disorderly rabble.
Anaxagoras have foreboded that
him
divine
XptjuaTd
TJV
KOO-ÔS,
Could
which expressed
to
beauty and perfection of arrangement

should in a
6p.ov eiYa vovs e\6u>v avra 8iK.6(rp,r]<Tf
iravra
very few hundred years become the subject of the Christian

Who could
lament, the whole world lieth in wickedness ?
'
'
foresee
that TO SXoyov,
which would mean in the mouth
much
of matter as was untouched by the
of Heraclitus so
of reason, should come to signify in our own

or that araix* toi/, an element, should presently
fire
heavenly
day a horse
become a
of the ancient Greeks, haunting

or whispering groves, and terrifying the
ghost, the
murmuring
rills
Sm'/iooi/
shepherd as he tends his flocks upon the lonely

mountain side? Scarcely could Democritus and Leucippus
have guessed, that of their philosophical terms o-x^p-a, 0(<ris,
simple
and
rais, the
first
should
mean
in the present day,
'
a monk's
'
a place in a coach,' and the third,

a
class' in a steam-packet or a railway train, any more than
Pythagoras could have foreseen that his doctrine of the
habit,' the second,
Pilgrimage of Souls should have taken such firm root in

popular superstition and popular poetry, that those lines of
Xenophanes,
Km
TTOTf
&ao\v
Havo-ai,
"Vvxr}
jj.iv
OTV<f>f\lofl*VOV crKvXaKos irapiovra

KOI roSe (pdo-dai
(iroiKTelpai
p,r)8c
frjv
pcnri\
cyvw
cVfii^
firos'
(piXov dvepos eori
(p0yûfj.fvr]s
mow'
should have found their echo in such words as these, uttered

by the hero Tsamados in the person of a bird of the air
:
'Eyoj TTOuXt (TOV (paivnp.ai
dXXd
TrovXi
Etr TO
fivat
rcav
vr)<rl
TTOV
ayvdvria
8ev
fip.ai'
Nafiapivcav,
OF
MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY.

vareprjv TTVOTJV a(pr)o~a
rrjv
*O 'TtrajLtados
eya>
eip.ai
Kal
TOV
els
qXda
'2 TOVS ovpavovs irov Ka.6op.ai Kaddpta
Ma
To
95
va eras '&
COTO
dvai
KOVTO.
take another instance,
how
f]
Ko<rp.ov.
ads
ai>oiya)'
^Tndvp.td p.ov.
has the
common
language
of modern Greece reversed the judgment of the Eleatics,

when ro ov no longer means the most abstract but the most
concrete Being, as 6 avdpaTros OVTOS
TOV
Koo~p.ov
Even
etVai
TO dvo-TVêarraTov ov
and not the
the Sophists have a claim,
least, to
our
some would perhaps be

right to the name of
philosophers, it should still be remembered that they more
than any philosopher, not excepting Plato, who owed more
to them than he was aware, left their mark upon the Greek
Belanguage, a mark which has never since been effaced.
attention.
If these thinkers, or as
inclined to call them, talkers, have
little
men
were in the habit of saying what they

thought since they have rather inclined to think what they
should say, a tendency from which even genius cannot now
fore their time
;
wholly shake
itself free.
Before the Sophists, thought was
and
everything
expression as an end nothing; hence while
it was often
Since their
laborious, it was always unstudied.
has been too often either everything or

more than half the whole. Antithesis, emphasis, precision
age, expression
of language, nice distinctions, well-balanced sentences and

smoothly-rounded periods, these are the work of the Sophist
and the
delight
of the Rhetorician.
We
can mark
this
leaven working already in the speeches reported by

Thucydides, not so much as they were but rather as they ought
to have been spoken: we can trace it in the orations of
Demosthenes,
it
is
the
paramount feature in Isocrates and

and reaches a kind of climax in
the later orators of Greece,
the discourses of Chrysostom*
What
a gulf
is
fixed
between
96
a Chrysostom and a Nestor

And if we listen to any sermon or public address in Athens at this day, our ears are
!
same balancing of epithets, the same rounding

of sentences, which constituted in so great measure the art and
struck by the
the power of the early Rhetoricians.

Here
from a funeral oration on Lord Byron
is
a brief extract
Ti dv(\7ricrTOV
o-vp.j3ej3T]K6s
Tt diodpr]vT)Tov
8v(TTi>xi]fJ-ct
Kaipbs elvai, dfi ov 6 \abs TOV iroXviradovs 'EXXaSoy oXoy

dyaXkiacris f8f\6rj
not
(TT]p.pov
Kpe/3/3ari p.e
o\os 6\tyis Kai KaTT](peia

TTiKpoYaTa Saxpua,
Ilao-â
TO.
*cai
x ^
61
eTrio~rip.ov
Kcrra/Spe'xfi
6 yXvxv-
eyeivev adapts TTJV f/nepav TOV

"
'EAX^WW xP ia rtav ^>v
'
...... Ae/cra /iJe/3ata,
SfKTOTepa de\fi
TT)V
fVyVli>p,OO~VVT)V
dfjiOi^rjv (Is TTJV
epya pas
&TCI
fita TTJV
OTTO Tjflds
15
Trarpifia'
TO.
daKpvd
aXXa
8i6ri fivai Sa/cpva TQ>V K\r)povop.a>v TTJS dyaTrrjs TOV'

rjvai TO.
K("
TO vcKpiKov TOV
dyarrrjToi p,ov "EXXî'fS', TroXv SenTO. fivai els TTJV o~Kiav TOV
Has
X aP a
TOVTOV avdpa,
oSvperat drrapijyoprjTa.
XPI2TO2 'ANE2TH
TCITOS âipfrto-juos
i?
TOVS KO\TTOVS TOV TOV
els
6\iyos
avTr/v
7ro\i>
Kal \iovr\v
TOS (VfpyfO~iaS TOV, dVTTjV
TT]V
jrpbs f)p.as dyaTrrjv TOV, avTrjv TTJV e'Xa$pa>crii/ els TOS
TaXaiTTcopias TOV, avrfjv TTJV 7r\Tjp(op,f)v 8ia TOV \ap.bv TTJS 7ro\VTip.ov
TOV.
'
For the purpose of Sophists and Rhetoricians, which was

not to convince but to persuade,' new words were needed.
Such words,
being, in the
for
example, as
world of real
r<u
oW
existence (no
indeed,
literally
in
bad comment on
the consistency of a school whose leading axiom was that

was no such thing as Truth) Tov\dxio-Tov, KOT aXêiai/,
children of the Sophists and
8rj\adr}, fjyow, are the true
there
day in fact, without them it would be

on a connected conversation, or pen an
a newspaper. On the other hand, the simpler and
have survived to
this
impossible to carry
article for
less explicit particles,
modern Greek
such as
/î/, ye,
ovv. rot, yap,
either received: a restricted sense,
have in
and thus

made
97
was required, or have been supSo yap and ovv, which are very expres-
as explicit as
planted by others.
sive but not at all explicit, have been entirely displaced by
Std
and \oar6v, which are very explicit but not at all ex-
As
stage of the displacement of yap by

the frequent use of
by Xonrtv,
on for yap in the New Testament, which is I believe much
more frequent than is the case in the Septuagint, and the
pressive.
&oVt
and
the
first
we may observe
ovv
constant occurrence of Xonrov for ovv in Polybius, wherever

rather an emphatic ovv
To
is
required.
may perhaps be traced, or at any rate with

may be closely connected, the modern meaning
Socrates
his teaching
of such words as nadoXov, SidXou, oXoos (often emphatically

oXo>s Ka66\ov, oXcoy
joined for the sake of greater force
1
Xov), aperf], flpooveia, rjdiKos,
The
Cyrenaics appear
fTri(TTr)p.r) )
to
SiopKr/uds
have invented the word
particular (as in the phrase nepmal f)8oval), which in modern

Greek survives in the sense of certain, some, having degenerated from a philosophical term to a mere part of grammar.
So
true
is
one age
the remark above quoted that the metaphysics of

become the logic and finally the grammar of
will
like fate has befallen some terms

succeeding generations.
of the Platonic philosophy; as etducos from eldos, specific,
which
pronoun
now nothing more than
is
6 ddiKos pov, TO eldtKov
and
TT}S,
part of the
possessive
&c., mine, hers,
and so on.
somewhat complicated metaphysical significance in certain grammatical forms

is presented
by the history of the pronoun avros. This word
curious
interesting instance of a
expressed originally what may be called the feeling of subfor the subject as an idea had
jectivity rather than the idea
:
as yet
no
existence.
Nevertheless the subject appeared in
the world very often in an objective light, and in Homer this

is expressed by
putting together the objective particle I with
the subjective UVTOS in the oblique cases, as
avrov, of avro>, eo
98
v,
but
it
had never yet occurred
to the
join the two together as subject-object.

anticipation of philosophy occurs
first
Greeks actually
to
This by a kind of
in the
more thoughtful
age of Attic and Ionic literature, where we get cavrov. But

both in the Homeric and Attic age there was as yet nothing
but a kind of unconscious registration of metaphysical facts.
The subject never till the time of the Sophists, and probably
not until long afterwards, got so clear of itself that it could
be spoken of as an objective reality, as a thing. Yet such
must have been the case to a great extent before the modern
Greek
men
come
substitute for eavrov, epavrov, &c. could arise
before
could say TW cavrov p.ov, rbv cavrov rov, &c.

There may
a time perhaps when this tendency to objectivity in the
subject
may go
farther
still,
and men
will find
no
difficulty
an object, not only in its

objective relations (as in the oblique cases), but even in its
most subjective state, as the nominative. In this respect,
in contemplating the subject as
the English language

'
himself
'
he
'
a barbarism
ahead of the Greek,
the nominative, though
in
to help
is
it
out
whereas
6 i8tos
for
we can
we almost
say
require a
nm>s TOU in Greek would be
being used in such cases instead of the
classical avros.
In passing from Socrates and the Cyrenaics to Plato, we
must not forget the Cynics, who have left their stamp on the
language in such words as avrapn^s, avrdpKfia.
gave a new direction to language, to Plato
belongs the credit of having not inconsiderably increased its
power of utterance. In truth the Sophists and Plato toIf the Sophists
gether seem in great measure to have conquered the difficulties of expression, and by so doing to have given to
Greek one of the characteristics of a modern language. As
a mere matter of style Plato comes nearer to a modern

Greek writer than Polybius, or any Hellenistic or ecclesiastical writer.
We
seldom
reflect
what labour and
art
were
99
in beating out those convenient expressions,
once employed
those ways of turning a sentence, which make the flow of a

modern language so easy and its sense so clear and precise.
Here indeed other men have laboured and we have entered

into their labours.
Besides words to 'which the Platonic philosophy gave a

creator/ with all its derivatives,
sense, as 8r}[j.iovpy6$,
'
new
by the fact that many of his commonest

have established themselves in the colwords
and
phrases
one
struck
is
loquial language of the present day.
Upbs
modern
logues,
TTavrdiTCHTiv,
ureas, tfxuvfTCU,
fi^TTOTe,
and when one hears a common peasant say
for _yes, or
apd
ye,
common and
necessary helps to conversation

Greek, are the very hinges of the Platonic dia-
roiyap,
in
oTra>s
TOVTOIS,
8ev eida
7ra>y
TT&S OVK eldov
in
/uaAiora
emphatic affirma-
tion,
one cannot but be struck by such modernisms of Plato,
or
the reader
if
such Platonisms in modern Greek.
will,
But while modern Greek

its
form, to Aristotle
indebted largely to Plato for

owes much of its vocabulary. If we
it
is
would understand how such words as

VTrdpêiv,
Seiyjua,
came
to
to have their present

to
go
for
Aristotle
Aristotle himself
TpacpiKr}
'
vTrdpxei,
'
v\r),
the
it is
irapd-
%opr]yelv
almost necessary
And
yet
how
modern employ-
at their
'
writing materials
oixn<adr]s
'
exists
o-ol
evôfi
'
'
aâ-os
irporaa-is,
an
'
v7roK.eip.evov
a subject of unexampled
was
eVSeêrat,
explanation.
wish you a good appetite
that every fool
vXij, vrroKeinevov,
ova'iwo'rjs,
meaning,
an essential difference
immediate proposal
1
would wonder
'
ment.
opfgw,
opei?
Trporacrts',
drrapadeiyp-ario'Tov
activity.'
He
his disciple, or that
all
would
evepyeias,
either think
his disciples
were
fools.
The Stoics were not much of independent speculators,

but perhaps there is one idiom in modern Greek which may
be an echo of Stoic resignation, namely the third form of the
H
THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT ETC.
IOO
compound
6avoi>n(u,
future already noticed,
as though
'
it
were,
0e'Xei
It wills that I
airo6dvo>
should
for d
die,' that
is, it is the will of that great unknown impersonal necessity,

whom we sometimes worship with the name of God.
As regards the philosophers, the history of innovations
may
almost be said to close with Aristotle and the Stoics.
Succeeding schools having
lost
the grain, continued to
thrash out the straw of Aristotle or of Plato, until words
had
little
meaning
left,
and men had
little
hope of anything
better.
of the deadness of philosophers, and the

active opposition of grammarians and pedants, the Greek
Yet
in
spite
language did not stand still. The conquests of Alexander

and the consolidation of Greece gave rise to what was called
the
CHAPTER
The
Historical
VII.
Development of Modern from

Ancient Greek.
HITHERTO we have sketched the outlines of what may be

modern Greek, of which the principal
elements seem to have been first as regards its accidence,
called the basis of
archaisms, preserved in the vulgar dialect from generation

to generation, a tendency to simplification or
regularity both
and conjugation, and the mixture of
in declension
dialects
previously distinct; secondly, as regards its syntax, and the

use and meaning of words, a change in the mode of thought
and expression.
Having now considered the
origin of
modern Greek,
let
us proceed briefly to trace its development,

beginning with
the so-called Hellenistic Greek.
To
the
longs the
or Macedonian age of the KOIVT/ 8ia\Kros beGreek of the Septuagint, though there is every
first
reason to believe that this translation was

times,
task.
made
at various
and by persons very variously qualified to fulfil their

And here I may be allowed to remark, how very im-
a knowledge of modern Greek for the study of the

Septuagint and I need not add of the New Testament also.
portant
is
So much
the
more
in the latter case as
we have
there to deal
with the meaning of an original instead of

only with a trans-
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
IO2
lation.
It is
will give
a mistake to think that classical Greek
+ Hebrew
us the Greek of the Septuagint.

very easy to explain everything as a Hebraism, and
It is
the less our knowledge of
Hebrew
the
more
readily does
Now there are Hebraisms in

the explanation suggest itself.
the Septuagint, and, though in a less degree, in the New
unusual phrases are not Hebraisms.
a
Polybius, certainly
contemporary of many of the translators of the Septuagint, may have many Latinisms in his
Testament; but
all
Whaton
ever light may be thrown on the Septuagint and
Polybius
be
more
Hebrew
and
Latin,
gained both
infinitely
may
by
by
from
a
of
modern
Greek.
and
the
other
for the one
study
writings, but all his peculiarities are not Latinisms.
And what
perhaps sounds still stranger, the Greek of the

present day affords a better commentary on the language of
Polybius, of the Septuagint, and of the New Testament, than
either the writings of
contemporary historians, rhetoricians,

grammarians, and philosophers, who for the most part wrote
a purely artificial Greek
or than from the many thousand
ponderous tomes which encumber the threshold of verbal
criticism.
To
speak
shown how
are
the
familiar
first
first
to
of the
Septuagint.
We
have already
of
its authors
grammatical peculiarities
appearance of the same forms which are
the
us
in
modern Greek.
the phraseology of the Septuagint
But more than

is
modern
to
this,
an extent
when compared with that of

and
only explicable by the assumpcontemporary writers,
tion that the writers are using the common vernacular, which
which
is
quite
marvellous,
had already become in its spirit and essence much what

modem Greek now is. For example, *Ee\Qe
TT)S yfjs a-ov,
Koi
(K TTJS irvyyfvdas (rov...iravTs (eK\ivav, ap.a Tjxpftto&ijo-av,...
rdfos di/cayyfieW 6 \dpvy

familiar phrases.
avrwv,
sound
just like
modern Greek
Let us mention a few well-known words,
FROM ANCIENT GREEK.
OF MODERN
common
'
'
I return
and
a leader
'
vpna-Kwco,
'
and
as
fvos,
7retpda>,
Trpo'oTKo/i/xa,
eTro/icu
Koi/iajîat
many
'
to
'
'
salute
'in the presence of;'

'
to
tempt
KO.TOIK o>,
KaBifa, for 'to sit;' ra i>cma, for
for
'
'
rrpoa--
d/coXov&M in prefer-
'
the supe-
or
worship
in preference to euSco
one
as
ricrrpe'(a>,
modern Greek
(in
'
monastery)
'
ea>s
(passive), 'I answer;'
'make ready;' cvumov,
eYoi/ida>,
ence to
'
f)yovp.evos,
rior of a
K07rTu>
and modern Greek.
to the Septuagint
'I visit;' airoKplvoâi.
rofjLcu,
[03
0X0? for
to dwell
TTCLS
'
KaQefrpai
the clothes;'
t/Trdyco
for
Besides words of this kind, there are others, the pre-
tlpi.
sent usage of which dates from the Septuagint, words to

which Jewish ideas have given a new and higher meaning.
is
Ovpavbs
name
no longer the mere blue
one of many
for
sky, or a mythical
but
habitation of the
the
deities,
Ancient of Days. 'Ap-aprLa no longer a mistake, but the

fundamental error of mankind, estrangement from God, and
Ui<ms becomes the trusting
the breaking of his perfect law.
obedience of
faithful
Abraham, and of
Ada
the saints.
all
is
the glory, or sometimes the honour of the Almighty. O Kvpios

is no longer the man in authority, but the name of the Lord
of lords, and the King of kings.

Before going on to the New Testament the order of time
demands a few words
for Polybius.
It
cannot be said that
the general run of his sentences is so modern as the SeptuaMany of the novelties of this
gint or the New Testament.
For exauthor are equally found in the New Testament.

'av
orav
ore
for
he
for
and
and el.
Uses
dXXd,
irXrjv
ample,
Other modern usages are aKp^v
iv.
60.
Cf.
far
v,
in
meaning
<rvvelBr).
Anthologia, P.
more so than
one place
in
in
is
for en, as already Theocritus,
vii.
the
"ibiov frequently for

case in classical authors.
141.
the sense of same, the
modern Greek
'idiov
Here, however, the translation
the sense of worth or weight, as
most usual
Kai Trapcm-Xô-iov rats TrdXeo-t
OTTO
is
8e'/<a
doubtful.
'An-6
in
TaXdvrav, weighing
JC4
10 talents.
So the Greeks of to-day say

Ets TOVS xaff
XeTTTa, a;r6 p.ia Se/capa.
pletely
of
els,
modern Greek,
fjfids
xaipovs,
KU& râs
for eV rots
ftoi
dnb
which
is
86s
ment.
now
I will
This use
xpovots.
as well as of Kmpos, belongs equally to the
com-
New
add one or two examples of the
Testa-
modern
phraseology of Polybius. 'O rrjs TrpaypariK^s io-Topias Tponos

i. e.
the method of actual history.
rjpny/zartKwy dtcyoq&Tow,
ii.
50. 5.
AiKctioSoo-ia,
Tpwyo/ifz/ for
Hell.
22,
*)
yap \^ts
already used in this sense by

Kara ras TreptTTdo-fis, according to
avru>v
^v
Testament,
TOV Trarpo?
i.
John
"iva
8.
continually for the infinitive, as
with the subjunctive
Matthew
OVTOI aproi ytvutvrai.
modern
Bpe'x ft for vti,
TJJV
as
K^d\co.
TTJ
ycevvrj.
p.ecrov,
we may
for
is
iv. 3, etVe Iva ol
among
Matth.
used
X/ôc
(i(pfs cKj3dXco,
v.
45.
"Evo%os
the
fls
Tlfpicra-orfpov for ir\iov,
'ETravoo opovs.
'
greater damnation.' Avtnco'Xcos for /uoyis

Avrbs for &s or
with difficulty/ Luke xviii. 24.
TTfpicra-oTfpov Kpl/j,a,
or
X^KUS,
'
ouros passim.
'Eo-Taî/ for
the dative as in
modern Greek. Ou eyu
oiVou rbv i/LuWa TOV

e'Sa>
Acts
o-r
"
ii.
to
fo f X aP lv
'tSe'rat.
modern.
eyyi'C<w,
to
The
passim.
'ifiov
OVTOL
7, OVK ISov irdvTfS
'
fill,'
eo-Ti/i/
{/TroS^juaroy.
for eKao-ros in
'
others,
Eis for eV, as fls rbv KoKnov
'Ava
yetvvav for
a
Id.
Etf (poftovs (TWf)(eis
among many
modernisms
as
rbv xpovov.
continual fear and distress.
New
St.
&a
eê^cbpjyo-av
notice the following

,
'AmcrTraoyia,
Trpoatpeo-fts.
TOVTO rr^jnatW* /cvptwy.
avTT)
Ka\ rapaxds, into
In the
ras
'Ex roO
l8.
XI.
3. 8.
i.
Kara
circumstances,
diversion,
2vfi(f)a>vovvT(s, in
Eif dXrjOtvas tvvoias ayetv.
1 5-
i.
Xenophon,
xxxii. 17. 19.
2;
proverbial
Aonrbv avaynrj crvyûipciv ras dpxas KOI ras virodeafis
of bargaining,
sense
the
xx. 6.
used, however, only in
fo-diofj-fv,
expression.
fivai TJsevbeis,
jurisdiction,
genitive for
OVK dp-ai agios Iva Xuo-o>
for
tlcriv ol
here,' the
modern
XaXovi/rej FaXiXaUMj
Lob. in Phryn. on the word.

xii. 5.
Such forms as yef"'(X
Cf.
Romans
approach/ are mostly Hellenistic and
OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK.
Romans
[n
the phrase T>V
receives considerable light

dialects of
many
'
r)fvpu>,
Many
105
TTJV d\t)0fiav ev ddiKiq
when
modern Greek
it
is
known
is
that KOTCX^ in
used for the more general
know/ formed from the aorist of

another phrase, which to the mere
I
e&vpla-Kv, rj&vpov.
classical scholar
appears dark and strange, and in which critics of the school

of Bengel think they hear the unearthly utterances of an
oracle,
would appear simple and natural
modern Greeks.
the vernacular of the
Testament we may remark

are to which
finally
how many words
the prevalent one, as 8ia/3oXoy,
al&vios.
Above
dyuTrrj
all is it
there
now
KoAacri?, 6\tyis, fMeravoeu,
and hardly occurs,
although the verb
how the biblical

epus. The word is
interesting to observe
has replaced the old expression
Hellenistic,
New
has given a peculiar meaning which has
it
become
word
one versed in
to
In leaving the
dycnru)
I believe, in classical
does.
Now
the verb
dyarrS)
Greek,
implies
noun aya?r^, which must therefore have existed in the

mouth of the common people long before it came to the
surface in the Greek Bible.
'AyaTnj being derived from the
root ayau-, as in dyafos, &c., is a far better word for Christian
purposes than epo>y, and indeed it would have served even
Plato better in his more religious moments.
Compare the
the
Platonic
observe
with the Pauline
epco?
how
this
'
love'
is
dycnrrj
in
Cor.
and
xiii.,
with Paul, as the epms with Plato,
not only the religious sentiment, but
more
generally
still,
upward and outward longing of the soul, a divine

principle of development, which is at once the only eternal
certain
element
in,
as
it is
the
common
all
knowledge
St.
Paul, from that which
alike,
substratum of
all
belief
and
mounting ever upward, according to

is in part to that which is
perfect,
as in Plato, from beautiful sounds to beautiful forms,

beautiful forms to beautiful
thoughts, from beautiful
from
thoughts
to that idea of
part beheld.
good which mortal eye of man never but
in
106
With Polybius and the

the
to
Roman
New
Testament we pass within
period.
any one desires to form an idea as
the state of the spoken language about 180 years after
If
no book
Christ,
be more useful than Lobeck's edition
will
of Phrynichus' 'Eclogae' and Epitome. It is really astonishing to see how nearly every un-Attic form, against which
Phrynichus protests, has established itself in the language

of our own day.
One may instance such forms as (payds
and
for
(paKas, vrjpov,
dtro
KpvTTTQ),
modern
now
vfpov, for vdwp, (p\ov8iov for (Xoioy, Kpvpco
uaKp66fv,
pleonasm,
Ai0aptoi/,
common New Testament and

oradepos,
(and similar derivatives),
<av(piov
/3ao-iAro-a,
fvtTfvfiv, Kopdo-tov,
for poidtov.
potftiov
Passing on to the age of Diocletian let us stop for a few

moments to read a Nubian inscription by a king Silco,
Corpus Insc. iii. p. 486, which may serve as a type of the
Greek spoken
StA/tob
'Eyw
els
time in Aethiopia
/Sao-tXi'oTKoy Nou/3a&eoj> (cat oXi> rwv
at that
Tf\uiv Kal Td<piv, airag dvo eVoXe^T/o-a
dfOS f8(OKV
p,0l
avrwv, fKaOecrdrjv p.(ra
VLKT](J-a at'TOlV
ttTTCl^
p-fra
TO viKTJpa p.TCl TOIV f^BpUiV OTTa^,
(Kpa.Tr)(ra rets TroXeis
TTp&TOV
T>V
per' avTcov KOI uîcxrav p,oi
TU>V
KOI O.VTOI rfîOXTaV
TO. e'id(o\a
aXXa aK^v
(cf. dcpevvrai in
d(f)u>
T<!)v (I
KaToo
fp.rrpoo'dfv
/J.T)
fJ-fpr)
KiiTr)i(i)o-dt> p.
avTcov.
New
B\(p.p.vo)V, Kal 6
ox\a>v
ds ra ava
oi
yap
ra>j/
avTOVS
at^ flui.
fls
Kcidfo~6r)vai
vr^pnv
fls
TTJV
yvvaiK&v
Kal
fO~a>
TTJV
o~Kidv
et/m)
olniav avT&v.
TO.
iraibia
fJ^fprj
per
p.ov.
fîov
x&pav av-
'Eyo)
yap
firo\fp.r]o-a /iera
dv<i)Tepa> firopflrjo-a ^copaj avTcav, tTrei&r) t(j)i\ovtiKr)o~av p.fT

fls
p.ev
tpT)Vr)V
fls
TWV
Kal oi aXXoi Nov/3a6aij/
B\/j.av(av Kal nptjuecos ecoj TeX[/x]ecof eV aira
d(p) avTuvs
KO.I
TO
aXXa)j/ ]3a(ri-
(pi\ov(iKOvo~tv
Testament)
p.(pi)
p.ov'
TTOir)O~a
fJi.
Kal TrapaKa\ov(TLV KaOfaOTJvai.
\f(DV flpl Kal fls avu>
TToXtV
fVLKT](Ta
OTf fyfyov6p.rjv /SaoriXiWo? OVK dnrf^dov oXtoy OTTiVto
OVK
rj\6ov
avrwv, KOI fatoTCWra TOV opKov
avTtov a)S xa\oi flo~iv avflpcaTroi' dvaâ)pr]6r)V
Xeoov
Ai$io7ra>J>
fp-ov.
OVK
v7TOK\ivovcri fwi Kal OVK

ol
avT&v.
yap
(pi\ovfiKovo~i fioi
For wildneSS of
FROM ANCIENT GREEK.
OF MODERN
IOJ
the Re-
this inscription is not equalled even by

velation of St. John, while for childishness of expression
The chief modernisms are o\a>v for
stands unrivalled.
grammar
Tcav, fTToXep-rja-a /iera
dprjvrjv
airrSiV,
fj.fr
perfect like cvprjKav

cftTjKa
in
as passim in the Revelation,
and
a hybrid aorist-
d<j)>
for
and
cd>paicav in the Septuagint, evp^Ka
eiraxav,
d(pirjfja,
modern Greek, and
for
CO-CD els
it
in
eV,
and
modern Greek
fie(ra els.
Other Nubian
y
forms as
inscriptions
give,
as
in
Romaic,
such
lov\is for 'lovXios, with genitive tovXt, TOV as enclitic
for avTov, besides every possible extravagance in
and every conceivable error
grammar
in spelling, the latter class of
mistakes, however, invariably pointing to the identity of the

pronunciation of that age with that of the present day as
;
rj\Kva-e for
eiX/cuo-e,
ipeos for
dpxaicos,
From
TfKWS for
TCKVOIS, ucftxrt for eiKcoo-t,
apêwy for
leptos.
the age of Diocletian to the Byzantine Period
is
but
a step, and the history of the development of modern Greek

from that time is shortly told. Until the time of Ptochopro-
dromus, in the eleventh century
was
after Christ, artificial Attic
the language of literature
still
often referred to by authors, keeps

to the surface
especially in such
Nicodemus' (end of fourth

'Acts of the
Patrum,'
but the popular dialect,

coming from time to time
;
works as the
century), the
Council
'
Gospel of
'
Apophthegmata
of Constantinople,'
536,
and
Antecessor
Joannes Moschus/ 620, Jus'Theophilus
Constitutiones Novellae/ 565.
In the Gospel of
tinian's
'
'
Nicodemus' and
words, not
many
we have
in Justinian
number of Latin
of which, however, have survived.
One
of
arma, is a curious instance of

Greek ingenuity in disguising barbarisms for an armed
man' is in modern Greek dpârwXos = oTrXiri/y, on the analogy
of ap.apTO)\6s. See Sophocles' Glossary of Later and Byzanthem, however,
app,ara
for
'
'
tine Greek,' p.
59 of the Introduction.
I08
The
chief
modernisms of
for
pi. ot dftpdbfs, KOTTciftiv
/coTrdStoi/,
TO. err),
eort
and the combination
beginning of a word
this is
6 d/3/3as, roO d/3/3a,
period are
the
modern
form of salutation
as a
TroXXu
:
this
KOTrdSt
a^^v
(a piece);
^â, evi for

At the
as T&VIMS, rfayydpia.
found only in barbarisms but
;
for
probability the combination existed in certain words

even in classical times, as a necessary intermediate stage
between the old Attic double o- as in Koo-o-vfas, and the later
in
all
Attic rr as in Korrvrpos.
It is
I subjoin a short
this
period from the
Iva
irap avrov Traperedr] Kpeas

vop.fvoi KOI Xaftuiv
TO.
p.6a")(iov.
7TicrKO7ros cv
Konddtv
Koi
Ifpd.
Kat
TG> irXqcriov
\eya>v, 'l8ov TOVTO KaXov Kondbiv tortv, (pdyc dj3/3a.
ov/ceVt
rrpon-eQero
ov&e fls
el
avrov
Ot 5e
8e Kpeas
WTI
avrwv ytvaacrdai
strange improvement on the Apostolic precept,

The meanness of
ask no questions, for conscience' sake/
CIVTOV.
'
Kcu
rpct)yop.fv.
rot)
((
fj(r6iov jj.r)8ev
eficoKf
fVTfs finov, 'Hp.fls ews apri Xdâi/a r)(r6iop.(v
ov
in
'
'AXe^dvSpeiav K\t]deiTS VTTO Qeo<pi\ov

fV^Î/ KCU Kddf\r]
7TOlT)(rr)
adopted
style
Apophthegmata Patrum
Trore Trarepes (Is
that the
KOTO-U$O?, or KOTV(J>OS,
specimen of the popular

'
know
interesting to
vulgar Greek of the present day gives us

sometimes pronounced almost Kochvfyos.
the language
is
harmony with the moral degradaof meats and drinks usurping the name of
in striking
tion of a religion
Christianity.
The next period in the history of the Greek language may

be reckoned from 622, the date of the Hegira, to 1099. We
have here before our eyes the transition in literature from
the language of the
grammarians
to the
language of the
people.
Theophanes (758-806)
nouns in -as, *As XaXTjo-cB/zev
tl(Te\66vra>v.
<Ti&r)p(0fj.fvos,
gives us -dfcs as the

for XaX;jo-&>/if>,
The
and
plural
of
&s fto-e'X&ao-t for
perfect participle without reduplication, as

dirb with the acCU/cuoreXXw/ifVof, 7rvpno\r]p.fvos
,'
sative, a-vv
109
with gen.
Malalas,
with the genitive, as well as
dp.a
whose age cannot be determined with

addition
-fs for
from
plastic
77
modern Greek
certainty, gives us in
-a, as Hepo-es for nc'po-m, rals TrXaKdis,
meta-
7rXd, as though it were 77 TrXdKa; K&V in its

usage, ofcu K&V rjaav, 'whatsoever they were
Mera with the accusative in the sense of with, as the
like/
mutilated
modern
Armenius uses
The nameless biographer of Leo
/*e (?).
the
-ow for
ending
and
-ova-i
with the
CK
Leo
the Philosopher,
accusative,
evyevbs
evyevfjs.
886-91 1, has IdiKos =proprium, as in Romaic, and the ending
for
Constantine Por(second pers. sing, passive).

phyrogenitus, who wrote all his works, with the exception
of the Life of St. Basil, in a style purposely popular, gives
for
-ea-ai
us
-ei
aXXdt/*oi>,
gen.
a\\agip.a.Tos
demned by Phrynichus
yfvfjs
eras
for
cf.
the form TO
ycXdo-ifioz/,
povoycvf) for the vocative
con-
of povo-
the ending -KOS, proparoxytone (possibly a Latinism) ;

TO>I> for avrSjv, cva for ei>, etVe for el: cure is
t>/ieoz>,
prob-
ably from fWJ, just as

o-ov fjpepa,
from eWt
elve is
'good morning
for
crov
to you:' va for
tva,
o-ot,
and
as KO\T)
ecos
with
the accusative.
An anonymous
known
writer,
tinuatus, gives us "A\v gen. of
Theophanes Con-
as
XP V(T S for xP V(ro vs

Cedrenus, A.D. 1057, the numeral adverb eVrat for eirrdKis,
This would appear to be a relic of an old instrumental
ending.
Common
Scylitzes gives us the following

dialect,
modern Greek
used for
"A\vs,
#d)
<re
coi
e'ya>
ae exrura (f)ovpv,
ere
xaXdo-o).
e/cno-a
'ECO
dialectic form, as well as
(povpvf,
specimen of the
tre
âXdo-co = in
eS>
Iva
eya)
ere
va
(sometimes
occurs in modern Greek as a
to>,
la>v.
Cf.
Boeotian
to>v,
l&vya.
Anna Comnena, who wrote a history of the Byzantine war

about the year noo, gives another example in the
following
verse
To
(rafifiaTOV TTJS
rvpivrjs,
IIO
Kat
TTJV
KaXcoy ycpaxiv
e,
Here we have
,
TO
the enclitic
for
common
o-a/3/3aroi/
TO,
devrepa,
TJ;
in Greece,
8fVTcpav TO Trpau
p.ov.
for
ra>
o-a]3/3ara>,
cvorjo-fs
for
x aP?7 r for X aP f ^ s used optatively, TÎ/

KaXws as a form of salutation, still
and the diminutive yepduv
for yepovnov,
on
the analogy probably of o-KiAaKiov, diminutive of <TKV\OS,
or,
properly speaking, of
yepuKiov,
and, in
This closes
The
dialect
pular
who can be
writer
first
o-/<uXa.
is
repaK/
contracted for
modern Romaic, would appear as

the mediaeval period of Greek
in
its
said
ye/>a/a.
literature.
have used the po-
to
was Theodorus Prodromus,
entirety
nicknamed Ptochoprodromus
a monk who lived in the
of
the
Manuel
Comnenus, and addressed
reign
emperor
to him a series of popular verses, o-Ttôt TroXmccoi, preserved
;
by the grammarian Coray in the first volume of his

'Atacta/
The burden of these verses appears to be the
of
learned
men. They are written with great spirit,
poverty
and remind us of Juvenal. The Greek language is now
to us
emancipated, and begins again to show its native power.

We subjoin an extract taken from Mr. Sophocles' book
above-mentioned
Trjv
*Ai>
cx<o yeirovdv
Na
TOV etna) Vi,
els
@acrt\cv,
(rov,
Ke(j)a\r)v
nvav
iraiftiv
Kf\r]
Ma0e TO
TOVTO
TOV
eiTTQ)
TfiTOvav
ifô)
eve
Evdvs TO
Na
TO,
va
7077
Traiftiv
o*ov.
7T(Ta)TT)v,
TTJV
ftpd(rrj
/u,ou,
*cai
avyrjv
TO *paa\v
ical
(3pdo-(iv TO dcpp.bv
Traibiv
Xe'yeis
ovofidarovv.
Tâyydprjv TO
KaXoôvvio-TT)S, eve
yap Idy
Aeyei as
Ma$e TO
Vt,
p,e
dyopiv,
ypap-fjiariKov
Ila/m KpavtapOK(pa\ov rrdvrts va
Na
T'I
dyopao~e
/3aXf TO
Xf-ytt
Trpos TO
iraibiv
TOV
FROM ANCIENT GREEK.
OF MODERN
Kal BXo^tKov rvpiv aXXrjv
t>epe
Kai 80 s
'A<p' ov 8e
Kav
ora/uevapeav,
va irpoyevo~u>p.ai ) KOI ToYe va TTCTÔVW
p.*
fpddo~r]
Tecra-epa TOV
Kai irapevOvs
Ill
TO rvptv Kal ra xop5oKOtXrria,
diftovcriv
V7r68rjp.av
TO rpavbv
els
eTraipei
Kai TTfT^
Orai/ 8e TraXtv, /Sao-tXev, yeâros copa
Pl7TTl TO K.a\a.7r6dlV TOV, pl7TTl KOI TO
Kai Xeyei TT^V -yvi/aiKa TOU, Kupa Kai 6es

Kai irpwTov \u.a<rov (Lat. MISSUS) CK&OTOV, dfVTepov TO
o~<povyya.Tov}
Kai Tpirov TO aKpLoiraGTOV 6<p6bv CLTTO

Kai reraproi/ fj.ovoK.vdpov, TrXrjV jSXeTre
'A<^'
ov 5
To
J3a(n\v KOI Tpio~avd6fp,d

Kai
o~Tpa<pa>
TOV
t'Sco
JJL
TO
Xotrroi'
TTOJ?
KaOifci,
araKO/OToVeTai va 77*0077 TO KOUTaXtv,
TTCOS
Kai
oufiev
Kai
e'yco
~Ev8vs
/Spcz^.
/LH)
o~ova iv Kai vtS/ferat Kai KaTCTT),

7ra.pa.de
A.va6fp,d p.e
Ovrav
p.epiov.
i/a
vTraya) K'
TOV
o~d\ia
TO.
Tpt\ovv
JLIOU,
epô/zat TroSas
cos
TO
r/jeêt
?roTa/ztv.
p,Tp>v T&V orixwv'
yvpevw TOV o-Trovdflov'

Fvpeva) TOV Trvppiîov KOI TO Xotrra TO /xeVpa^
AXXa TO p.GTpa TTOV '<êXoi)v 's TT)V apfTpov /zov 7Tivav
IIoTC
>TT
r)Tw
yap 6K TOV
7TO)S
ESe
>
'utfj-ftov,
ta/x)3ov
va (pdyat Koap.OK.pa.TOp
>
6K TOV TTUppl^tOV TTOTC /MOV VO \OpTO.O~(i)
Tf^viTTjs cro(pio~Tr}5
fKelvos 6
TO Kvpie
rjpâTO p
The language
'\(T)o-ov,
here
is
essentially
'
modern Greek, though

we have ?rpo-
the middle voice appears not quite extinct, as

yeuo-co/iai, JTPÔTO,
ephelcystic,
now
is
left out,
etymology of
8v.
&c.;
and
sometimes etymologic, sometimes

number of words where it is
written after a
as V7ro'%iav,
eS&>
The form
from
eve
TraiSiv.
I8ov.
we have
"Ebc for
Ovdev
is
i'8e
strengthens the
written for the
referred to
on
p. 79.
modern
112
For the subjoined translation

'
By your own
head,
meaning
king,
am
responsible
I
swear,
do
not
know your
Suppose I have a neighbour now, blessed with a boy in breeches,

"
Shall I go tell him, " Teach your son his letters for his living ?
Sure
the world
all
would dub me then a most consummate block-
head.
I
Nay,
should say, " Go, teach your son a bootmaker's profes-
sion."
One
of
make
neighbours cobbles shoes, perhaps pretends to
my
them;
Now there's a famous manager, who understands good living.

No sooner does he see the dawn streaking the sky to eastward,
Than straight he cries, "Let boil my wine, and sprinkle in some
pepper."
Scarce has the hot potation boiled, when thus he hails his servant
" Here
boy a shilling's worth of tripe go bring me from the
:
market
shilling's worth of cheese besides, Thessalian cheese, remember.

If I 'm to cobble shoes to-day, I first must have my breakfast."
And when
the cheese comes with the tripe in dainty little clusters,

fill him to the brim a
mug of vast dimensions.
Four times they
And
then he takes a shoe in hand and cobbles at his leisure.

But when the dinner-time comes round, why then, my lord and
master,
Away
"
with
Good
last
wife,"
and cobbling-board, the time has come for eating.

" come
cries,
lay the cloth, and get the dinner
he
ready?
Bring
me
the
broth,
that's
the
first
course,
the second
an
is
omelette,
The
third a
haunch of venison
mess of hotch-potch
for
pie,
browned
the fourth
nicely in the oven,
take
care
it
don't
boil
over."
When
all
is
served
and he has washed, and
seats
himself at
table,
Curse me, your gracious majesty, not once, but three times over
If as I look and contemplate the way he sits at dinner,
Unbuttoning his waistcoat first, to hold his spoon the easier

does not fill my hungry mouth with water like a river.
It
And
I; I
go and come again, and measure
feet for verses,

and long, now
for two longs together

with
all
the other measures.
syllables,
Alas! what help the measures my unmeasurable hunger?
When, mighty prince, will shorts and longs provide me with a
low hunting
And now
for
for a short
two short
dinner ?
Or how with two
short syllables
am
I to
fill
my
belly?
Behold a shoemaker indeed, a skilful craftsman truly

A blessing asked, he straight proceeds to polish off the
;
victuals.'
CHAPTER
VIII.
Modern Greece.
Dialects of
PROFESSOR MULLACH divides the existing dialects of modern

six main varieties, besides Tsakonian and Albanian, whose claim to be considered Greek dialects will
Greece into
be separately considered. These six varieties he designates

2.
as follows:
i. That of Asia Minor, ai/aroAiK?) StaXocroy.
Chiotic.
3.
Cretan.
That of the Ionian
6,
and
for 6e\co,
unaspirated
6.
Peloponnesian.
Islands.
chief feature of this dialect
as TeX<
5.
DIALECT OF ASIA MINOR.
i.
The
Cyprian.
4.
tenues.
K for
The
is
dialect
the substitution of T for
general a preference for

of Trapezus seems to
have preserved us several Homeric forms, as adf = edtv, and

&pov = was for the substitution of v for s we may compare
CXPC S, *xop*v, &c., where the s is first dropt, and then its
:
place
filled
up by
In the same
v efaXtvariKov.
dialect,
i.
e.
has a very archaic sound.

eVrt.
"E\\vos = robuslus.
rrjp
as
Ba.ya.rtpa.
of Trapezus,
*Evi
and
SixXoTros for dirarriXos
*v still
stand for
tori,
i.
e.
'Egfrrdyrj appears as exTraycy, 6vyd-
'K stands for owe instead of the
modern
DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

Greek
on
Ka =
*8ev.
/5a7rto-/u,a,
perhaps a blow
the mouth, possibly connected with maxilla, of which,
however, the
from
6ts, is
common modern Greek form is /zdyovXoi/.

modern Kptas 7rpo'/3ioi>, or ir
Hoamv = 8ep/xa, cf. TTCO-KOS. To Trpofiav =
in place of the
Ovs Stands for eW.
HoSe&ifa =
Trpoftarov.
Seo/îat, cf.
KCS,
but
Homeric
which appears also in

have never been able to discover an
said to preserve the
Pontus as
TO
THE CHIAN DIALECT
2.
is
MaiXas =
Kara).
115
any of the Chian
<e,
poems which
example
in
'A8az/a is
Aa certainly stands
explained by Mullach 77877 vvv.
modern Greek, as eXa 8a = exactly aye 877, eXa being
for
877
in
have read.
imperative present from eXdw or eXafw, the root form of

= eXavvco.
So tOO Kcipe da, o^t 8d, (for ovî 877).
3.
abounds
THE CRETAN DIALECT
and archaic usages.

In the
marked
most
feature is the sound of K as
ch in cherry before e and sounds.
'Yo-fTy is said to stand
for the modern crds, eVets = vpels.
The omission of the augTO as a relative
ment and the use of 6,
strongly remind us
in peculiar
forms
pronunciation the
77,
of the Epic and Ionic dialects
Ta Kap,av
In Epic,
TO.
e. g.
/cat
TO.
(pepav.
Kap.ov Kal
TO.
(pepov.
In Cretan we also get the dialectic form povOe for
4.
appears, in
many
THE CYPRIAN DIALECT
common
with that of Rhodes, to leave out in
instances the semivowels 8 and

I
y,
as /uedXos =
DIALECTS OF
Il6
for /xeyay,
well
to)
tv TO dAXa<T(ra>
compares
for eya)
X6//3o>,
and
Mlllhich
TO aXXa(rcro>.
Set'
Boeotic for
oX/op Sicilian for oXryo?, lav, lu>vya
Epic for
tycoye, ft/Sea
MODERN GREECE.
and
rot , rat for ro5i
n.
rafii
in the
6\iyos is a
'Corpus Inscript.'
Cyprian form. We have also the Pindaric opvtxa for opviQa,
and also ax oy for fiddos. In Meo-aFoupt'a, or M(ra,3oi>piu, the
Elian Rhetra.
digamma
is
as X^Pyu f
preserved,
r
termination
X^P
ioi>
At'oy
for
r stands for the consonantal
of diminutives appears as
iv,
Iwra,
The
o-apavrapya for [Teo-]o-a/ja[Ko]j/rapia.
1 **)
as in Ptochc*
prodromus and later Roman period (whereas in the common

dialect of Greece it appears as t)
e. g. fiowiv, iraidiv, p.e\io-<nv
also TOVTOV for TOVTO cf. in Attic ravrbv for Tdvro, and roiovrov
:
for
TOIOVTO
the latter form belonging also
to
Herodotus
and the Odyssee.

Aa/xyco stands for e\avva>, as vcpvos for
TT and p seem also
o-e/Si/o'y
interchangeable, as we get pXoiov
TrXoToi'
for
and ?r^/xa for /ii^/ia. Iloi) va pfopev rcopa whither
shall we now tend? peop.fv being connected with ope
:
We
get also the metathesis dapwa,
rpcn-vos, for Sdxpva,
re'/37ro/zai are possibly the same root, in which

alone would be referable to the Sanscrit trip,
Tpfnopai and
case
rpe'00)
This metathesis leads us
tripdydmi.
3eo, Tapfivfa with the
or
/<?
^c>
tion of
seems
azâv,
rap/3eo>.
modern Greek
to
connect rdp&os, rap-
rpa^'o), eY/i/3ia, /o
which doubtless was the original
/r
significa-
In Cyprus as well as in Crete the
enclitic
to be preferred to the proclitic construction, e?Sa TOV to
TOV e?6a.
5-
in general
as
seems
to prefer verbs in
Tt/tiao), Tip.dfis, Tt/uafi.
It
the accusative in such words as

this
may
an uncontracted form,
appears to use the nominative for

(<pr)p.fp\s
for efpTj^pifta, but
be a matter of pronunciation only.
metathesis
TO-J)
stands for
TT}S
By
as well as for TOVS.
a curious
This
is
117
also found, I believe, in the dialect of the Ionian Islands,
and
certainly in that of Crete.
In addition to these general divisions, Mullach notices

especially the dialect of Thera as peculiarly harsh and singing,
and draws attention
ovondfca-at.
as
in
Ai'Sw/zt,
Ta
Soj/co.
to the
archaism
modern Greek
ntis duoveis for ntis
Si'Sca
or StSowo, appears
TO,
This must
Trpay/nara, from TO Trpdros.
and
the
of
irpaKos,
strengthens
theory
philologers
TO wpdyos &C. are weakened for -npax.-.
Xpj/âraco
TrpaTT]
stand for TO
that rrpay,
= xp?7/iaTe&>, which
in the
common
dialect
employ myself, spend my

TO ypafalov row, I was employed two years
means
time/ &c., as exPW*TW a
'
'
only,
Mo
els
CTTJ
at his office/
idiomatically used, according to Mullach, for xpw-p-fvu,
is
among
the Theraeans.
In Cythnus, Psyra, and Chios, flvras, e/ra is used for TIS,

TI, which appears to be a transposition for rtW, metaplastic
(compare 6Wa[y] or 6Wa[i/] for 6Yaz>) ; and as such

should be written iWa?, iWa. Yet ovrav looks very like oire dv
= ore occurs,
[xpovov], especially when we remember that oire
from
TIS
In Cythnus too the termination

6Vai>.
be added on to certain words with no meaning
as well as 6Waz/ for
i>e
seems
at
all,
to
as xhp a ~ ve yivf-ve, p,avpa
(popfdjj,
where
it
(pope6r)-ve }
1.
e.
X*lP a ^y^vfTo,
pavpa
would seem we have the archaism of a
In Cythnus
neuter plural being used with a singular verb.
instead of rjpda or rj\da, an additional
fpxop.ai makes ^px a
>
for
ground
rjvQov, and
connecting in one root fpBovpat, epxopat,
rj\6ov,
rjpda.
In Siphnos, Naxos, and Thera, the forms exouo-t, eiâa-i are

They are also common in
preferred to ex ovv an^ elx av
-
Crete.
In Amorgos, Calymnos, and Astypalaea, x palatal is pronounced as sh, e. g. ?x cshi. The augment is lengthened,
cf. the common form fjiria for eiriov.
as fjypafpa for eypcKpov
:
The same
thing occurs in ancient Greek in
0e'Xw, ij&e\ov
and
Il8
as r)6e\ov implies a form e'0eX&>, so probably eVti/co, eypdcpw are

obsolete forms from which fjypaâ and TJTHO. have arisen.
In
these islands
6\(vQcpos occur for eroi/xos
common form
the
Compare
tffpoy.
and
orot/xoy
In Patmos the Aeolic accent,
opaptpos for
aXrjdrjs,
Sei'^vo) (i. e. fietKi/vco),
and
o-wao) for yvwpifa
and
trvmyo)
i.
e.
and
Also yvupio
implying the forms yi>copi'5-<o
e'5fiej/,
o-vi>ao>,
ftx vo)) ec
SouXfi>(o.
by the insertion of teora =y, made

and hence yvapifa, crvvdfa.
afterwards,
into yvcopityo, trvvdyyo,
too, as in Asia, K appears to supplant x> as ea), oro-
Kdop.ai,
earlier
ep.op<f>os,
naipos,
In Rhodes, Carpathos, and Calymnos,
Here
eXeu-
obtains.
oxr],
Stand for
and
sound.
Tex
8io>Ki>o>,
may sometimes be
the
really aspirated from TfKvrj, compare

So in modern Greek SeiKi>&> becomes
"!
eTfKov.
Tifcro),
Here
TfKVLTijs.
epKOfjiai,
and
SKa^vco,
in ancient
Greek
âtrLvrjs is
con-
egaitpvrjs.
appears to have an aspirating influence on a preceding tenuis. At the beginning of a word x
sounds like h, as hdpts for xP ts
tracted to
In Carpathos we get rera-apes for Tfo-a-apes, an intermediate

form between reo-o-apes and rerrapcs, as KOT(TV<POS is between
K6o-o-v<pos
mination
between
and
Korrvcpos
tVo-a,
lo-o-a
and
common
and
trra,
in
In Rhodes, a
is
i.
cannot doubt the feminine
as seen in
standing the accent, which

a Doricized lonicism,
modern Greek,
may
/ue'Xto-o-a,
arise in
ter-
be intermediate
to
/ue'Xtrra,
notwith-
modern Greek from
e. tVo^, tVo-a.
often
weakened
to
*,
as
a-irepiv, o-cpoyyepiv
for a-irapiov, (nroyydpiov (here too notice the termination

/),
for avoige ; -yeXa^y appears in ancient Greek for yoAi/wk ;
means the
me fa, and
'
plainly
veXor,
nvfXov,
smile of the sea/

their
Compare too
corresponding forms voXos,
TrvaXov, TTidfa.
In Carpathos,
similarly,
we have
irevriKos
and
KadeXov for

and
TTOVTIKOS
"o\vp.7ros is called
KadoXov.
119
"EXvpnos at the pre-
sent day.
Professor Mullach
observes
fewer
that
found on the islands than on the mainland

rpdyos, ovcCXoy,
and
Kpios,
have not yielded to
diminutives
:
are
the old forms
rpayi, ovcuXi,
and
Kpidpi.
We
have now to consider a very singular phenomenon in

the shape of the Tsakonian dialect, the language of the inhacan at present do little
bitants of the ancient Cynuria.
We
more than
vagaries on
forms and grammatical
few peculiar
state
the authority of Professor Mullach.
we have undeniable Doricisms and

carry us back to
scarcely parted from Latin.
seem
let
US notice
(poova for
An
Homer.
ySou7ra> in
dwdpevos,
seems
tion,
Kcnrve,
KTOVTT>
when Greek had
for
(partly Boeotic)
KTVTTO),
cf.
ySovTros,
apparent tendency to use the vocafor Porpvs, dfvovp.fve for
&6r<rxv
xP*i which
derc,
period
As Doricisms
(poovrj,
for the nominative, as
tive
that
to
First, then,
antique forms which
in
the forms
vopo,
cro<po
to explain itself partly as a dislike to s as a terminais
by
paralleled
Compare
tWora,
certain
vecpeXj/yepeYa
forms in Homeric Greek.

with
the
Tsakonian
TroXiVa,
Other peculiar forms are as

=
=
endvov
follows
'iKava), an undoubted archaism
Kpcus,
Kpi'e
= yvvr], KOVC = KVCOV, viovra = VVKTO., i. e. vv, vi>x a = ovv^-f,
yovvauea
vavra, epip/ra, Tf^v/rn, Trpocp^ra.
:
cf.
i.
vvcrcTci),
archaism),
e.
Tcrxi
vv^yu),
ri:
Trdcrxa
Trotra,
=
(poovp.fvos
evdcrx*
<po/3ovp.evos,
= evQev
and
(another
<f)v(ovp.ev
(pvyuptv, cf. fyvfa. Zelos stands, according to Mullach, for 6dos,

but he does not inform us for which delos, whether in the sense
of uncle, or in the sense of divine. If it stand for the latter,

I should derive it not from QUos, but from dlos, and write
Io?, which might be compared with ap/jfoXos and dp/S^Xoy, &c.
Z stands in Tsakonian instead of K before e and i sounds,
which
is
only to be explained, so far as I see, by assuming
120
that <
was
first
found for
as
IT,
becomes
yal
*al,
y.
for
Kidva>
Aa/cruXo?
yXeoo-o-a.
Thus
maw. P
softened to
yie
'.
is
as ypovo-o-a for
for X,
SaruXo, 7rpd/3aTa npovara, the semi-
vowel changing to a vowel, n68a, -nova] 0eXo>, 6eov and rorxfov;

the tendency, noticed elsewhere in
&'3(o-/zi, Sioi; ( observe
Greek, to drop 8 and X)
becomes
KVVCS
Bvpovo) QrfjLovKOV, dya7rov(Ta dycnrova
appears as
i.
is
ciyovpa
e. dpTrayco
yd
for apror,
avdpvnos
is
which
/coOe, Kf<pa\r)
a^pcoTro, crxta îa, dpirdfa
for yaXa, like Kpl,
aXcpirov,
Mullach
in
therefore
dftpdya),
Sa>, epi, /3/n, aX^>i.
have above connected with
a\(vpov, &c.
foixpaXa,
apovpa (another archaism)
',
aX&'co,
from Professor
dissent
regarding avde as a word unkno\vn elsewhere in
Greek language, nopcvxf ( = ^)> to which Dr. Mullach

can assign no etymology, appears to me to be evidently
the
*/
i.
e.
common
the
in
Greeks say ra>pa

and the Germans nunmehr.
as
henceforth, further,
becomes
dialect,
and
eV&r^f,
would naturally become
$'Xo>
the
To-\eov,
TrdppWo-êi',
therefore noppadev
while
o>
and
o,
as
we
have seen, readily become f, as in *o{5e, ttairve. We thus get

ir6pp(6(rxev, the v of which may of course be dropped at
pleasure
no doubt
and
in
near enough to nop^x* to leave

mind as to the derivation. The declension
this is quite
my
some very extraordinary
of the pronouns presents us with
phenomena
= eaov
jfj.a>v
fit
fju
fjfuv
vdpov
ep,e
ei/t'ou
fjfJ^ds
tp-ovvave
crv
fKiov,
PI. ffMOv,
Of
vp.ov
fp.oi
G.
G.
rt,
D.
viovpov,
vi,
A.
D.
KIOV.
viovpov,
A.
ep.ov.
the third person only the following cases are
G.
o-/,
D.
TJ,
A.
PL, G. and D.
<ri.
<rov.
known

Here euov
for
is
is
= nov = TV.
plainly for e-noO
&C.
Avo-i'nj,
for the
K,
Ktp.),
Ttivepe } fTftva'i,
exem.
declined as follows
N.
G.
121
Cf. the
Boeotian
&C.
eretvov, erfivapt, ereivov.
D. wanting.
A.
It is difficult to
<fivi.
ercivevi, erttvcan,
conceive
how
these words can be accented
No
as Professor Mullach writes them.
the change from r to K in the
The
Nom. and
less extraordinary
Ace. neuter.
formation of this declension, so far as
it
is
can be traced,
evidently barbarous, and proves to my mind that the

Tsakonian is no pure dialect, but a jargon or lingua franca
is
and
think
we
shall
be able to trace certain Semitic elements
in the structure of the conjugation.
me
to stand barbarously
conian cWvop
barously for fKcivap
fj.
for exflvos
enough
6 ereu/at for eVceiVa
and
17,
Yet the
Here
fTfivapt
may be
eYftWpe
6,
broad La-
in
still
seems to
more
bar-
in all these cases
merely the well-known demonstrative termination
and per-
haps in that case rmWpf should be erdvept.

For OVTOS we get the inexplicable form
:
N.
evrepij evra'i,
G.
fvrov, fvrapi, CVTOV.
t'yyi.
D. wanting.
A. evrevi, evTavi,
PI.
N.
evTfl for all
eyyi.
genders.
A. Masc.
and
TI
respectively
TI and res or
Tcrî.
"Os,
fj,
o, is
ertivepi; where we have a clear case of barbarism,

inasmuch as the masculine and feminine endings e (for o?)
and a are added on to the modern Greek indeclinable relative
O7TOU.
122
EI/U is conjugated thus in the present,

ere, ivvi
and
in the imperfect,
ep.a, ea-a, e/a
evi,
;
tWi, ewi
epp.a'i, eraif,
These forms are hopelessly barbarous, but it is pretty

plain that C-KI is formed by adding a fragment of exdvos, *ei
on to the prevailing vowel of the root, while in Ki-a'i we have
two
suffixes,
one to show the third person, the other to mark

t, which runs all through the imperfect
plural,
the plural, viz.
and
probably nothing else than the article 01 added on.

is just what we should expect from a Semitic
is
This again
race trying to learn Greek.
The
further formation of tenses
eyaprfKa and epirolita are formed as a

equally remarkable
in
Greek fashion, but the present and
kind of aorist-perfects
is
imperfect are expressed by the participle and the substantive

verb joined by the letter p, which perhaps stands for o-, in
which case we must assume that to simplify matters ypd<pa>v

became ypd<pos, Laconian ypd<pop, and that p was written by
analogy after a, where however, agreeably to our theory, it
may be optionally left out. What is plain is, that these
foreigners who were trying to learn Greek looked at each
termination as a separate word, and probably regarded the
root ypa<p- as in itself the participle, in accordance with
Semitic
principles
is
ypd(f)a>
in
However
of grammar.
Tsakonian
that
may
ypa<p-ov-p-evi or ypaty-a-p-evi,
be,
accord-
ing as the subject is masculine or feminine, and so forth.

The substantive verb may also be prefixed, evi ypd(pov, evi
&C.
ypdtya,
So, tOO, the imperfect,
e/xa
ypd<f>ov,
Or
ypa</>ov-
pepa, &C.
The
Or
fi
ypaôv/ifve, &C.,
The
va
present passive
Tjfj.ai
future
is
is
i.
similarly
e.
6c\a>
yp(i<f)op.fv6s e'ori,
thus expressed
instead of
formed ypoôvpcycpat,
Beov va evi ypcxfrre,
flvdai ypanrds',
&c.,
&C.
i.e.
0e'Aa>
the verbal adjective
supplying the place of the perfect participle.

rt
With the
periphrastic present
and imperfect we cannot avoid

attenparing the Spanish estoy escribiendo, and drawing
the
and
that
the
fact
tion to
only NeoPortuguese,
Spanish
-L.C
Latin
languages which were subjected to Semitic influences,
In
the only ones in which this idiom is found.
likewise
e
H ebrew
is no present tense, and, properly speaking,

but
the meaning is given by the participle and
imperfect,
the pronoun, which are in force exactly equivalent to the
there
no
verb in
participle -f substantive
It is plain
an Indo-Germanic language.
Tsakonian language did not develope,
that the
other dialects of Greece, in a natural way.
like
It is
the
language of a foreign race, adopting and adapting the

materials of the Greek language, not once and for all, but
that Greek was still ancient
gradually, partly during the time
The old
Greek, and partly after it had become modern.
that
this
show
as
I think
Doric forms timora, a, &c.,
foreign,
Semitic, tribe
tions
was
had been
Cynuria before
settled in
obliterated
by
dialectic distinc-
the *om) SiaXexros
yet as
we
cannot with certainty assert that they ever were quite obliterated, it is hard to say how early or how late the settlement
may have been

old as
all
Homer,
Again, tTTTrora, &c. may not be so

may only be mutilated for 'nnroTas, as
formed.
for
words ending
it
in
dialect has preserved
for fldov,
ffjiiroiKa
are.
But
many
ancient Greek words, as &>paKa
for exa/za.
in the language of the
at
'Opaco
common
any
and
rate, the
TToie'cB
Tsakonian
are not found
people in the present day.
Again, the distinction between dative and accusative is still

The word endvov = wava seems to take
partially preserved.
us back nearly to Homer. To a>Xe for TO i'Aoi> and ayovpa
= apovpa point back to a time far anterior to the later period
of ancient Greek, certainly as far back as heathen times.
On
the other hand,
many
of the forms and constructions
are plainly corruptions of modern Greek.

That there has been then from time immemorial settled
in
Cynuria a foreign
tribe
which has mangled the Greek
124
language, and clung to
it
which
think I
is
astounding,
But what was
out.
people
who
done, and
in its
mangled form with a tenacity

may assume has been made
this foreign tribe
know
of but one
are capable of doing what the Tsakonians have

that people is the Jewish race.
They alone
choose by a natural
and harshest
instinct the very broadest
among whom
dialect of the people
they alone
seem capable of giving to each word the most barbarous and
mutilated form which the imagination can conceive ; they
they
settle
are the only race which, though they live for centuries among
strangers, will never learn to speak their adopted tongue
Some
correctly.
Semitic element must certainly be at the

dialect, and what Semitic race so
bottom of the Tsakonian

likely to
have founded inland colonies but the Jews
Tsakonian words
for brother
and
sister, d6\
and
In the
ddia, I
cannot
but recognise a genuine Hebrew formation.

Brother in
Hebrew is 'ns (in the construct form), and ^nx seems a
possible,
though not
the feminine of
T ^,
in classical
Hebrew an
actual form, for
In the plural of the
first pera
pronoun we
grotesque attempt to combine the vowels and consonants of the Hebrew and Greek.
1
'sonal
e. sister.
see, I think,
In the nominative
ffj-v,
i.
of which the
13 S
first
transcription of the
anu,
form
we have
is
Hebrew
little
the two forms fvv
more than an
and
iotacized
while the other has a
little
more resemblance to the Greek form. The genitive and

dative vd-p.ov, seem to be made up of the Hebrew fragmentary suffix 13, and a similar fragment of the Greek
We
,
knowing
have already seen by various examples, as ypdfov

KIHOV = rt/^wv, &c., that ov stands for -(ov, and
that a = ov, e.g. epi = fjpow,
we have no
difficulty in
In the
writing VU/JLOV into the required form vov-^v, at once.
accusative (povvave, which could scarcely have attained so
extraordinary a length except on some such theory as that
here advanced, we seem to have the elements t

softened
first
into
and
epdvavov.
then,
125
the
final
ov
becoming weakened into t, and compensated in the second

the i being weakened
iyllable, epovvavi, and hence epovvavc,
in
turn into
its
e,
as in Xe'yowe,
five,
&c., &c.
The
accusative
and the fragment ou,

is evidently ^N
which is either a part of eo-ov = in Tsakonian eyo>, i.e. cyô>
= eWo>, or more probably is simply the ending of the
first person of verbs in o> which in Tsakonian = ov, and
singular
eviov
eVt
would of course by a Semitic race be regarded as a pronominal suffix, as indeed, in its original form, it really
The
was.
whose settlement
foreigners
we were
in Cynuria
supposing, seem to have been rather puzzled by the fact

unheard perhaps among the
that with the slight difference,

j
Greeks even in very early times, as now, and in any case

and v,
barely distinguishable to the Semitic ear, between
17
and second persons plural were the same, i.e. vpels

and fjpeis. Having formed epovvnve = fjpds, they left out the
vdve, which seemed to them the part of the word most clearly
the
first
indicative of the
first
person, and used the mutilated epov for

wels, the more so as
both the nominative and accusative of

epov
came nearer
The
lovpS>v
genitive
their pronominal fragment QD than did evi.

and dative viovpov, seem to be for lovp.lv and
= vplv and vp>v, but with some prefix,

probably
D = Xe and
pi
pi regularly
becomes
v in
Tsakonian,
t>
e.g.
and
via
= pia, &c. while X might very well become so.

In any
case the analogy of modernizing Greek would soon make
the dative take the same form as the genitive.
;
The way
tion
11
on
H in
to
in
which a
n)
is
added as a feminine termina-
an indeclinable base, as
in mrova, as well as
perhaps
erfiva'i,
correspondence of the frequently recur?
ring masculine termination e with ~t and ov with iKH, all
point to a complete confusion of Greek and Hebrew gram-
mar
the
phenomenon
held by Professor
the
Max
more
interesting, as I believe
Miiller to
be an impossibility.
it
is
126
I
copy out
for the perusal of the reader
one or two short
specimens of the Tsakonian dialect, given by Professor

Mullach in his 'Grammatik der Griechischen Vulgarsprache,'
emend
taking the liberty to

appears obvious.
where such emendation
his text,
i.
onova Kadapepa
Nt'a yovva-LKa
eâ via
Mia
efê \uav KOTTUV (opviv) fjns
yvvfj
cva avyo.
vop.la av
eia
cv avyov.
ê
d/ze'pa
8vo jSoXas Kaff
fjp.fpav Ka\
5ei/
vi
TTJ
'AXXa
&
cuape.
'AXXa
f]
TTOÔV
TroXXoO
ird\ovs 8ev fjfji7r6prf TT\COV va
The
translation underneath
that eiTTOife
errotKf,
as Kal
yevva
ACOTTO,
OTTO
opvis,
UTTO
va ycvvdr) naveva avyo.
TrX/a
Traorôu
efiiropifc
cyevva
da yevvdei
Kpio~i
efJLTrolfc.
(TO)
yewova
TroXu Kpidiov da
opvidi
TTJ
Ki
Ka6r)p.epav
rav Korra Trooê
vt8l
av do)(ry
eVo/ntê
Kar*
5u/3oXai
KOTTO.
avyo.
modern Greek.
in
is
Kavev
yevva
Note
f.
2.
Hfpov
eva
Kovf
OTTO
TO
HfpS)V
ftff
KV60V
OTTO
TOV
Tao-ov
opov
(Heb. Taxa6
Kl
0-âO-t
KOVC
TTjV flKOVa
if
(Ki
Kvcav OTTOV
*X OV KP'ie
eiê
p.e
TTOTafJLOV
?)
TO
p.
TO
TO
uplc
*s
TO
TOV/ZO
KptaS
fls
TO
(TTO/iO
vo
TO
[rf] ?]
TOV vSaTOS
KOl 6pO)V VTrOKOTO)
O*KiaO~lV
Trora/Lio
Cv6fJilc
**
T0 T0vtla
TOTf
'
Kpeas (is TO oro/ia.
va irdpc TO opovpevc, Ka\

TO oujievov
Ka\
CKI
carrepfj&r)
6pOVp.l>
TO KOTO OpWpfVOV
770)9
aTTO-
TT)V
TO KOTO)
VOfllgoV 7TOV
va<66-
o^t*
TO
Kl
TfTO
aXXe
aXXoff
dXrjdivb
dia
TOTC afpr/ne TO dXrjdtvbv 8ia

e
OTTO
ica\
TU>V
TO.
dovo (rrcpovre.
8vo.
THE
3.
'A(/>eyya \_\v6tvra ?]
TI,
ovvop.dv
TOZ>
ovpave,
i/a
epov
e
[VLV ?] frdp.epe'
6f\r)fj.dv
cs rav
fyj}'
TO.
a<pe vdfj.ov
TOV ^peovc^tXTre vdpov,
ecri
j/aftot>, TT'
TO
ra$?7
LORD'S PRAYER.
i/a
p;
TI,
va
/ioX?/
ayiacrre TO
va. evi
a J3affi\ciav
-^pie vdfj.ov
Kadov
<pepifpc epovvavf
ê
'$
evv
or
va.fj.ov
vi
ffjLp.a(plvre
Kfipaa-pb,
Notice the archaism
the form
Vav
TI
TOV av&e TOV tirunxTUOf Si
fXevdepov va/iou OTTO TO KOKO.
remember seeing
VTOI/ ovpave,
dXXa
/zoXfl.
tytv as a
iyrjv
Judaeo-Greek
specimen of Hebraistic modern Greek, but where
I cannot think of any
I saw it I cannot now recall to mind.
Greek derivation for ffrov the first part may be the Hebrew
form
in a
TN.
Comparing Zfyov with Kadov,
cf.
epo>s:
also
t^N"i"TX
'
tolerated.
stands for
as in heaven, so afterwards
ToO/za for orc'/ua is also
the combination or at the beginning of a
being
or
it
for ITUS. *Epws would be the

= then first ; dann erst German, turn
demum Lat. the sense being,

The omission of o- in
earth/
istic,
see that
TTOV
above,
Greek writing of
we
on
Hebra-
word not
Observe no Spanish word begins with
st
sp.
On
a review of
all
the evidence,
we
find ourselves quite
'
Die Sprache der Zakonen

uns ein noch unentwickelter Zweig der altesten Gestaltung des Hellenismus (!) und ein Schliissel zu verschieunable to say with Dr. Mullach,
ist
fur
denen Erscheinungen sowohl der alten und heutigen Dialecte, als der verwandten Sprachen/
It is
true that
some
light
may be thrown on
other lan-
guages, especially those in a transition state or in a process

of amalgamation, by means of the Tsakonian dialect.
For
we
can be no primitive or undeveloped form of Greek, because we know that the greater
the rest
are sure that
it
Greek accidence was ready made before ever the

Greek nation rose into existence.
part of
128
cannot agree with the derivation To-a/tcoi/es from

K might become TO-, pronounced almost as ch in church,
before palatal vowels
but I know no instance in Greek of
I
such a change before a guttural vowel.
The
other deriva-
more improbable.
is
AaKwfs,
yet
In conclusion, I must leave the question to Semitic scholars.
I feel confident that the more the matter is investigated, the
tion,
more
clear
it
will
duction of Greek
Hebrew
become that Tsakonian is a hybrid proand some Semitic language

whether
;
or not I will leave to others to determine.
on
I will pass
to consider as briefly as possible the Al-
banian language in relation to Greek. The popular notion

of the Greeks themselves that the Albanians are the ancient
Pelasgians, may be after all not very far from the truth.
Certain it is, that in Albanian, in spite of its corrupt or
modernized state, as seen in the poverty of its case endings,
&c.,
we do undoubtedly
Albanian
Latin.
is
find the meeting point of
neither
more nor
less
Greek and
than modern
and no greater service could be rendered to

than an ideal reconstruction of anGrammar
Comparative
Graeco-Italic
cient Albanian.
can now do no more than barely indicate a few instances

of the connection of Albanian with Greek on the one hand,
I
and Latin on the other. First, then, the very alphabet is

mixed in Albanian. We have both d and 5 as well as / and
6
we have again both f and and b as well as /3. Besides
<?,
we
have, as in Sanscrit, a palatal v written h, and a palatal

=
in Sanscrit.
like
r r,
Again, the palatal y and K, which
in modern Greek are used only before palatal vowels, have
this
an independent existence, like ja and chd

which are only modifications of palatal g and
in Albanian
Sanscrit,
In a word, there
is
in
k.
a far greater wealth of both vowel and
consonantal sounds in Albanian than in Latin and Greek
and
it
is
plain that
when Graeco-Latin separated
into Latin

and Greek, the Greeks took along with them & j3 and 8, &c.,
the Latins b and d, &c., while many sounds, as for example
sh, zh, they left behind them as far as we know altogether.
The
we
fact that
find in Albanian the
Greek and Latin
sounds combined, proves the general identity of the
modern
with the ancient Greek pronunciation to something very like
demonstration.
To
us
proceed to the grammar. The first thing that strikes

the preservation in Albanian of the infinitive endings
dvai, and epev-ai, corresponding to the Latin substantive
is
evai,
terminations en-i or en-e, and men-i or men-e
cf.
pecten-e,
In Albanian we have these
nomen-e, specimen-e, &c.
sub-
Greek, but the infinitive mood is

expressed not by a case-ending or suffix, but a separate
= p, Bavow, \vcrep,ev-ai = jue \vo~ovp,ovv.
word
(pdv-ai
stantive
endings, as in
prefixed e.g.
termination -ovp.ow slightly varied actually appears in
Albanian as a substantive ending, e. g. apo'fp.fv = eXevo-t?,
;
The
7rpedLKip.iv
between
Albanian gives us again the transition
praedicatio.
-/u
and
o>,
in the
form
op., <prjp.\
= 66p,.
Albanian preserves the ablative termination

for the genitive case
Explanation
which
uses
it
e. g.
diTT
vde
m(de)
/,
te
p-ppertT
epodtt.
diebus TOV imp'ratav = imperatoris
rodis, with Greek termination y-s for
He-or.
T as the sign of the third person singular in verbs is likeBut this /

wise preserved in Albanian, as &or = $<m = (prjvi.
is often weakened into v, both in the third person singular
and
the second plural.
I will give a
few paradigms
illustrating the relation
between
the verbal terminations in Albanian and Greek.

Present.
Bop,
6oi>
6a>T
(pap.1
fpacrl
<paT\
=
=
(prjpl
Suva
(pfjs
Bovi
(prjcrl
6wv
<pap.ev
(pare
(paa\v, i.e. (pavri.
130
Aorist.
6ds
e(prjv (e(
6av = f<pacrav.
Imperfect.
form is to be compared with yvav, Albanian

With $ocrre = eâovte compare i'crre = e<TKe.
classical r)\6ov;
*Ep8a = modern Greek
root,
in
rjpda,
haps Sanscrit ard-
'
apdovv = eXdelv,
t\0CTtt>*f
&c. =
Et/î,
lap,,
te'j
come
to
i.e.
epdep.
;'
fp^dopev, fjpQanc
rja-iv.
perapOr =
\6efj.fV.
a<7T, tci/a, levi, lav.
Albanian explains to us the meaning of the termination

*a, which is so common in Greek both as an aorist and
we
perfect termination, as
in modern Greek in
see in e-d^-Ka, e-Sco-m,
Se'-Soo-Kcr,
and
(Tsakonian), eypd^Ka, &c.

of which one form seems to have
evpr/Ka, eopcka
In Albanian nap =
been
Now
the perfect in Albanian
Se-Scoxa,
infinitive,
thus formed
is
Kap.
ddvovv
Kfva ddvovv.
Ke
ftdvovv
Kfvi
ddvovv.
KO.
ddvovv
KCLV
ddvovv.
Literally ex
In
ex**,
and
and
&c., as in
Sovvai,
e-Scoica,
xa = ?x&>
The Albanian
for
modern Greek
the root of the verb
is
and
used as a
is
ede,
is
put for the
suffix.
plainly the
Homeric
Ide
and
$d*.
not)
and
TI
and
are
quis, &c.
irov
xl
are in Albanian KOV, the original form:
and Ka;
Sanscrit kah,
M,
kirn,
ris
Latin qui,
now
I will
illustrate the
tences and words
*Ep6e
fj.de
'HX0e
dfj.(pi
Ot
/-
language further by a few sen-
re
o-qyar,
SUa
TO.
eSe
r)8e
re
a-qyar VOVK
SUa
th
VTJ-OVK. e
e rrpirev.
7rape'Xa/3oi/.
â.
*-JL
Oi
e<pa.
*Arot
= aurw.
Cf. ayrap
and
drap,
modern Greek
dros
and
*2*
Inde
ore, rjpQav.
(TKeTrrjv
ore ^Xôi/ ets r^v otxiav.
the Latin zW#-,
or
indi- t
=
w^; Greek d/z$t;
(
another form of the same word.
Latin
N(/e
z^-, and
eVi) is
appears to be
/i<5e
above, the
probably only
VoetreV, i-
Vop^)ei/, i.e.
;
=
la
Tropi/eia,
or
op(pai/o'y.
vdoKfv, edi
and would suggest an older form,
KopFveia.
The etymology is
<pavepa>.
paidfacie (palus = <#*, implied in palam).
Mda\a<pdi<e
eV r
MIKOV = amicus ;
vep.LK.ow, inimicum.
KovXovrc = aTrdXvrot
quasi aKo'Aovroi (?).
/XT)
Troifjs.
plainly
132
Ae'ou
yala,
ficua, y?y.
eVcei.
'Arte,
/3iabw.
Pidfrvcriv,
Kapa.
TlovX
In modern Greek
fyewrja-e.
nymic
TTOV\OS
Cf. Latin pullus,
termination.
a patro-
is
Greek
TroiXos,
also -pulus in disci-pulus, Albanian difreTrovXi.
The word
God
for
in
Albanian
same elements
The
view that
nepvdta nepvdi, gen.
Does
ncpvdie or Hfpvdur/, ace. nepvdive.
the
is
as Diespiter, reversed
SftXtvot/
and
17X10?
this
word contain
are connected
is
some-
what strengthened by the Albanian for Tpuor, which is

"ETOS is in Albanian Fir, cf. Latin vetus, Sanscrit vatsas.
becomes
.
Fir
FTS.
in the plural
It is interesting to find
eVt eros, the relic
di\i.
in the
modern Greek
<eYoy,
of the F in the form of the aspirate.
i.
e.
In
probably only transposed for Faros, and this

to
us
understand
Fehrev, the Albanian for avrov in
helps
f
I have written /3 here
Ffhrev being equal to t-avrov.
eavrov,
'EviaFros, dfro's is
and elsewhere
as F, because
present that letter.
But the
seems almost always to rechanges in Albanian seem

instance represents sometimes
it
literal
by no means regular h for

X, and sometimes
though
:
<j>,
it
these letters are interchangeable in Greek.

hip,
x^P ls ) h*p*,
fopds,
form
Two
re
<rf,
are-hep*
modern Greek
with root (paythis
<f)opd',
for
= airy
fit'?.
hiivypow, (payelv.
mind that
Thus we have
must be borne
in
(popa, i.e. vvv, dii hfpf 8vo
Also
(Is
ha.
rpa>ya>,
connected
hunger connected with
?)
Latin particles receive great light from Albanian,
and se.
means
'Pe in
Albanian means new, and
<r.
in
viz.
composition
= dftvvaroi, i.e.
not, e.g. ar'iiavvder, ov bvvarat, ffipawdt
vovovvres.
A
AD;
passive
verb
is
changed
prefixing the syllable ov,
The
Kap. (
tion
=
e'^co)
is
g.
into an active in Albanian by

ddvow = bovvai, ovddvow = doOfjvai.
formed, like the perfect, by means of

and the infinitive, but in the future the preposi-
future tense
fjie
e.
133
inserted
The pronouns
phenomena
in
is
examples,
Kap, jue Trep-yiairow, o/ioicotro), /or/*
Albanian present some very remarkable
Greek.
Albanian.
*
6VCOV. LO)V
A.
OVV.
G~
p.e
/Me
pov, p.io
peye,
D.
/AOt
With the
enclitic, p.ove
plural
it
is
better to
compare the Latin
N. nos
A.
In
nofa's,
vd.
nos, Sanscrit ndh
vd,
G. Sanscrit nah
D.
emphatic.
emphatic
vl.
ves.
Sanscrit nah
this veFe, written' also
ve're,
enclitic vd.
with the ablative termination
we have
the Latin bis or bus, the Sanscrit bhih, the Greek

<i; or rather we have the Sanscrit bhi, the common element
in -bkihj -bhyam, -bhyah, &c., for ve- has not
only a dative,
but more often an ablative,

Kfiva>v, re TtavdeftT, TOOV
Greek.
N.
i.
Albanian.
2v, TV
e.
genitive force, as in drtWft =
'l
Sanscrit.
TJ
ytiyam
A. 2e
re
G.
Tfye, reyeT
yushmdn
Qi\\. yushmdkam
Tflo
ra,
A.VTTJS
is
in
and
rtye
Albanian
often dative as genitive.
yov.
^î.yushmabhy-am
ao-at,
which
Albanian.
in
yo\).
j/ovs.
yov-fe.
signification
is
as
This comes very near the San-
134
scrit
asydh (gen.), asyai
Sanscrit zyam.
The
The nominative
(dat.).
Kere, TOVTO
is
fyo, cf.
be compared with haec-rc,
may
possessive pronouns are extremely puzzling.
= &pa
seems straightforward enough but when we come

which the genitive is 'ATM- rod, we see that the
possessive pronouns have the peculiarity of taking the caseThis same caseendings as prefixes, instead of suffixes.
(
firj)
to "hriyovi, of
ending T appears
in the possessive
pronouns to be accusative,
as well as genitive or ablative in force.
Is not this so also
in the Latin personal

in
amples
Albanian
(TOV, d8f\<f>6v o-ou.
pronouns
But
not
this is
all
endings prefixed, but sometimes,

signs of gender also
pronoun but a
is
nosm-ef, vosm-et?
tete,
are, feXa UT, aSeX^dy
Ex-
T#r-feXd ddcXcpv
not only are the case-
at least, the
differentiating
so that nothing remains of the original
single consonant.
a feminine termination
Thatjyo
U we have in KUL =
o-ov,
OVTOS.
Thus fa = o-6s, y6te =

we have seen in ay$, she,
0-77.
Yore seems moreover to have

if we regard cp.e as = efu?-
a double feminine termination,

is
vv
plural, and, so far as I
can
'Efj-rjv is
rovyen
and
vvf
repe
vfjLerepav,
rjpfTepav, rcSv
see, for all
or ToVe
and
;
TOVI
fjfterfpa,
genders.
'
e'ficx,
r6va
e'/**
rj/jLeTepav,
TWV.
Internal changes of the vowel sound also take place, as

'
T
i
/
1/1-OT TTOTJ/p p.OV, Tf TlfJi-CT TOV TTdTpOS flOU, Tffl-OT TTtlTfpa JJ.OV.
v'
When, however,
it
has a
much
the possessive
pronoun
is
used substantively,
simpler form, as
yWe
TC
p.iar
lav
re
Trdvra
TO.
(pa
clcr\v
TO.
riar
ad.
For the oblique cases of o-dy, one form used is ravd and
The
ravde, of which rdvde appears to be the feminine.
difference
between rdvde and TUT seems to be that the one
is
used with a preposition, the other with a verb, as /ie T#r-feXu

(ue TOV a5eX0dv (TOV in modern Greek), but DoviffKivc rdvd, e8e

kl p,evl d
ravd, i.e.
Ames vicinum tuum
135
etoderis inimicum
tuum.
We
will
conclude
this
account of the Albanian language
with a few prepositions and numerals
Me =
modern Greek
with,
p.a
TOV
/ze
and
/*a,
ancient Greek pa,
Ai'a.
=from> Greek rcapa.

=
Ufp through, Latin per.
Upe'i
Kowdep = contra,
e = in, Latin mdu-,
and
utt
on,
Greek ei/So- and

Latin ambz'Q\ Greek a
z'ndo-,
= super.
I.
V\, f.
2.
dii.
3.
Tpt,
VI.
f.
rpi.
4. Karep.
5.
6.
TTf'a-f.
yidcrrf.
7. orare (Sanscrit sap fa).
8.
.
re're.
vavdfT.
II. vi/iêSere, i.e.
ei? K.T. A. eVt'
12.
2O.
340.
50.
TreereSe're,
&C.
100. KtW, Latin centum.
1000.
It is
p.iy.
observable here that Latins, Greeks, and Albanians
count together as
sents
some
far as 10,
difficulty.
although the form vdvder pre-
Afterwards, however, the agreement
136
Latin and Greek coincide in
ceases.
and
12, but the
Where the ancient

coincidence goes no further.
Greeks said Tpeis<alKa the Romans said tri-dccem. The
agreement between Latin and Greek is, however, resumed
exact
in
viginti,
('IKOO-I
(IKOVTI
or
FIKOVTI
while
in
Albanian,
is plainly a different formation, and seems to be

compounded of vi-, one, and er, which must mean a score,
v'i-er
whatever
but
rpt
resumed
in
6eVe,
derivation.
its
Sere,
Afterwards,
&c. = not
Yet the coincidence
and so on.
<(vd - centum,
i-piSer*,
and
numerals after 10 afford no
piy
= milk.
historical
is
The
rpi'-f
again
fact
is,
evidence as to the
independence of different races, though their agreement,

however occasional, does supply most indubitable proof
of their having sprung from one stock.
The same
race may have two modes of counting beyond

and
one
10,
may be more fashionable than the other, or
The ancient Greeks
both may meet with equal favour.
themselves said SeKarreire as well as Trei>TKai8cKa, and the
modern Greeks say not only
SeKcnrevrf,
but SfKarpds, 8fKa-
In the Teutonic lan-
recrcrapes, SeKaeTrra, Seâo/crco, deKaevvea.
guages ii and 12 exhibit a similar divergence, while in

English we say twenty-three, three and twenty, sixty or
French, Italian, and Spanish count to-
three score, &c.
gether as far as 60, after which they diverge, though only
The numerals, therefore,

again afterwards.
us
no
for
grounds
doubting our original hypothesis,
give
that Albanian presents us, in a mutilated shape, with the
coincide
to
Graeco-Italic language before
it
had
split into
Greek and
Italic.
With regard
to
vdvde or vdvdtr,
question whether
we
have not the same word in the Latin nundinae, -inae being
simply a termination.
v&vdet, I
less
would suggest
than twenty,
i.
With regard
to
the
derivation of
that as dnavim'sati in Sanscrit
e. nineteen,
means
so dnadasa might be another

form
for nine, of
which
m/Sere or aVSer
137
might be a contracted
The influence of the v would naturally convert d into

and we should then get aWer= 10, rendered more definite
form.
d,
in
Albanian by the prefix v\= i, hence mavder, vavdcr.

We have already seen that Albanian preserves many of
the Sanscrit forms which Latin and Greek have
we
will
conclude
ample.
In Sanscrit,
respectively in
this
rapid
sketch with
lost,
and
one more ex-
words anya and itara are used

the sense of 'the one' and 'the other,'
the
two
being combined in the compound anyatara, either.' Now

in Greek we have erepos, and in Latin caeterus, both of which
(
words may contain the same root as itara. But in Albanian

we have both, opposed to each other, in vi-dn, the one,'
'
and
indefinite,
find
'the other;' the prefix being in one
Ti-erpt,
vi
in the other the definite article.
actually
be added to
added
to
avi,
just as
case the
Here, too, we
we have supposed
it
to
CHAPTER
Modern Greek
WE
must
Greek
distinguish,
and the
literature
Literature.
the
in
IX.
outset,
literature of the
between modern
modern Greeks.
The name of modern Greek literati is legion, but the

names of those who wrote anything worthy of record in
modern Greek before the present century are very few.
It
with the latter alone that
is
we
are at
present con-
cerned.
The
first
modern Greek
writer
was Theodorus Ptocho-
prodromus, 'the heaven-sent poor forerunner* of modern
Greek
happiest
A
is
literature,
verses
satirist
mean power, whose
of no
were extorted by the pangs of hunger.

His date
specimen of his style concludes Chapter VII.

1180.
given by Mr. Sophocles as 1143
Almost contemporary with him was Simon

chronicler,
Next
in
who
is
order
Romania and
the first prose writer in
comes the
'
Book of
the Morea,' or To nS>s
Tonov TOV Mwpewf, supposed by
of
Buchon
Sethos,
modern Greek.
the Conquest
of
QpdyKoi e/cepfyo-av TOV
(in the
second volume
Recherches Historiques') to be a translation from a

French account of the same events. Elissen ably controverts
of his
this
'
opinion by a comparison of the two works, in which he
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

illy justifies
criticism.
139
the superior reputation of German over French

The 'Book of the Conquest' may be best
described as a rhyming chronicle, which might deserve the

name of poor verse were it not so prosaic, or of bad
prose were it not written

fourteenth century.
in
metre.
belongs to the
It
To the same period probably belongs the poem entitled

Belthandros and Chrysantza/ a romance of knight-errantry,
in which we can plainly trace the effects of the cru'
sades
Greece.
in
but
knights-errant,
to
The
Greek of the age is so far true

more susceptible of chivalrous than
enthusiasm.
prominent, while
background.
The
are henceforth
the
himself as to be
religious
heroes of Greece
The
is
kept
quite
is
very
in
the
'
Belthandros and Chrysantza' is

The hero is Belthandros (a Graec-
plot of
simple but imaginative.
of his heart
mistress
Mother Church
ism for Bertram), the son of Rhodophilus, king of Romania,

who has two sons, Bertram and Philarmus, one of whom
he
loves,
and the other of

the
whom
of
unfortunate
course
of his
he
hates.
disobject
takes
a
after
journey eastward, and
pleasure, accordingly
heroic exploits performed at the expense and on the persons of his father's men-at-arms, who are dispatched to bring
Belthandros,
him back, he reaches Armenia, and
father's
the fortress of Tarsus.
Riding by the side of a small stream, he espies a gleam

of light in the running waters, and follows up the course
It leads him to a magic
of the rivulet a ten days' journey.
building called the Castle of Love, built of precious stones,
and surrounded and filled with every imaginable form of
wonder
in the
way of automaton
birds
and beasts of gold,
reminding us of Vulcan's workmanship. Then follows an

introduction to the King of the Loves, the owner of the
enchanted palace, who gives him the task of choosing the
most
beautiful out of forty
women.
He
first
selects three,
140
and having thus equalized the problem to that which Paris

had solved of old, he proceeds to award the palm to
Chrysantza, who turns out to be the daughter of the King
of Antiochia, and whose subsequent appearance at the
Court of Rhodophilus "reconciles the father, and terminates
the story with the slaying of the fatted calf.
The following is an attempt to render the metre and the
meaning of some of the most

equalled
'
poem
beautiful lines
in this
un-
Thus then together journeying, they reached the Turkish border

This passed anon, they entered next upon Armenia's
And
last of all
frontier;
approached the town of Tarsus, and
its
strong-
hold.
And
while Belthandros wandered through the country with his

followers,
He
found a
rivulet,
and
lo
beheld
among
its
waters
sheen as of a falling star that leaves its track in heaven.

There in the water's midst it gleams, and he in haste pursues it
Stream-upwards he betakes him, if perchance he may discover
Whence
erst
was born that
liquid
flame
that
glitters
in the
streamlet.
Ten
days' full space he wandered on,
and when the tenth was
ended,
He
found a castle large and high, and goodly was the vision,
well hewn out, most cunningly proportioned.

high upon the summit of that fair and shining building,
In place of catapults were ranged a marvellous assemblage
Of heads of griffins carved in gold, full curiously fashioned,
Of pure sardonyx
And
Wrought by a cunning
wisdom
master's hand, with great and
wondrous
And from
their open jaws amain, most direfully resounded

Furious and terrible and shrill a grimsome noise of roaring;
And
thou wouldst say they moved as though the breath of
were
The
life
in them.'
imaginative power and mastery of language which

the author shows, bespeak a genius of the highest order.
Like many another genius, he is among the nameless dead.
14 [
His creative power reminds us sometimes of the 'Divina

Comedia/ sometimes of the second part of Faust.' Even
'
his sesquipedalia verba,

o-xoivorevel.?,
as the
or,
Greeks
call
them,
Xe'fts-
rather excite our admiration by the boldness
and
the beauty of their composition, than our impatience by their

'POÔKGKKIVOS,
length.
trwjuaTovpyô-e?,
(TTpoyyv\ofj.op(po7TT)yovvos,
6\oar(op.aTu>p.vrj, ovpav68pop.os,
p.ot,poypd<pr)p.a,
Kpv(j)OKap,<ap.a )
how-
ever they might raise the bile of a Phrynichus, have a power

of harmony and a perfection of taste for which that poor
pedant had neither eyes nor ears.
Did the modern Greek language possess but

Epic, to say that
it
is
this
single
were a calumny
destitute of literature
indeed.
The next writer we shall notice is Emmanuel Gorgilas,

who forms the bridge between the Byzantine and the Turkish
He was a native of
period of modern Greek literature.
Rhodes, and
The
1.
lived at the time of Constantinople's
following works are attributed to
Airjyrja-ts
ras
ei?
Trp:'tîs
TOV
him
fall.
crTparrjyov
irepiftorjTov
rv
rw 1554 vrro
which
Belisarius
'Pap-miTcrfTov
4 TO'JUOVS),
appears as an almost mythical character, a kind of Alexander
redivivus, upon whom every kind of possible and impossible
jueyaXou
(fe$odr)
Ef\urapiov
exploit
is
fathered.
2.
To davartKov
3.
The
cv
Bei/en'a
in
els
The work
TT)S 'Pofiou
is
metrical.
(avfK$OTov ev
celebrated Qprjvos
rfj
Hapicriavfi /3t/3Aio-
TTJS Koovo-rai>rii>o7ro'Ae<,
which has
been compared by its admirers to the Iliad whether from

its length or from its merits, I am unable to
say. The latter,
;
and fortunately the former
of that great
of
original.
glow
patriotism, and a
of
are
its
prophetic yearning
hope,
only claims to be considered in any sense a poem, and even these features are
also, fall far short
certain well sustained
not sufficient to redeem
it
from wearisomeness.
For curio-
142
sity's
sake
give two short extracts, the one from the

and the other from the OavariKov TTJS
I will
'
Opfjvos,
I.
To? ToVpKOV CIV d(pT]KTe TTjV TToXtl/ VO. KpaTr)(TT),

QeXei yap TraXiv TO Qepibv Kal $eXei &vvap.d>cri,
Kai 6e\ft KaraTrVfi TTO\\OVS 6 erKvXos aerdv
Aonrbv Travv^TjXoTaTOi avQtvrcs
Aydnrjv 0X01
Kal TQV (rravpov arjKuxreTe

Nai/ev ep-Trpos Kai
Na /3yaX\Te
p.ov
prjyddes,
va Trdre VTOIT f\8povs
/ca/iere
iricrw
or'
crT)p,d8i
appard
eras,
eras cnjuddt 'ora Kopp.id
TOVS dcrefids diro ra yovtKa
Mccra aTro ra cnriria
eras,
eras,
airo
eras'
eras,
ra yovtKa
eras.
II.
At
TTiKpap.oS)
A.epr)K
K'
p.e
at
crv/JLepopa
ZTTIVOV, TTLVCO, Kal
Kai 5vo Kai

Tlatdia OTTO
Kai
icXat'co
-rpi'a
TO.
TTCOS
TeToiais (roias)
Atdrt
tuo-re
Trocrovf
TO KOKO
/xou'
TOV TtcopyiKdv Kal Tc<apyi TOV vlov
va
7ria>
6\ov<t>v
=
(
fiov.
oXeof) rais TriKpdftais'
opfpava OTTO Koprjv KO\ p-avaSfs,
p.e\r)
p.ov,
Kal dirb rats d8(\epdo'es.
eySeôuj/rai
Sei>
fj,f)ves
Kal fftdop.do'fs.
dfXovv va diovv (va
Xu7n;ôCi',
iSaxri)
aXX' oi
fa
TroXXa va iriKpadoveri.
One scarcely knows whom most to commiserate, the man

or the poet.
In the sixteenth century we have no poet of eminence.
Jakobos Triboles is a writer of most wretched doggerel.
There were always plenty of preachers, like
Cyrillus
Lucaris, Meletius, &c., but their works have not for the
part come down to
modern Greek in the
us.
most
Almost the only examples of
sixteenth century consist of letters and

of
fragments
speeches, chiefly the utterances of ecclesiastics.

The
work of the seventeenth century is one which

unknown the work of one Chortakes, a Cretan
great
almost
is
143
'
It is
Erophile,' and written in the Cretan dialect.
the
and
a
with
of
Charon,
tragedy,
imperopens
monologue
entitled
who
sonation of Death,
'H
crypto
"OTTOV
eftyfJK
(rr)p.epov
Kelvos TO XotTroi/ air
veovs Kai
0X01
K'
3
,
T^
K' fKfl 7TOV
row
's
p.ia
p,e
7TO\V dvp.O
reave, by themselves
down
aXXous,
v6p,ara p.avpta>'
(pi\ials
^cBptô),
TT) \oyicrp.ovs dXXao-cra>,

Kai
T*
eyvoiais
Karardcrcroi'
TO.
TTOTC TOVS
the
;
:
p,UTia fJLOV
CTTpa(^)oo"t >
Kocrp.oi TroXXoi /SouXovcrt.
so irore
in
/xou,
my
life ;
p.6vos
fjiov,
by
a peculiar modern Greek idiom.
more common
irapaTrjpovffi.
TOVS PaaiXefs, contracted for TOVS QaaiKifas.

yiapcL OVTC, as soon as; etymology Si apa OVTC (xpovov).
TT) &a<n\evs,
TiafJicL,
T'
Kai davarova),
'
avvTTjpovcri, observe, for
p.yd\ovs,
T^J)
TTJ \povovs rovs T\fi6vo).
uepia,
Xcopais âXoi)j/ dXaKatpats
T$
Kai
myself; further
d<pevTCUS KOI rr) SovXous ,
o\ovs dvOpwirovs
Kai rip,als TO.
aypiais Kapftials Karajrova),
T^"' oXTTi'Se? pi^vo)
r*
&6ai$
8iKto<rvvais dtao-KopTrS),
T^r)
T'
T^J)
XaXoOo-t.
/ze
'p,Tropfp.vovs ov\ovs,
(pavy pL^ya
p.ov
p.tcrovcri,
p,e
K' els TOV ddo 5 TT) VIOTTJS

Avovo)
anovov
<ppovip,ovs Kai T^J) XcoXowy, K
ytap,a ovre
"AS?;,
crvvTijpovtn
yepovras, p,i<povs Kai
T^T)
6p.d8i,
îiXta p.7ropovcri
ocrovs p.e
iovs K dvr)p.7ropovs,
ia,
yvp.vd p.ov
dorpanals
rj
dnov TOV
fii'^cas
ajrov TT) jSao-iXevs
TI
/xou,
Kai <rKV\oK.dpT] KOI rv(p\o
T}
TO.
***
(pavepaxTOW
'Eyoo/îai
Kai ravra
TroXXat? fipovrals, K
rj
yr)V dvoiacri } K
TTJV
Qvpid
(TKOTfivrj
17
OTTOV jSaaroi,
Ilotof elp.cu p-ova^d ra>ve
Na
dveXinrrjTT)
f)
Kai TO SpfTraV
KoKKaXa, K
speaks as follows
i.
e.
'A06, the ancient dOrjp
with a different termination.
= evvoiai.
eyvoiais
a\dfcaipais,
Cretan for 6\6K\rjpai.
Italian
and Albanian both
offer
144
Uov
TOM/ 'EXX^vo)
flacriXfials
77
rrov
HXovo-iais Kal [mope o/xz/ais %<apais
SeV
Sv/LU/ats
10
*fl
TTQJS
/iepats
rês
STTi'â
eSid/S?;,
TO
fJitKpT)
Kai 8i^<as
Ta
KaXX?;
some analogy,
or?)
lpov(ri
xpovovs
TTCOS
Trepvovcri
8ev dvio-Toparat,
rrXrjo
(TKOTfLva Xoyarat.
CTTOI
o"fjp.fpo
aj3vva>)
e.
T^J)
TO irpo^dts
eWz> dvoiyo(T(pdXiarp.a
'2'
TTOV
(vp<i)
XtyaiVoutrt,
11
To
/3ov/3ot
KciKoppitKoi KOI yiavra 8e
77X770-10
TTJ
.*
OTO Xd/cKo KdTotKovv,
rocratf -yvcocraiy
roams
'Pwuicov y
TU>
TTOV
TU>
?racr
op.op(po
g. wAatcy, K\d-fj,fv,
TT/JOO-COTTO
fie
14
Albanian Kidpovv, Latin cla-mare,
Italian chiamare.
8
compare the English without, and

London, mitaus, e. g. Ich gehe
aus, mitaus Sie zu mir kommen,' instead of ohne dass Sie zu mir komthe
St'x^s,
/ê
/*e
is
pleonastic;
vulgar German heard only
the
'
in
'
men.'
9
y5vfj.va.is,
If this be the oldest
for yvp.va.is.
form of the word,
it
points to the derivation 78^0;, vulgar modern Greek for tKSvca, being, in
for the accent, compare Seâ/if^ (a reserfact, a participial adjective
:
which
voir),
ydvco for
is
'itSvo}
nothing but a participle used as a substantive. With

one may compare yoovnos for KOOVITOS, i.e. teroviros =
KTVTIOS.
same root
10
TrXrjaia
fj.d\a,
as
m/j.rr\r)fju,
&c. KOKicoppi&KOi,
ill-fated.
TO fiiiKo is modern Greek for Fate, generally derived from riscbio Italian
but neither the accent, the form, nor the sense, agree with this deriva;
The
tion.
idea seems rather to be the same as in
that which
irirpa}(j.tvov, tlpfiap-
deep fixed like a root in the ground,' pifa.

11
TO tyes, yesterday evening ; formed on the analogy of x^ e $ th e root
being -ê, as in oê, dirvtye, i>y/ifj.a6r)s, &c.
'
Hevrj,
is
'
>
12
dvoLyoatpd\ifffJ.a,
fast,
of
hence
from
0^0/70;
and
ff<jxi\ica,
e. &<T<pa\i<a, to
13
vdaa, for irdvTa, as -avt for -avTi, -ovai for -OVTI, &c.
11
ot, for Sev
8eis)
make
to shut.
oii
fv, 5i6\ov,
word Slv
modern Greek with
either contracted for ovotv, or the
used negatively, as
and
in
is
the case in
French withj'amou, du
tout,
&c.
(neuter
TtVore,

rcnrfivovs 8e XerjpovS),
Pot's
Tovs (pevyovv
15
6y\f)yopa} TOVS
<$>rdv
Kat 5/ô)f va
<pdovo-i a~v\va
fie
*
T*
<E>rcoôi
TOVS aypiovs
TO.
86a
'/*7raiV.
*
Trerovcn,
o~(j)iyyfT
TO.
eras,
TT\OVTT]
<ra$
tra
CTKOVT)
KOI rovopd eras \vovet
'SKopTToiHrrjve KOL ^dvovrat,
2a 16 varov
ydpovs
TO KriêTe âXovat.
(rKopTrovv,
TJ
<o/3oi/u.
farovv p.aKpaiva>,
apTrare (pevyovcri,
Ta TTfpp.aovT
2a <Tirl6a (rftvv
rfr)
/xe
145
TO êpi <ras ypafip-evo els 7reptyid\i
p.e
6d\acr(ras,
T]
yrj
His apostrophe to Joannes Murmures, a celebrated lawyer

and a friend of the poet, is quite in the spirit of Dante or
of Lucretius
2* e'8iaXea evyej/eorare
V oXai?
'PrjTopa
Me
Tovopd
Kai \dpi
a?ro
Ftart ocro
<re
Me
T^' dpfTals KOI TT] Tipals ye/xdre,
TOVTO
7^7
-)(dpais
6a)pS)
TJ)J/
Tfj
(TKoreivfj,
Ma
riKra 19
/idi/o
i.e.
crov
TrXrjo-a
va o~ov
(re
/SXeTreo
/caXXo rdcro
^TJ\O,
KcipeTpr]
8e yevva Xd/3pa;
ous
feat
KO\OO~VVT).
paKpav TOV Kocrpov
*7rfpr)(pdvr)(n
TTOV
Tovs (pfvyovv,
TOV KOTTOV va
/xov
(TTrXdy^j/os dveîicaKo,
Kflcrai
15
(rov
Movppovp* v
Keivrj
oufie
KUTTVO TO, Tpiyvpa
<f>fv-fovfft,
for ot <pfvyovai.
curious instance
of attraction, rare in ancient Greek, from the nominative to the accusative.

16
2$ = 'aav,
17
7^, Cretan (also Chian) for 77.

xdpai, Cretan for the modern x&pov, the ancient
18
i.
e.
'
wadv.
xa/- The
accent
need not perplex
us, as the reader will perceive the accentuation in Crete

is extremely variable and uncertain, and often
diverges from the usual
little
further
down
we
have
for
system.
avepot.
dvepoi
19
a curious corruption and metathesis for wife. Kvtfa

however, seems to be a mere onomatopoeic form, like sniff,
scbnupfen (Germ.), &c., and T#KVO. may be the same.
Ttficva,
itself,
snuff,
*****-
146
FiV
odrjyos TT)
T'
dvep.iK.als,
va (puyco rov
crTpdras p.ov,
K'
ebs
Tredvp-ca
Ftari oa-ais 6e\ovv rapaâty,
crro
dpdf-co
Xi/^tcova,
dvep-oi va yepBoixri,
K'
K' ocra (pova-Koxrovv Ku/nara, oro /3paô?
HoTe TOVS va
p,e
ras p.6v
'/
"?
eivat
Ato,
T^7
MoO
T^"'
T'
/*'
ococra),
rocro,
dvatjSao-ouo-i
Kaipbv eKpdrov.
TO (pTfpa
TTOU
x|r^Xo
TTOV
crcova
r'
ovTa apxycrao-i Kal â/i

^' arro/Lietz/e
o-av TrpwTa?
/tovo,
K eVao-Q-e /ôu,
cftftxve,
ovpavovs (rv^vorara TO vovv dvaifia^
KTi^ti Trvpyovs
K'
TI
The
Kat
eppi^f,
Mow
o,
/at
Trda-a
7rfdvp.ia.ls
Ta Bdppfif K e\in^, K
Kai/Tts
Kets
TÎ)
â/nat
/COV/A'
KJ; opeî
crou
8ei/
Soy TO (praia-ipo, KO\L TOV dekr^jidrov'
opoy va
*2'
i/a
âptcr/ia
(r
Trpoo-coTro
Si'
21
en'âive, KaXa
Tiarl ^7/Xaty
.Kfivrj
9O'
p.7ropovcri
^fticDtrou,
/ie
"Afrrpo pov Xafirrpo TO
KaTTOKOTrjira
/ca^co?
Ti>xr/s
Ma
aAXotw? va
y'
pt'ôuo-t,
a>s
ei>
T^V VVKTU
following
VTO
xdverai
p,epip,vS>,
an almost
is
p,ov,
yinXo Trep/SoXta O-TOV dtpa
literal
TTJV
fjp-epa.
translation, in which,
however, I have taken the liberty of shortening the metre by

one syllable, except in one or two cases
:
'
My
The
The
visage fierce and pitiless,

sickle
which
I carry;
my
my
dark and ghastly stare

bones and bare;
fleshless
lightning, with the thunder claps that shake the air around,
Forth bursting from the jaws of
These things may
Whoso
tell
me
but looks on
20
diroKorijtra
tlrXrjv
you who
to-day,
troK^rjaa,
and rending
hell,
all
the ground,
am it needs no words of mine

my name may soon divine.
;
cf.
Korea,
KortofMt, KOTOS.
The
notions of wrath and daring are not far removed from each other.
Compare fj.tvos with its cognate words, and kindred varieties of mean-
ing
21
in
fj.evi
Albanian means haired.
*a\a = Ta'xa,
'
'
perhaps
Iff (us
so dy/caXa, av Ka\d =
'
obwol,
although.'
tl
KOU:
cf.
German
wol,

am
Yes, I
whom
he
all
men
hate,
and
147
with one consent
call
Hound-hearted, blind, and pitiless, whose soul can ne'er relent.

I spare nor kings, nor potentates, the mighty of the earth,
The master and

The young, the
the slave alike

old, the
in plenty or in dearth
the
great,
small,
the
and the
simple
wise,
Whene'er
Even
I please I lay
them low, never again
in the flower of their
Glory and praise and fame
youth
I
to rise.
their fleeting years I
whelm
number
dark eternal slumber
in
The memory of righteous deeds swift to the winds I scatter;

The closest bonds that friendship knits, I sunder and I shatter;
The fiercest heart I quickly tame, sage counsels I confound
;
Fair
hopes
and
lofty
thoughts
lay
with
even
the
ground.
wheresoe'er
And
my eyes are turned with fell destructive power,

countries sink, whole worlds decay, and vanish in an hour.
Whole
Where
the
is
Rome
Of mighty
'
blight,
How
sovereignty
of Greece
where
is
the
wealth of
realms whilome the nurse, of wit the chosen
home?
dumb and
poor they dwell within the tomb, the
voiceless
dead,
In some small corner of the earth, a sod above their head,

Mere naked shades
Thrice wretched men
why do they not
!
behold
How
is
day
Yestreen
is
dwindling after day,
how
passed, the day before has
soon their years are told?

left
no trace
in sight;
reckoned but a span in yonder realms of night.

Swift as the twinkling of an eye, I come and drag away
To-day
My
is
victim to the grave, and all without compassion slay.

I quench, nor
lovely face can draw from me a tear
Beauty
To
meek
show no mercy, and the proud I do not fear.

Who shun me, them I overtake; who seek me, them I fly:
Unbidden at the wedding feast a frequent guest am I.
Wretches what ye would snatch escapes, and flies while scarce
the
embraced
Your gathered wealth is scattered soon, and what ye build effaced

Your glory in a moment quenched, your riches like the dust
Dispersed and gone; quick perishes the name for which ye lust;
Left to the mercy of the sea, as 'twere with idle hand
Inscribed upon the sounding shore, or in the drifting sand.'
148
'
Thee have
I chosen,
Of
most
orators
Thee have
And
Murmures, noblest and worthiest,

and famed, of virtuous men the best
skilled
I chosen, that thy
to thy ears full echo of
name my labours might adorn,

thy own deserts be borne.
For howsoe'er exalted, thou dost rise before my view,

By so much do I know thee kind, and good and patient too.
Far, far art thou from haughty mien, the proud world's atmosphere,
That gloom from whence no warmth
is
born, nor light
is
sent to
cheer,
But smoke and vapour dank and thick
Be
Of wintry
my
thou the guide of all
all
fill
way, that I
may
the region drear.

'scape the blast
storm, and safely reach the longed-for bourne at last.

Let tempest rage, let winds arise, let billows roar and swell,
Yet while I keep before
My
No
But
my
eyes, that face I love so well,
shall ever work me harm

my guiding
breakers then shall touch me, nor stormy waves alarm.
star,
one,
if
no rocks
the greeting which I bring shall haply chance to be

of my rash resolve than it is worthy thee,
More worthy
my fortune for the fault, and not my will, I pray.

heart would ever fain be borne on soaring wings away,
But Fortune casts it to the ground, and clips the pinions spread
To raise me high as Helicon to some tall mountain's head;
Oh, blame
My
as they begin their flight and skim above the ground

Barren desire remains, as when I first was outward bound.
Even
And now
in place of all she
weened and hoped and showed and
taught,
soul to lofty flight upon the wings of thought,
She builds me castles in the sand, and gardens in the air;
Moving my
And what by
This
last line
fi
night I meditate, day finds no longer there.'
seems suggested by the Sophoclean verse

TI
vi>
d(j>f),
we
TOVT
fir
qp-ap
is Franciscus Scuphos,
in Italy, in 1669 proeducated
born in Cydon in Crete, and
fessor at the Greek school in Venice, author of a work on
The
next writer
shall notice
Rhetoric 1681, from which we quote the following example

to show how completely the rhetoric of the ancients continues to live in the oratory of
modem
Greece

Me
TO
6f\a
o"\r]p,a TTJS dfrjo-fcos
149
irapaKaXecrei TOV fXfvflfpaTrjv TOV
Kocrp-ov Xpurrbv, va f\fv8fpd>o-r) p,iav (popav TO f\\rjviKov yevos oV6

o~ov\fiav
TYJV
KO.I
O.TTO
va fvpio~KO)VTai els
f'xovo~i
vnepr)(j)avov TrdSa
TOUS TTOT^
i/d
TOI>
x f ^P as TOV 'OTOfiaviKOv
"Ewy TTOTC ot rpicrddXioi
ras
<fr$ai>, KptTa StKateoTOTe, (pddvfi
Bpiapeooy.
EXX^ve?
T>V 'Ayaprjv&v,
TO.
8fo~p.a
SovXei'a?,
rfjs
roaov ev8oov Kal evyeviKov va TrpovKwa
TTOTf yevos
f<rv 6
(re
aopaToy, a7r6
(f)fyydpi
riais
T>V
fls TT)v
dev Bavaroveis
dfj,r)
fls rais
TO.
'
va ftaaiXfvcovrai
TfKva
<rov'
A,
Kal Trarrjp, Kal TTCOS
7rapa<caXa, Trcoy elcrai o^t povov KptTrjs, dpr)
TraiSevetSj
odfv av
'icrcos
TTJS
t8tas TaJv dvopias
crov
OTTOV fl(rai 6'Xoy fvcnr\ayxvia ; (rvyx<apr)crai Kal
dnfipov
TTJS
crov
'ureas
Kal
fxd\Kfvcrav ra da-rpoTTe-
\6Kia, 6ia va TOVS dfpavia-rjs OTTO TO Trpoacowov rrjs
TTfXayos
Kal $ dp,ap-
EXX^vcoi/ fTrapaKivrjcrav TTJV 8iKatav opyrjv vov, av
Kapivov
Kal fls dvdpwTrivrjv p,op(pfjv dverfiXas
fjXtos,
fj/j-Krv
/ie
ecoy
cirava) fls /3ao~tXi-
KOV dpovov eva adeov TOvXovTrdvi, KCU y x<apais fxetvais
dvaTf\\ei 6 oparos
Kal
Xaiôv 6 ftapQapos QpaKys
iiuum
(rj3vcrai
*Ev6vp,r](rov,
fXfTjfjLOcrvvrjs.
e&v
oiKOifJLevrjs,
fls
TO
6fdvdpa>7Tf
TTWS TO f\\r}viKov yevos f(TTddrj TO 7rp)Tov} OTTOV civotê TOIS
*l7/o"ou,
ayKaXais, 8ia va Sf^Qfj TO Qflov o~ov fvayyeXhiov' TO Trp&Tov OTTOV

fi'ScwXa, Kal
TO.
fp(jif â/xai
as 6(6v TO
VT)o~fv
Too~a Kal Tocra j3do-ava fyvpfvav va

irio-TLv, Kal
fj.
dno Tat?
Kapo~iais
TMV
avrio-Taflr)
^pi.(TT(.avu)v
eKK\rjo~ia aov'
T)
ot
"EXX^ês
TOVTOI Kal uf
TTJS o-o(f)ias,
TTJV
errpoo-Kv-
CITTO
TO
TOV Koapov
6elov
aov
p.f
TTJV
oi'Op.a'
fjiov, fls
SXrjv TTJV OIKOV-
TTJV fir\ovTr]o-av p,f
TOVS drjcravpovs
cat p.e
yXcoo-o-ai/,
8ia<pfVTfvo-av
TTJV
<rf
Tvpdvvu>v, onov
TO>I>
fppia>o-ovv
TOVS lop&Tas TU>V 'EXXrjviov rjvav, XpicrTe
p.fvr]v
v\ov
Kpfp-dpfvov fls fva
irpSoTov, OTTOV
TOV KaXapov,
TpfxovTfs
\defenderunt\
p.e
TTJV
fj,
airfipov
Kal els Tals (f)v\aKals, Kal fls Tals

/xao-Ttyats, Kat fls
TOVS Tpoôvs Kal

Trio-Q-ais,
TTICTTIJ/,
TTfi
fls
Tals foplais, Kal fls Tals <f)\6yais Kal fls Tals
p.ovov Sta va o-ftvo-ovv TTJV rrXdv^v,
Sta va
a7r\u>o-ovv TTJV
Sta va ae KJ)pvovv
6fdv6pa)7rov, Kal Sta va Xa/i\^j/ OTTOV
TOV o~Tavpov
6 rjXios,
ffTrXayxvos,
p.e
vybv TfToias
TTJV
df'iKrjv
fj
So|a
o~ov
Kal TO
p.vo'Trjpiov'
rravToo'vvap.iav
ftapfiapiKrjs alxp-aXaxrias'
KafJLf
odfv,
\du-
as
fv-
va (pvyovv TOV
as (piXoSopos
Kal -TrXovcrio-
150
ndpo)(os dvTaTrodoTrjs, dvoiyovras TOVS drjo~avpovs TCJV 6(ia)v crov

Td)i>,
TOV
fi?
ere
Nat,
ua TO x a *P f f<ô
irapaKoXa)
p.a
Kocrp.ov'
va (pavfjs
o-Tctvpbv OTTOV p.as

f8ti)K
TTJV
Koi
<i)T)v.
fls
ra ovpdvia.
(Is
o-7r\dyxvos, as
6'^fiaTa, Kai
pa
Kai av
<re
KOI
io~a>s
jrapaKiVTjo-ovv
dnb oXa ra
dp.apTiav' p.a TOV
CITTO TTJV
TOV
6a.va.Tov OTT^V /zas
cKfivTjv (ypo~iv, oTTOv p.ds ai/e/3a(Tf
TOVTUIS
<^>Goi>ats
rj
TTJV oirolav
TOVS av8pu>Trovs (pt\dv-
irapdo'fio-ov, /ua
(vdoov
TTJV
TCI
ftev o~e
daKpva, OTTOV p.ov
(av d(V (faddvovv Ka\ ravra,
ayitov o~ov, oirov
$u>va(i OTTO
avoie TOV
TTJV
ftacri-
x aP av
orrov e<pfpe TTJV
p.e
orXwe
TO /3a7mo7ia, OTTOV p.ds
p.a
OTTO
/cat,
Beiav crov (Keivrjv evcrdpKoxriv, (Is
TTJV
OVTCIS Qebs, fytvrjKfg (ii'dptanos, 8ia
dpamos'
TO yevos,
dos TOV TO crKTjTTTpov KOI TO
Koirpiav, (Is TTJV orroiav Ku$erai,
\(iov.
doav
TrdXtv (Is TTJV Trporepav
v\l/(t)crai
<pa)vals }
f)
pepr) TTJS Tpio-ad\ias
TrapaKivovo~iv
Tpeôvv dirb ra
Trnpax
f/
'EXXaSo?
'
TT/V KpfjTTjv 6
Avftptus, KOI
7rapaAcaXf i va
o~f
TOVS AyapT)vovs XVKOUJ
O.TT
p.aV
(TOV
TTjS
XplO-TtoVVIJiOV
Tpos Kal
X^>v, els
(K(ivrj
HapBevoV
rj
<re
X">P a
(puivd^d
vet
irapaKaXd
P.TJV
*cal
'A&ffvas,
\(ovTas
OTTOV
TO.
(ride pa
2,irvpid<t)V(s
TOVS
OTTOV
TWV
(vo~Tr\ayxvtav
Kinrpov,
TOIS
(fa'pivav,
AXlpllCttV
Kal
(f)\6yais
(\7ri(ovo-i
7idXea>j>
Kal
ol
ol
dialect, entitled
'
Aio^fcriot
dd^vovTas
OTTOV
OTTO
O\TJS
Erotocritus/
is
?raXt va yvpio~Tj
'lyvarun drro
tirro
o~ov
TTJV
Tas
TOVS
TOVS (Kawav,
TIJV
aKpav
'EXXafioy
TTJS
Vincentius Kornaros, author of a popular
Cretan
TTJV
KVjncutTat drrb TOVS
Tpox^s
(pu>vdovo~iv
TTJV
e'(rî(rai',
TOVS
OTTO
(f)(i)vdfl
8cix*ovTa o~ov TOV Tpo-
TTOpa/caXfT o
o~(
'A\(dvdp(iaV
drrb
C'TTOI-
orroC piav (popav d<pi(pa)6Tj TTJS MTJ-
'AvTioxfiav, ol Ho\vKap7Toi dirb TTJV 2/j.vpvTjv;

ol
TO onolov
(Is
TTpOÔTO'
AtKarepiVa,
TJ
TOV OTTOLOV ffiapTVpr)G(}
TTJS TVXIS 8ta TTJV
TO.
7TOIUVTJS
noXti* (vas ~Xpva6o-Top.os, KCU
(\dpovs TOV YtoO
TO BaatXftof,
fKflvo
poem
aov
TTJV
in the
generally reckoned
an author of the eighteenth century, for his work was first

It appears, however, that he
published at Venice in 1756.
was born in Sitia in Crete in the year 1620. The opening
as
lines of his
'
Erotocritus' are well worth quoting

ToC KVK\OV
TO.
TTOV
yvpicrfj-ara
151
dv
Kai TOV Tpoxov IT &pais i^Xa, K copai? ora J3a6r)

Kai ToO Kaipov TO. Trpayfiara, TTOV aVaTraupo Sei/
Ma crro KO\O Kels TO KO.KO irepnraTovv KOI Tp%ovv.
Kai
rail/
To{)
epcoToy
Avrai'a
N'
dp/xarcov
^t'
T;
Tapaâiy, ai ^p^rais Kai ra
17
efj-Tropecres
fKivtyraffl
ava6r)f3aXc0
Kai
The ups and downs
Trrjaivovv,
rrjv
vairo)
KOI rrjs <pi\ias
rj
X aP l
arjufpov fjpepav
TO.
Kup.av Kai
ra (pcpav.
of fortune's wheel, whose ceaseless circling
motion
Now
scales the
heights
of heaven above,
now sounds
the depths
of ocean,
With
the changing things of time, whose current resting never,

for better, fast or slow, is stealing on for ever
troublous din of armed hosts, war's train of want and sadness,
all
For worse,
The
The ways and means
gladness
of desperate love, the charm of friendship's
These things have moved me to recount, and publish as I may,

The fortunes and the deeds of men while it is called to-day.'
we are met by the names of

an
educational
and religious missionKosmas the Aetolian,
ary, who founded schools throughout the length and breadth
In the eighteenth century
of Greece, and Rhegas of Pherae, the great forerunner of

Greek independence. Countenanced by Pasbanoglus, the
Bey of Venidi, whose friendship he had gained by saving his

life when threatened by Mavrogenes, governor of Wallachia,
he did all he could to incite the Greeks to rebellion, and
appeals to the European Courts to obtain a
their assistance in case of insurrection.
He
of
promise
was finally betrayed to the Turks at Belgrade by the
addressed
Austrian Government, and put to death by them on the

His two war-songs, beginning AeOrc nalfes T&V 'EXX^spot.
va>v
in
and
'fis
TTore
TraXX^rapm va
no small degree
to fire the
ovp.fv
Vra
oreva, contributed
Greeks with that enthusiasm
J52
for
which soon resulted
liberty
of
full
though
spirit
and
the insurrection
in
but
fervour, they are remarkably want-
and abound with sudden
ing in a sense of poetic fitness,
bursts of prosaic bathos which destroy in great

their effect
measure
e. g.,
'O
v6fj.os
o~
Na /3aXere
Na Ka^Tf
Tov
TTJV
apfj,d8a
KaTTiTav-iracra. (!)
honourably distinguished, among the many

glorious patriots of modern Greece, as being the only
one who seemed to understand that the faith of Islam
is
Rhegas
was
any respect.
Religious bigotry mars
the patriotism of almost every other Greek, and of the
larger number of Philhellenes with whom I have come in
to
entitled
contact.
In
of Rhegas'
illustration
Perrhaebus,
banoglus
*Eai>
who
eya),
&o~Tf
t?[jif6a
ecraxra TTJV
/Sf'q,
dioTi
/xou,
dod<d
TroXXovs vlovs, KOI 6
p.ev e
cvfKa
crou
TOV Qavarov, TOVTO %TO
OTTO
evas Qfos (7T\a(rev
ef-fjs'
/cat
o\ov TOV Koap-ov,

eVoêi/cos ade\(f)oi'
OTCIV tis TTCITTJP yfvvr]o~T)
TOV Trarepa
rcoi/,
TTJS diacpopas TO>V eTrayytXyLtarcoi/
TOV GfoO out TOVTO

TraTTjp
vo.
/ca^'
vTr66fo~iv
avTtov yfvrj Sep/SiV?;?, (i\\os
^(u/xoTrcoXj/y, Kal aXXot pfTa^fipto-duxriv
/uara, dvvavrai OVTOI vapv^dwo-i
evw 6
quote
thus addressing Pas-
as
TrXao-juara KCU TeKva fvbs rraTpbs,
TO
aXXoy
fayv
OTI
a>s 7rapa5eiy/Aa
<f)cp<t)
TO>V,
XP*s
TT)S,
him
represents
tolerance
religious
cnroaTpefyfTai
avT&v ayarra oXou?
KOI 717^ a.8(\(po<rvvr)v
5t/caioOi/rat <ipa tvd>iriov
KaTciTpfxy 6
KCI\
fatoTJS
aXXa
*Eav
o~v
eis
TOV (iXXof,
Kavâo~ai OTI
f)
'
O6(op.aviKT)
OTI
TTLO~TIS
fivai
Ka\\iTepa
d(^>'
oXay,
KOI
tya>
TrciXtv
(ppova>
V7>cpl3aivi oXas , Kara TOVTO o~(pu\\ofjLev Kal ol dvo

1
f)
fdiKT) p.ov
<pi\oveiKovvTS, 8inri 6 Qfbi,

,
StKatot,
a>s
KOIVOS iraTrjp, p.as StaTUTTft
<^)iXa^/3co7rot,
KOI
va
dyaTroop-fv
vu.
r/p.eda
TOVS VTTTJKOOVS,

Kal va
p)
KaTao~iKa(tip.ev
Se d(popa
a>p,ez>
e'idouev,
ra 6pr)o~KevTiKa }
els
Kal
T}TO
xpianavbs,
TO.
akz, Kaff oo~ov
aAoya
els
dvrjKovv
QeoV
TOV
eera-
fjaels
ovre
ovTe rjKovo-auev, ovre els Kavev ftijBXiov evpopev
Qeos
ort
u>s
$ev eôaev eovo~iav va
fjfiels
otra
8ia<piXoveiK)p.ev
OTI
7TOfj,ev
avTovs avdp-cas
153
TOV
e7raiSev(re
KCI\
opens
Qeus
SeTi/a
diori
TOV delva Stort
rj
KCU
7T\d(rp.a TOV, TOVS doe\<povs
TovpKos,
fj
TOV delva
TJTO f)\iocre\r)vo\dTpr]s K. T. X. /3Ae'-
d.Kovop.ev, Kal els TO.
7rai8evo~e
TJTO
/3t/3Xt'a
rraiftevei
evpiaKOfiev ye-ypap.p.evov,
TTUVTOTC
TOVS TvpavvovvTas
TO
TCOV.
Speaking of the Sultan he uses the remarkable expression,

eeK\ive
TOV dpop,ov TOV Qeov } KOI (as if
UTTO
Synonymous)
Tas
VTO\as TOV Kopaviov.
That we may see

heartedness
tyranny,
its
we
by Rhegas
'Q,
will
to
side
by
side with this religious large-
natural counterpart, a deadly intolerance of

here give the oath which was administered
all
his confederates
Pa(Ti\v TOV KoafMov, 6pKtopai

Toil/
^TTJV
yvu>fjir]v
Mr]T
va TOVS SouXevo-o),
Tvpdvvcov
Ei? ra raî/LiaTa TO>V

Evoora)
a>
IIio-Toy
els
p-f]Te
els
p.rjv
ere,
e'X^co
Trore'
va
ar]
TOV Koo~p,ov} 6 p.6vos p.ov O~KOTTOS
Tov va TOVS
va.
va.
d(pavio~a>
Trjv
va
rjvai
oraêpoV
Trarp/Sa ovvrpi&v TOV
vyov,
Ki a^copttrroy va ^crca OTTO TOV crTpanjyov.
av 7rapn/3a
TOV SpKov, v
darpd^j} 6 ovpavos,
Kai va pe KaTaKavarj, va yeV
a>o~av
In 1777 was born at Larissa, in Thessaly, Constantine

Cumas, author of a great number of geographical, mathe-
and philosophical works

for the
Platonic spirit I give the following extract
matical,
sake
of
its
AXX
fii/at, rrpbs Albs, (ppoviuos TCKTOW OO~TIS

dyopdei aKeTrapviov
Kai Trpioviov ra oTrota euTroîôvTai dnb
TTJV xpvcra>o-iv Kal TOVS ciXXovs
154
i/a
TO.
KTr\T)paxr(i)O-i
a, TO Se eTepov va irpiovifa
8ia va aroX/a^ TÎ/
name
greatest
eighteenth century
patriot
and
is
ev
va
aTrapaXXa/cra Trao^ft, vop,ia>, ocrrts
yeviKas drroXvTovs
p.e
TOVS aKovovras
(is
rjyovv TO
fpya,
dcrvveidicrrovs, KivdvvfVd
Xef-ets
dvdyKTjv
The
-yXaicrcrai/
OVTU>V
i'fiia
va.
/cai
SOTIKOS KOI
TTJV
KaTacrrfjcrr)
fj
that
appears
at
the
end
of the
Adamantios Coraes, the great

and one of the most
that of
reformer,
linguistic
celebrated literati of Europe.
a mistake to suppose that Coraes produced

any revolution in the language of modern Greece, or that
It is quite
it
an
is
artificial dialect
resuscitated from the grave.
The
modern Greek of newspapers,
novels, sermons, &c., is not

half so artificial or pedantic as the writings of the Atticists
of the paracme, or even as the Greek of Chrysostom and

All that Coraes did
other fathers of the Eastern Church.
an example to his countrymen in regard to style

and the choice of words, which they were not slow to follow.
His reform was a very simple one he proposed to use the
classical terminations, wherever these were not altogether
was
to set
obsolete,
in
preference
which prevailed
those
to
mouths of the common people; and

to banish as far as
had crept into the language, and

often
new compounds,
in
the
addition to this,
the foreign words which
all
possible
in
substitute
Greek words,
in their place.
Coraes was born in Smyrna on April 27, 1748, studied

in
Amsterdam
for six years,
and
for another six in France,
where he received the degree of Doctor of

In 1788 he came to Paris, and was there during
at Montpellier,
Medicine.
Here he spent the greater part of
the Revolution.
Here he wrote
letters to his
his
life.
countrymen, encouraging them

which Rhegas was already
in the struggle for freedom, to
instigating
them
and
here
he
pursued
those
literary

which have established
studies
his
fame as an European
scholar.
His published works are as follows
La
Me'decine Clinique.
Montpellier, 1787
(p-frdcppaa-ts
K TOV yepp-aviKov TOV Selle).
Introduction a
I'e'tude
de
la
Nature
et
de
la Me'decine.
Ibid.
Catechisme Orthodoxe Russe

Plato,
German
(from the
of
Archbishop of Moscow).
Vade-mecum du
Montpellier (from the Eng-
Me'd.ecin.
lish).
Esquisse d'une Histoire de
la Me'decine.
Paris,
1767
(from the English).

Pyretologiae Synopsis.
'A.Se\<ptKr)
8i8a<7KaXia,
Montpellier, 1786.
an answer
to
SiKacTKaXi'a,
IIcn-piK?)
forgery of the Turkish Government, published under

the name of Anthimus, Patriarch of Jerusalem, for
the purpose of allaying the tumultuary tendencies of
the Greek subjects of the Porte.
Les Caracteres de The'ophraste. 1799.

Traite* d'Hippocrate, des airs, des eaux
et
des lieux.
Paris, 1806.
Ibid.,
second
~BeKKapiov Trepi
edition, with
d8cKT]p,a.T(iov
2a\7noyza TroAe/iiaT^pioi/.
Greek
KOI TTOIV&V.
Title.
1816.
Paris, 1802, 1823.
Paris, 1803.
(On
the death of
Rhegas.)
'HXio&opou AlOioTTiKa
/3i/3Xia
dew.
Paris,
1804.
In two
volumes.
du Docteur Coray sur le testament secret des

dont parle Dinarque dans la harangue
centre Demosthenes.
Lettre
Athe'niens,
AidXoyo? dvo
Tpai<cci> KarotKOiV rrjs Bei/eria?.
1805.
"YSpa, 1825.
UpodpojJios 'EXXrjviKrjs jSt^Xio^KTjy.
18091827.
Kai ev
156
15 vols. (con
sisting of editions of classical authors, with notes).
T)
Udpepya 'EXA.
1807-1835.
Paris,
j3ip\iodr]Kii.
&tf3kio0r)Krjs.
9 vols.
18091827.
l8ll 1820.
'lAtaSoy pa-^to&im A.
Atarpi/3?) avrocrxcdios Trepi ro{} 7Tpi(3or)Tov
Paris,
1818-1825.
2 vols.
1831.
IfpariKos.
iepas KaTrjxTjareus.
1833.
Besides numberless articles in the
Ai>Tol3ioypa(pia.
Logics Hermes/ a Greek

periodical published in Vienna, on philological and political
'
subjects.
On
his death he left his library
nasium
at
Chios,
the
birthplace
and MSS.
of his
to the
Gym-
ancestors.
His
unpublished works are more numerous, if not more voluminous, than those which have been given to the world.
Besides
this,
the margins of
many
of his
books are crowded
with notes in his handwriting.
Few
such a
Leo
Germany, can show

Hercules as Adamantios Coraes, the second
countries,
literary
Allatius
none
certainly save
Would
of Greece.
that
some
enterprising
compatriot would undertake the complete publication

all his works.
of
As contemporaries of Coraes we may mention, out of

many literary men of no mean deserts, Constantine Oekonomos, whose turgid
style
formed as
striking a contrast to
the simplicity of Coraes as did, on the other hand, the

abandoned vernacular of Jakobos Rhizos Nerulos, the
unsparing
satirist
of the
'
Logics Hermes
'
and
its
promul-
gators.
I give three
short extracts to illustrate the above remark,
taken respectively from the
Ai/ro/3toypa0m
of Coraes, the

Oekonomos, and
treatise Hep} Trpocpopds of

satirical
157
the Ropa/ao-rim, a
comedy of Nerulos, in which I need hardly say the

are the foltowers of Coraes
:
"OOTIS
rbv
IcrTopii
TTJS fays TOV,
TO irpcoTa va p,ya\vvr],
p.r)T
xpeoooTel va
'iSiov ftiov
ra a/zaprjjp-ara
6<ap.aTa Kal
p,e
TOCTTJV
ra SevTepa va
p.rjT
KOI
o'rjp.eimo'rj
TCI
/rarop-
wore
aKpifteiav
o~p,iKpvvrj
fj
va
trteoTra
Travrdnao'L'
Trpaypa SutrKoXcorarov 5ia TTJV e/j.<pvTov els o\ovs
<pi\avTtav.
"Ocrns aî^tjSaXXet
X aP<*fl $vo
p.6vov (TTLXOVS rrjs (3ioypa<plas rov
Cor(US
TTJV 8vcTKO\iav.
To
Trpo rpicov
fjdr)
f)u.as
TTJV ireipav
Kap.rj
va
Kal 6f\ei KaraX<z/3ei
Avro/3toypa0i'a.
Trcpl yvrjcrias ra>v e\\r)viK<Ji)v
7rpd/3Xj;/Lia
rovrou, ay
irepl
ala>vu>v
ypap-pdruv 7rpo<popds
els
Evpairrjv avacpvev, V
TTJV
iro\\aKis els TroXXouf 7ro\\S)v Kal p.fyd\u>v (rvfaTTjcre&v inrodecris.
Oekonomos,
The
Ilepl 7rpo(popas.
rhythm and
studied
inflated style
worthy of a
is
Prodikus.
Etrai dvo xpovia ro>pa OTTOU 6 Trare'pas
/LIOU
appcoo-ret
KOTO irados TO va 6ui\fj KopaKKTTiKa, KOI aXXo 8ev
va 7r\aTTrj
a^
/cart
5ta/3oXo^;apra
KOI va ypd<prj Kal va
6 idios.
Ti va
P.OV
va
8ev
yvpva
jj.
oXov
p.d6(t)
rj
Xeaty
/cafia)
dvr)Kov(TTais
rvrrco/ieVa,
XaX^
yXSxrcrd
cjretdr}
6/xiXo) rj) -yXaJo-o-a

TJV
Ka[j.vfi
K.a\
yXcoo'cra, OTTOV
p.id
p.ov
Kal
rou, Kal eis

v%r) TOV,
aura
TO.
Xarpeuei,
aXXd-
Ttapa va
7rapdfvais, va
TTJV
Karapa/zeVa
/Staô/aat
drjfjLtovpyfl
TOV CUVTOV
p oXov onov
<p\vapias} Kal
ra
*s
tv
ra 6vop.dovv Aoyiov
yia va TOV inroxpeucra), /3tao>
avTals Tals a^SeVrarais
roCro,
OTTOV
cm
KopaKia-TiKa,
Keyui
va
TOV
Ka6e Xe|i 'diKrjTov OTTOV fjdeXa irpoJVerulos, KopaKioTi/ea.
Modern Greece has produced but few authoresses of

these Angelica Palle, chiefly known by her ode on the
Death of Lord Byron/ which I shall here quote, belongs to
:
'
the beginning of the nineteenth century.
[58
I.
Tovs
\afjLirpovs
vpvovs
TTJS
f]pa>(*>v
dfpivav
VIKTJS
K\av6p.S)V
r}X f L
XuTroui/r'
HiKp&s
at
orparts'
ûâi TWV
'E\\r)va>v,
aicodev <a
T' aKovfi
2.
Tj\0' 7T\T)V
(f)l\OS
fJ.6\lS
TOV
Cl
SfcaTTTOW K\aiovTs TOV rd(pov CLVTOV,
TO reXoy ev86a)v e\Tri8a)V,
Iftov
Kal TO Tpoiraiov 6avarov
crK\r)pov.
3-
HXê va
ffnrvevo-ri
ElS Ka0
II\f)V,
(TTT]doS
(pev,
as oXXoj
TTO\fJLO)V
6pp,t)V'
BapSo? eXTTiVas
'l8ov p.Vfi els alaviov
a-iooTrrjv.
4Sis
devdpov
T^v
KeTr'
ocoaym
677'
Hapvacr&ov'
Kopv<pr)v p.ov(riKov
NiJi/
Tro8S)v
?rp6
Ilvor)
TO fppi^f
(pdfipov(rd TOV TO KaXXo?

dvffjiov
cr(f)o8pov
5-
'EXXa?
Na
cav TO crwfia TOV
^>epi7
EtTre,
eis
fii/^fia
Movcraii>
ff
'AyyXi'a
^V/ra
p.r)Tepa
TCKVOV p-ov 6 vlbs TU>V M.OWT&V,

6.
reov
[MT)V
f'pwTcoi/
UKOlXaV
TOVJ Qprjvovs,
TT}V
TOVS Kiv8vvovs,
Td(pov as fXV
*lptov
'y
TTJV
ytjv.
Angelica Palle compares very favourably indeed with Felicia
Hemans.
The metre
is
one peculiarly
liable to
run into
jingle,
from

which
is
it
159
only preserved by the retarding effect of a
word accent, and the frequent

of single syllables lengthened by TOM) for the
trochees which form the first part of the dactyls.
judicious irregularity in the

substitution
The
great lyrical poet of Greece
is,
however, Athanasios
who was born at Kastoria, in Macedonia, in

and
who
died in Moldavia, where he held the office of
1772,
He is sometimes called the modern
judge, in 1847.
Christopulos,
Anacreon, but
too
a poet to need
any such
metonym. Unfortunately, his undoubted genius was consecrated chiefly to the glory of the wine -bottle, yet he wrote
some love-songs of exquisite tenderness and beauty, which
have been copied without acknowledgment by various
modern
'
ingale
'
is
original
'
Consciously or unconsciously, the Nightof Christopulos is certainly at the foundation of the

poets.
Swallow
'
of Tennyson.
Inasmuch as the nightingale
sings, and the swallow only twitters, I confess I prefer the
Greek
to the English poet in this particular case.
For four of the following examples I am indebted to

Selections from Modern Greek Writers/
C. C. Felton's
'
OLD AGE.
Na
Tpi%s
f)
'kflavdaie v
Na
Na
ere
crov
dcnrpifrvv
daicpvwv
Xeyei Kal 6 "Ep
irXebv flcrai yepos,
'2 TO efjs KaXi)
Ta
<pi\f)p,(iT
TO,
a(pr)(T
S/âo-e Ta Trapevdvs,
Kat ap%iva
Ta
rriKpa
p,e
TO.
vyeia
yeparcla
2 TO fr)S
va.
TO.
yfvdfjs.
]6o
A6i/
O~
TTiaVOVV
ere
irpeirovv
TO.
TO rpayovdia,
tKfivos 6
nij-y'
Totpa rd<f>os
Ta>pa
6a.va.TOs
Teopa Xapos
"Odev
TrXeoi/
eroi/zacrov,
'Pê oXa TO KaXd
He
\VTrr) pos
TOJ/
crou,
Kai ra 5d*cpua
/Sdcrra
Ets r^v
K'
XUTTT;I/
Mia
EXE TEIA
KOO-/XOV
rov TTOVOV
ets
/itK/3)7
povov
Traprjyoptd
ANSWER TO THE PRECEDING.

Ila
TTLKpifavV
Tt
\'
Totyap T
*
ao~7rpr)
7]
TOVS
a<nrpo 6ava.T6vci
(bi\cbvTas dyicvXovci,
Ta
êtXaKta
's
To Tpavrd<pv\\6 /nay,
To XovXovSt TO>J> 'Epoorwv
f
Eivai ao-npo Ka6ap6'
Kai TO KOKKIVO
17
To
eirio~r)s
<rvyKtpao~ev
(pixris
M* fva xP^f"
'H
fJLVpTia
TTJS
*A.(f)pOO'lTT]S
Els TO irpd<Tivo K\a8i
MeV
*OXa
Ta
do'irpov8fp6.
TO.
xarao-Trpa,
rrjs,
<pv\\a Ta ^Xo>a
crav ^'ow,
XouXoufiia T^y (pvrpovei

T* dv0T)pd, Kai Tpv(pcpd.

Kai 6 Atas 6
Fia T^S
TOV TO KaXXoy
A.r)8as
KVKVOS yivue
*A<rirpais
0e\
6 Êpcay,
TOU KVKVOV ra
To \onrbv
oo'o
ei>
iravr
Tocro TrXeoj/
Too*
fieXet,
jue
Ilai^reXai?
(j)Tepd.
de\i
oo-o
Key'
dcnrpia> dev
Ort
(f)opd.
/caê pepos,
ets
Tpijftus
2ai/
As
/zta
'
N' aTroSei^
XVTTO'
/ne
atnrpifa,
i/oori/itâ),
6 epcoy
ayaTra.
î'
LOVER'S LONGING.
*As yfvovfwvv Kadpe<pT7)sl
Not /3Xe7reo-ai
cya)
va
To KaXXos
As
i/'
crtya
cr*
ap^Lât
depaKrjs
fji
2 ra
i/a
Kivrjcr<o
va
crov
(rrf]0T)
rXu/ca va ra
Trecro),
(frvarrjcrci).
fjiiow reXos virvos
Na
Na
ecreva.
ra
Kat oXoy
As
K'
(rov,
^X'T"3 r" /iaXXta o-ov,
Na
As
ep,eva,
yevovp,ovv ^revaiu
2iya
^"
'$
Trai/ra
/SXeTrca
Sevco
ep^co/zat ro
ra
-yXv/ca
Mara/aa
's
/SpaSt;,
(rov
TO a/coraSt.
62
THE NIGHTINGALE.
KiV
drjftovaKi
Ka\6}
p.ov
Ktra Kai irdye VTO -ytaXo

Trjv aKpiftr) irov
Na
Kai
ca
Kat
or
yXvKa
ere
irdprj
oreXm
ere
p,
ri
fpu>Tr}(rrj
fvprjs'
KOI TTJV
(TKv^rj va
iroios
TTJV
p.e
<rav TTJV @pfjs
Na
*Av
va
Tray
'
ecru
TO vr\ai\
air
Troy eifiai fiaipo
EtTre,
novXt crrevayno<p6po
Has 6 d(f)fVTT]s pov

Me (rreXvfi va <re
Ta
TTQ^T;
Me
/Me'Xo?
e'Sai
/iou
pa
cr*
ra
Xe'ya).
"Yorepa tr/cê TOTretva

Kat XaXô-e
viyavd,
TT/V
Kat opKiv
2roi>
0a
Kop(po
drjbovoKi
*A.)(
rrjv
va
ra
(re
SeV
p.'
ro TTW, E?crat Trtoro
ere
'ETT/jSouXo
2rcW
/ij)
K^TTOJ'
ye'j/J/ff
TToO
tp-Traiveis.
TRANSLATION OF 'THE NIGHTINGALE.

'
Fly, nightingale, to yonder shore ;

Fly, fly, what need I tell thee more
Go
find
me
my
And when my
Go,
if
out
my
dearest,
prayer thou hearest.

dearest thou hast found,
Begin to sing thy sweetest sound,

That she may stoop and take thee,
And
her companion
make
thee.

And
make demand,
she then shall
if
Who
sent thee from the island strand,

" Hither come I
flying,
Say,
A
My
bird of saddest sighing;
me for a gift,
my voice may lift
master sends
That
I in
song
To tell how he doth languish,

And warble all his anguish."
Then
And
like a suppliant appear,
whisper softly in her ear,
And
plight thy master's duty,
Swearing by all her beauty.

Placed in the garden of her breast
Ah nightingale, I cannot rest,
Uneasy
fears
dismay me,
Lest there thou shouldst betray me.
BACCHI LAUDES.
"OTUV
TO Kpacrdu
iriva*
2ro xpuo-d
/xov
TTOTrjpaKi
Kai 6 vovf pMV
a\i(r6rj'
ToV
dp)(ia) Kal
Kat yeXai Kat
K^
far)
p!
ci>xapicrTcl.
Tort TTUVOVV
Tore
(ppovTidei
77
crftvvovv
y e\Tri8es
Tore (pevyovv
of Kairvoi.
KJ^
Kapdid P.OV ya\r)vici,
Kat ro
N'
o'r^^ds' fiou
dva<raivrj,
dvaTrvfj'
Yia TOV Kuafiov 8ev

'As
yvpt'tfl,
Kpao-a/a /ôu va
'H
xai/ara
N'
u.
oTTwy ê'Xet,
To
ATT'
ap^t
j/a
ro ?rXayi
/i^
vet
d7roddva>p,
^.
o-ru\^
163
164
"Ooro e%u> TOVTOV) TOVTOV
Tov aKfMTov
irXovTov,
p.ov
Kocro mvo) Kdl pov<p)'
"OAa
o-Ky/3aAa ra e
Eiy Kaveva dev
Kat Kaveva 8ev
From
these examples
it
be
will
seen that Christopulos
common
people in literary comHe had a theory that the vernacular was nothing
position.
but Aeolo- Doric, and that it ought so to be called, and, as
adopted the language of the
Mr. Sophocles emphatically observes, 'it was called AeoloAfter which I think nothing further can be said on the
subject
except it be that Christopulos was the author of an
Doric.'
'
'
Aeolo-Doric
Grammar, and
the same dialect.
lations, &c., in
several other works, trans-
Before proceeding to our contemporaries in Greek literature I will say a few words on the popular poetry, the nameless
and numberless
ballads,
which
after all are the pride
modern as of ancient Greece.

However glorious and unparalleled
Odyssee may
brought them
origin 'and
the
forth remains a great
first
and
the
mind
that
Iliad
be, as works of genius, yet the
of
unknown, and
in their
publication they were just as much ballads
as the popular poetry of Greece.
has been already frequently remarked how curiously the

old mythology of Greece survives in the popular superstitions,
It
and yet
Charon
at
for
the
same time how strangely
example,
rather as the
as in
the
is
modified.
following poem, appears

the genuine Charon
Hermes Pompeios than
of the ancients.
it
165
CHARON AND THE GHOSTS.

Ti
pavpa ra
efrat
aW/xos ra rroXejaa;
Mfjv
K*
ot>8'
Move
avejjLos
TO.
5ta/3aiV 6
ot
Na
'
Tva>piovTai
am
T'
ol
ovde
ai>Spo'ywa,
KOI
ftpvcri,
\ov\ovdaKia*'
fjido~ovv
ya>,
xpva
va \i6apio~ovv,
vio\
els
TO.
vepd, yva>piovv
p.dvves yid
f]
els
KOVC^/
^wpio Kovevat
els
"EPÔPT*
Of
va
airfBap-êvovs'
rovs yepovras
veoi
ol
vepo,
',
fipv;
creXX'
ri^f
fiiKpa 7raido7rov\a
K* ov8'
TOWS'
/Lie
's
j3ovpKO>neva
TO.
ouSe /3po^^ ra depvei
K'
x^P ^
els
TTIOVV ol yepovres
Kai ra
jSpo^j)
ffjurpoo-rd,
yepovres,
Kove^
fJiov,
\ir\va.
Xapovra?
Tpvfpfpa TTatSoTrouXa
z/
OTfKOW
7roXe/ua,
Sepvei TOVS viovs dno
Ta
Kal
fiovvd,
âjpio-juo
Kpva ftpvcrC
TratSid
TK>V'
8ev
the so-called Klephtic Ballads, the finest with which I
acquainted
is
THE BURIAL OF DEMOS.

'O fj\tos eftao-iXeve, K
6 &TJUOS fiiaraêi*
TO vepdv,
TraiSta juou,
StJpTe,
Kai
Na
Kal
AauTrpaKT)
<TV,
!
'?
uov
(ipfAaTa
o~els, TratSia
dvetyif,
TO eprjuo o~7ra6i
irdp'.Te
KoêTe K\a8id,
Ilpdo-iva
TOV
Kal Tcopa
ju,'
aTro^/e.
jjC
p.ov,
va Ka$ura>,
eop.o\oyT)crg'
Ta KpiaaTa jrov eû> Ka/iw/^Va,
elrrS)
Tpiavra XP OV
p.ov
o~Tpa>o-T
Kai (pepre TOV TrvevâriKo va
Na
va (par
c5a)
va foai
<p6peo~e,
p,ov,
"^cofju
KaBov
'-
daapTa)X6s,
rjp&e BdvaTos,
K'
e'iKoo~i
irevTe
Kai 6e\a>
K\e(pTr]s'
dnaiSdva).
Kdp.CTe TO Ki&ovpi ftov ir\aTi>, 1^)7X0 va yevrj,
Na
o"Te*c
6p6bs va TroXepw, Kai SiVXa va
yeîiût.
K' OTTO TO uepos TO Sf^t d^rfO'Te Trapadvpi,
Ta êX(8dwa
Kal T
va 'p^tovTat,
TTJV
civoiiv va (pepovv,
dr)8ovia TOV /eaXov Mai' va
ue p.a6aivovv.'
66
I offer the following as a nearly literal translation
The sun was
Oh
And
from his throne when Demos thus commanded
falling
you to the stream, to eat your bread at even

thou, Lambrakes, kinsman mine, come near and sit beside me
There, take the armour which was mine, and be like me a captain.
And ye, my children, take in charge the sword by me forsaken;
Cut branches from the greenwood tree, and spread a couch to rest
'
children, get
me.
Go
fetch
me now
the
priest
that he
of God,
may come and
shrive me,
For I would tell him all the sins that I have ere committed,
While thirty years a man-at-arms, one score and five a robber.
And now to take me death has come, and I for death am ready.
Then make my tomb on every side right broad, and high above me,
That I may upright stand to fight, and stoop to load my musket
And on the right hand side, I pray, leave me a little window,
:
Where swallows
in the
may
early year
bring the springtime with
them,
And
of the merry
As a
month
of
May
to this I
accompaniment
fitting
the nightingales
may
would
tell
cite
me.'
another
beautiful ballad, entitled
BOH TOY MNHMATOZ.
'H
Sa/SjSaroi/
Kal
TTJV
o\ov
TTiVa/Ae,
TTJV
KVpiaK
devTtpav TO Trovpvov
*O Kairerdvos
etrraXf
/u.'
i/a
okrjpepav,
[Tr/jcotf]
irdot
eVadi? TO Kpacri pat.
Kpacri
va
rov
Ka
To
fioi/OTrdr*
at
p? fj3ya\
o\'
Aev
Eofjv
fifia, icai
(iKOvo)
TO
TraTrjtra
(va p.ovo7ra.Tta.
p.iav -^rrjXrjv
paxov\av~
OTTO
airavu 'OTO Ke(pd\i'
Kal (BpovTrjv OTTO TOV KCLTM Koa-fiov.

'
Tt fX fis
TO
TO
Kal /Soyyas Kal J3apvavao-Tevdfis
f^vfj/jia
x^ a
XPa
a
i
v
^
^ aP">
/^ a
P f '>
V^] va
^^^
^ fiavpij TrXaxa
*)
fjuivpi]
7rXa/ca,

MoV
To
roô) pdpav K
TT&S
KaTcKppovqcrfs,
8eV fjfiovv K
Taâ
Aev
/xe
evrpOTrrjv
eya>
eVepTrarTjcra eya>
fie
veos
ryv
evens
irdrrjcrfs
8ev
VVKTO. p.e
Kavîov
fjp.ovv
TO K(f)d\i'
7raX\r]K.dpi
fayydpt
',
ihe following is given to show how the notion of the

consciousness and, as it were, suppressed vitality of the dead
is further connected with the old superstition of daemons or
which belongs not only to Greece, but to Eastern
In
generally, as we see in the 'Arabian Nights.'
genii,
belief
modern Greece
seems always of a malevolent

and that that was the case in the early ages of
disposition
Christianity we may infer from the use of daipoviov in the
New Testament. Sad to say, this superstition has been
the
o-TotêToz/
known
to result in
human
sacrifice, as in the
case of the
Bridge of Arta, which, according to the popular ballad, could

not be built securely until the little daughter of the master-
had been sacrificed to the genius of the place, by

being thrown down and buried in the stones, which were to
form the foundation of the structure.
builder
Do we
not find traces of this dark superstition, which, like
other dark superstitions, the Greeks seem to have borrowed

from the East, in Joshua's curse pronounced over Jericho
(Josh.
vi.
26)?
'Cursed be the
man
before the Lord, that
up and buildeth this city Jericho he shall lay the

foundation thereof in his firstborn, and in his youngest son
See the fulfilment of this
shall he set up the gates thereof.'
riseth
curse in
Kings
xvi. 34.
And
is
it
that the story of the 'temptation' of
Isaac
is
associated with
not a significant fact
Abraham
Mount Moriah, one
to offer
of the
which, according to tradition, Jerusalem was built
TOY MOY2IKOY KAI TOY 2TOIXEIOY.

'Eiêff
xiovt \|îâSiCT6 K
6 'idvvijs e
TdVoi/ rpayovSif y\vKa KOI i/dori/ia
hills
up
upon
68
Tov
dcpas
irr)p
'EftyfJK 6
TTJV
ApaKos
Ftan Apdxo,
ytart
(p(ovf)v
etire
TOV Apdnovros
TOV,
'lai/j/^,
yiari 6a
Ocpib,
6e va
TTJV
ere
<dya>,
crKoroocnjy
p.e
(pepei.
Ftari diaftaivfis irdpatpa KOI Tpayovftels

Travovpya'
SVTTVO.S
T*
drjBovi
rats
air
KOI
(pa>\iais
7rov\ia
TO.
TOUS
KafJLTTOVS.
SvTrvas K
A(pes
ep.e
TOV ApaKovra
ApaKo va
fJic
8ia@a>,
rr)v
p,e
a(pcs
Apa/coi/Ticr(ra p.ov,
va
fJ.e
Trepacrco'
eêt yia Trptorov UOVO-IKOV irp&rov Tpayovdiorfjv rov.
The forms
to
show
ApaKos nom., 8pd<ovTos gen., and 8pd<o voc., seem

that dpdKos is not a metaplastic form, but rather a
of the original form SpaKovrs, of which another modern

is dpdxovras, obtained
by the insertion of a vowel to
relic
form
facilitate
We
pronunciation.
will
conclude these examples of the popular poetry

first illustrative of the
of Greece with two more pieces, the

personification of Death as Xdpos
:
Etê TO 0ccri rov orpa/3a Kai
Kai Xdpos TOV ayvdvrfvfv

Kai (Is (TTfvbv KaTfftrjKe K
Toflev
TO.
-IT
epxco-ai
para epôuai,
arro î\T)v
TO
<r
Tldyca va irdpw TO ^co/it,
K'
Ke/acVa p? eWftA' 6 Qebs va

*A<po-c uc Xdpe,
a<po~f fi,
Kav
7rp7raTr](TT)
irdpu)
Trrjyaivcis
TTJV
TrapaKoXS) va
TTJS
\fyovv TTWS &'X

Trcoy
X*IP a
irpfirft
avdpa,
Kapapovfi,
Êô)
Tratfiia
Ko \dpos
Xdpe
ai/f/Xi/ca
*cat
opfpav
8ev TOV iJKovcrf,
<rav diro^do-ia-es
',
/iov Trrjyaivat'
va yup/crto.
oTTi'cra)
Xeyovv
rjo-vxa,
TTOV
o-TT^rt
"Eâ> yuvaiKa Trdpa vtav na\ 8ev

*Ai> 7T(p7raTr}(TT] yXlycapa,
K\a>(rp.fva'
pa\ov\av,
(Kel TOV KapTcpovo-f'
\0fvnj
ua\\ia
TO.
dirop.VT)o~KOvv'
Ka\ fj0f\f va TOV
Kai ^'Xetv va pe
irdpys
'

Fta eXa va TraXe^cojue
Kaz>
jue
viKycrys
Kav
ere
vtKrjcra)
Xape
ere
eya>
KOVTO.
p.ov
Traipvfis TTJV
irrjyaivf
aV
'Errrjyav Kai eVaXeiâv
KavTov
fw.ppapv
p,ov,
?raX'
169
TO Ka\6v aov.
'$
TO Trpan
a>s
TO yfvp.a }
TO 8ei\ivbv TOV Kara/Sai/' 6 Xapos.
The
following lines, sung from house to house at the

approach of spring, by children, are plainly a remnant of
the
^ôW/Aa of the
ancients
XeXt&ora ep^fTdi
'ATT'
KOI XaX^cre'
Ka^tre
Maprt,
Kai
ao-irpav 6d\ao~crav.
TT)V
fjidpTi
KaXe,
p,ov
(p\f(3dpr)
IlaXe
Before closing this chapter, a few words are due to our

The writings of many modern Greek prose
contemporaries.
authors, as for instance the
'lo~TOpia TTJS 'E\\rjviKTJs
7ravao~Tdo-a>s
by Spyridon Tricupes, and the namo-a-a 'Iwdwa of

are well known in England, and have been reviewed
Roi'des,
in
some
Professor Asopios is well known

by his Ela-ayayr) els uivâpov, and Professor Damalas by his
Uepl apxtov.
Papparregopulos' history of Greece is remarkof our leading journals.
able for
its
clear
and simple
style,
and the unstudied purity
content myself with laying before

language.
the reader a few specimens of verse from the pens of living
of
its
I shall
or but lately deceased poets.
A. R. Rangabes, late Greek Ambassador in Paris, is

known not only as a scholar and archaeologist, but also as
a poet.
In his lighter moods, as a
satirist,
he recalls to our
minds something of the great Greek comedian

not unfair to suppose he imitates
whom
it
is
170
Kat raâ
iroiovs
',
TTOV f3d(pfTf,
\6yovs ttr^vpovj,
a-ocpovs,
avrov TOV aW/zd/ivXoi/
's
irpOTfivfTf
d(nrpifTf,
/crej/i'ere,
oyovpaiverf KOI \d6os ovop.deTf

at
o~fls
va p,dda>p,ev
yvvaiKfs Kf(pa\r}v}
dev T)p.7Topovp,ev Trolos ai/fjuo?

(pvo-q
Tov
as
TOV virovpyiKOv TOV
K0(rp,ov
Trdv
-\jsd\7]
A.T\avra
crro/ua'
TTJV
evyevrj TOV Kopv<pr)v <pi\6doos
Tis
oifie
avdiTTei (payovpa.
dd<pvai av (pvTpovovv els avTrjv
"
'
AiTj/a
"Etv
j36o-KOVV
CVTOfAO.
T)
Kapftia
f]
KoiX/a TOU
KTJ
(po[3ov Tas
A.
&.v
KaTOpdd>o~r]s
va
TratSfia
XpfideTat
p.e
VTrovpyov
Kaîrjs
lacos
av avTo,
ofioXoyS) Trojy dev TTJV e^to.
B.
o^t 8a
Kaipos Sev elvat OTTOV elda imovpybv,

K
eK.pd.TCL
TO KOvdvXl TOV
eo~Ka7rrev viroypa(pf)v,
8lK\\aV
0)S
/cat
wpoiafav
ypa/i/zara TOV KaKorjOeiat p.via>v.
TO.
So much
the
for
of Athens.
politics
The newspaper
editor Sphecias describes himself as the editor of the 'Eatan-
might have done
swill Gazette'
fiVat 7r\fjV
IIoo?
els
Eii'e
eiv
Trapd (pv\\a 7Tpdo~iva.
aXX* OVK ev
TroXXa,
To (pv\\ov
KTJ
evdfitâ
Tas 'Adrjvas (pv\\a irtpKTO'OTfpa
c<f)T)fj.fpio'a>v
A.
vftpis
fiov
fiov
e^tdva,
five
five
ew
r<
iroXXai
KavTrjpiov
ev.
ov, ....
yvp.vr) KCU uvuio'i)s,
ep.7rpr)o~TT)pios
TO
8av\6s.
\aov

KCU
8t8d(rK(ov TO. pr/Ta.
Eiy
TTJS
opy^s
'O ylyas
rr]v
of Russia
TTJS
dixriv
A8dp,as
CIV
K
f)
r)
els
(pvo~r]p.a
vea (rov
thus finely described
is
'
ayied\as rov.
TO ore/i/ia TOV TOV IIoXou
WTO TO
TOV (rxLôvr
/3^/Lia
%a>v arrpa>p.vr)V TOVS irayfrovs,
pas
itrûos
KOL dvaroXfjv arvve^
Trarei
Tre'cr'
irov
CLVTT)
The power
dir6ppr)Ta
av&pomre, TO
fiov,
6k va
TO.
oi
XafiTrei
6 do-Trjp'
irdyoi TOV Ovpd\'
TOV CTTJ]6oV5 TOV VTTfpftopfia 6v\\CL.
TTVof)
The following appear from

German originals
the headings to be founded
DEPI2TEPA.
I.
OS;
Sag' an o lieber Vogel mein.
IIov
a7rXo))Lieva
/i'
ra irrfpa
TTfTas \(VKT) Trepio~Tfpa,

y
or'
e<j>
fji
fiapvs
TOVS Trayovy <ptpft TOV f3oppd

'"OTTOU
77
avoids yt\a,
Kai avpai rrvtovv &7ra\a

fKei
TTCTC!)
TO (pas
r)TG>
TO.
UTTJVOV
trots
av6rj
p.r)
TJT)
TO.
(pevyrjs,
p.ds
fld\TT6l
TO TTVp T&V Kap8t)t>.
',
on

KctpSia
r)
(pi\iKr]
TraXXei rravrov.
Aei> /iot
drravra,
fjids
yopyf] TTfra
evas OTCyOS
Kflg
NYKTEPINON.
IT.
Leise fliehen meine Lieder.
OS;
MrjV
^ (TfXjJw;
Kot/zaorat,
Xa/X7rei
dpyvpa,
KTlVl
Kdl TTjV KOp.T]V TT]S

<rTi\7rva
els
*Ej3ya' va
fls
fls
I8rjs'
TO
\apvyyi
TJ
vepd.
<pv\\a
XP vcr<*
(pa>s
^tXo/ij^Xa
da/ua ws rd
era.
AKOVCTOV ri \^ciXX'
yXaxTtra
p.ayfVTiKr).
17
2u TO
f)
(pwg)
KOI
(ri>
f)
a><ra
ci<rai
To
Trdv ir\rjpfs (ippovias
KOI Oepp-wv
7raXp.(0>v.
cyeipov
"
Avoi^nv
i/a
(t>paia
crKiprfjO''
Ka\ fvros
fjiov
TrdpifpooTos
At ûâi
v
fls
fias
77
yfj'
dvarclXr)
avyr).
8e,
wy TOVOS
dva/3ovv
rov ovpavov.
173
very popular poet in Greece is Zalacostas, who has

been dead some ten years or more, a voluminous translator
from
Italian poets,
and as an
original writer full of
and imagination, though rather unequal
power
He
in felicity.
has
if merit it be, of introducing a vast variety of new

He would appear
metres into modern Greek versification.
to have passed the greater part of his life in conversation
the merit,
with the
manes of Greek heroes and martyrs, indignant
the degradation of their country.

The following may serve as an example
Ely TOV Tvpftov eKelvov
pe irdrayov
r]ve<a^drj
Kai TTJS yrjs
eic
TO>V
at
irXrjo-iov,
%do~p.a'
T>V Kpvwv
o-ir\dy%v(i>v
eTivd^drj deKaTrrjxy (dcr/ia.
*A
dev TJTO TOV vov p.ov aTTUTrj,
(fipovftov
P-T]T
TOV
(f)6j3ov
fLOV
B\o(rvpbv TrepiecTTpecpe 'part,

Kai \ap,7rd8a (pXoywv
fj.e
aVap/ca
TTJV
eV apfTpov yvpov
6 aWrjp KOI
Kai
KOI ol \idoi,
KOVIS avrrj TO>V
fj
yrf
f]
papTvpav
*
*
Tovs ycvvaiovs pas fjAprvpas eiSa

ocroi
eTrccrov Tnoreoos
(plXot
5ia \iiav OavovTfs

Trarpida.
s,
(TKvdpatTrol Kai
.e\r)
/cat
7r\7]ya>v
opyiXoi
6\aap.eva
diaâivovra
Aristoteles Valaorites writes for the
common
people in
vernacular Romaic.
f
'
EpvKoXaKas,
The Vampire/
is
thus described, or rather
174
addressed by the widow of the deceased Thanases Vagias, a

notorious wretch
:
Ties p.ov TI (rreK<rai Qavdo~r),
6pd6s,
Qavdcrrj pov, ftyaivcis TO /SpaSu
TIO.TI,
"Yirvos yia (rtvave
flv
ftfv
'crrbv
Ta>pa 7repd<rave
Ba$eta (/fppiâve pecra 'or^
vya
cnr\a-)(yi<Tov
p.e.
yrj.
Qa
vdva.ira.v6S>
2ra<rou pcucpiirepa. ...... Tiari
fie
<riudcis
Qavd<rr) ri eca/ia Kal fie rpop.dfis
HS>s
eicrai
Ties fiou,
Trpdcrivos
',
pvpifis X^P*1
'
'
fiej/
eXuawrfs, QavdoTj, aKOfjui
Notice here the imperative ires for ewres, and compare

This is another relic of the verbs in /xt.
a$,
&c.
will
conclude
this
chapter with two anonymous frag-
ments of Greek popular songs. For the German rendering of the first, which is more successful than the
am
English, I
of Athens
indebted to
my
friend
Herr
ndvra vd
'
Tt p.fyd\T) eu
Tt iriKp&s 6
Ti
Ti
TTJV
6f\(i)
ri TTJV 8e\a> TTJV
AaKrvXi'8* OTTO /zaXXta
Julius
Henning,
AUTO
OTTO
MaKpav
Ti
not (Mapaivci
fj-evet
<re,
Ti
Ever to abide with thee
'
Were
the height of purest bliss

bitter, cruel parting,
But the
Where
When
What
'
match with this?
grief to
is
am
from
far
is life,
ah,
One memorial
thee,
what
still is
is life
me?
to
left,
ring from thy fair tresses braided;

Nothing else my soul can cheer.
This remains, but I am faded
:
And
How
'
thus forsaken here,
can
nay, I cannot live a
I,
life
so drear.'
Stets vereint mit dir zu sein
Ware Himmelsseligkeit
Ach du bitteres boses Scheiden
:
Ewig
Was,
flieht
Geliebte, fern von dir
Frommet wohl,
'
das Gliick mich weit
ja
frommet wohl das Leben mir?
Nur aus Locken noch
ein
Ring
Bleibet als Erinnerung mir:

Andrer Trost ist nicht zu finden
Dieser bleibt, ich bleiche schier.
Was, Geliebte,
Frommet, nein
von dir
frommet nicht das Leben
fern
es
mir.'
I know nothing in any language more beautiful of its

kind than the following, with which I gladly close a long
and laborious but not ungrateful task
:
Eiy TO pevpa
Ata
Ai'
TI
e/xe
va
rfjs
a>rjs
aTravrfjcro
a<' ov dev
Atari va &f
I8a>
rjcro
......
p.ov
',
176
Kai
aT
e KOfj.es
p.f
STfi/aypovs va
V7ro<pep<a,
Kat ye\ds diori

Aia a~e K.CU
/cXat'co,
va
va
Icras,
rravcrrj
\cru>s,
ot
eXo) fjiovov,
fays pov
TTJS
trrevaypo
orav
at
Eva (rrvayp.bv
Qs x aiP Tl(rlJ>bv
Kets
roi>
(rov
fiov'
rafov
/uou
flavrjv
Kapdiav crov v
TJV
"Ev
TTVOT]
TJ
<rrr)v
p,ov
f\Kvcrovv
crfivcrovv
arty/iOi,
v
fj.ov
8dicpv di
va
ffie.
have attempted the following German translation, finding

beyond my powers to render the sense and metre in
I
it
English
An dem
Strome meines Lebens

dir noch begegnen?
Ach wozu
Da
ich liebe dich vergebens
O warum
dich wiedersehn
Dir, Erbarmungslose, gelten

Unaufhorlich meine Seufzer,
Und du lachest, well ich weine,

Und verhohnst mein bitt'res Flehn.
Ach, genug! nun lass mich leben,
Oder sterben doch im Frieden
Ja vielleicht wenn ich geschieden,
Wirst du deinen Hohn bereun.
*
*
*
*
;

Nicht will ich dass meine Seufzer
Ein so kaltes Herz bewegen
Nur
wenn sich nicht mehr regen

Meines Odems matte Ziig',
dass
Eine jammervolle Klage

Abschied nach mir sendest,
Und an meinem Grabe spendest
Du zum
Eine Thrane noch
fiir
mich.
177
APPENDIX
On
I,
the Greek of the Gospels of
John and
Luke.
St.
MUST now hasten
St.
redeem a promise, made at the

work, by indicating, in however brief
and cursory a manner, what kind of light may be derived
from the study of modern Greek with regard to the respecI
commencement of
to
this
ages of documents of disputed authenticity.

confine my remarks principally to the Gospels of
tive
and
St.
Luke, only premising that the following is
St.
out merely as a kind of forerunner to a
one day
to accomplish,
and which,
if its
work which
ideal
is
shall
John
thrown
I
hope
ever realized,
will consist of a
comparison of the Greek of the various
books of the Septuagint, apocryphal or otherwise, and of
New Testament, with a view to determining

evidence of language confirms or weakens, and
an adequate criterion of, the results of modern
those of the
how
how
far the
far
it is
research.
For the present, I would remark

cautions must be borne in mind
evidence of this kind.
enough
to count
In the
first
in the outset that several
in
attempting to weigh
place, it is obviously not
up a number of modernisms
in
two docu-
APPENDIX
l8o
I.
ments, and balancing the number found in the one against

number found in the other, at once draw the hasty
the
conclusion that a majority of modernisms proves a later

For many other questions have to be taken into
origin.
and above
all that most important one, is the

of the authors such that they admit of this simple
comparison? Is there evidence of artifice and pedantry,
such as would lead us to expect the avoidance of modernisms ?
consideration,
style
are there signs, as in most of the Fathers, of a straining after

archaic expressions ? And if so, in what degree ? For there
are degrees of pedantry on the one hand, and degrees of
on the
other.
Plato is more popular in his
than
phraseology
Thucydides, Aristotle often more so than
familiarity
Plato.
Then, again, the frequent occurrence of a single modernism is more significant than the occasional occurrence
of
many
far
more
and again, there are some modernisms which are

striking and unquestionable instances than others.
Such are some of the considerations
to
be borne
in
mind
of language as an evidence of the

to which we may add another and
antiquity of documents
obvious
one
very
namely, the limits which the slow growth
in applying
the test
of language sets to any accuracy in determining the age of

any writing by the light of style and diction alone. Thirty
years is a scarcely appreciable interval, but a hundred years,
or even
two generations, may make a very marked
dif-
ference.
Let us
now approach
the subject a
little
more
in the
concrete.
The
New
first
thing that strikes us
is
Testament, however popular,
by no means so
that the
familiar,
Greek of the
and simple,
is
vulgar, so nearly a vernacular, as that of the
We
miss with few exceptions, and those to be

found chiefly in the Apocalypse, forms like (Ida, eXeyoo-ai/, XaSeptuagint.
APPENDIX
,
l8l
I.
of which
TreVc for Trecrov, &c., all
we know must have
New Testament, just because they

have been preserved in modern Greek, sometimes in a
What then
slightly altered shape, up to the present day.
existed in the age of the
may we
New
generally conclude with respect to the Greek of the

?
answer, that while it was
We
Testament as a whole
it was not vernacular; it

adopted the
but
let
did
not
as
a
rule
itself down
homely expressions,
to the grammatical level of the common people, in which
familiar
and popular
respect
it
may be compared
the
to
of a popular
style
modern Greek newspaper, which is familiar enough to be

neither
readily intelligible, but not enough so to be vulgar
;
altogether the spoken language of the common people, nor

yet by a long way the book-language of the learned.
But when we come to compare the books of the New

Testament among themselves, we do not find them exactly
the
same
classical
we miss
in style;
there
words and expressions
in
Luke and
the Acts which
may be looked
in other parts, while the Epistles
upon, for the most

feelings called forth
part, as
we should expect
familiar expressions in
Testament.
such simple utterances of the

on which they were
by the occasions
written, that, a priori,
New
a certain striving after semi-
is
them than
If therefore
we
the use of
more
in other writings of the
find
Trai/rore
for
aet,
and
does not argue
Ka6fls for exao-roy, in St. Paul's Epistles, this
their late date with anything like the force that the occurrence of the same words possesses in St. John, where the
theological speculative style would naturally lead us to look
for
an avoidance of too familiar expressions
their
when
presence
it
risen to
was
in St. John's
Gospel argues
and therefore
that, in the
time
same familiar expressions had

book -language, and were no longer
written, these
the level of
confined to conversation.
Now
let
us notice briefly what
are
the
most
striking
APPENDIX
i8a
modernisms
in the
fourth
i.
Gospel,
and see whether they
can be reasonably accounted for except on the hypothesis

of a very much later origin than that of the first two
Gospels.
The most
which lies on the surface of St.

immense frequency of certain modern-
significant fact
the
is
John's Gospel
For example, Tndfa (modern Greek iridva, eVtWa) occurs,

not sometimes but invariably, for <nj\\ap.fidva>.
Now there
is no doubt that indfa occurs in the Septuagint in the
isms.
but then the Septuagint was much

nearer the vernacular of the time but infrequent occurrence
modern Greek
sense,
Gospel shows it must have been written

time when mdfa had become the recognized word for
in the fourth
Xa/i/3ai><,
and
moreover
that
in a
more
at a
<rv\-
cultivated style than
which the Septuagint represents. And who can help

noticing that where the fourth Gospel says Tnafa, those of
Matthew and Mark say Kpara> or o-v\Xap,j3dvu ? And yet the
that
style
of Matthew and
but less so,
than that of
fydpiov for lx&vs
Mark
vi.
Mark
is
St.
not more refined or elevated,
compare John
no one denies
Now
35.
Again, St. John says

9 with Matthew xiv. 15,
John.
vi.
that fydpiov
is
as old as
Aristophanes, but he uses it as intentionally quoting the

vernacular, while the fourth Evangelist employs it as the
But more
natural word.
striking
still is
the use of rpwycD for
f<rdia>, not in a colloquial, but in the most solemn and mys6 Tpwya>v pov TTJV o-dpica, KOI rrivcov
terious connection possible
:
p.ov TO
at^ca,
6 Tpd>y<aV
fya>
fJLOV
fv avTw,
Here
%ti
Tpwyo*
U>T)V
TTjV
al&viov, 6 Tpa>ywv
(TOplCO.
6 Tpaycav
is
KOI TTlVtoV
fJiOV
TO
KaKtlvos ^crtrat dt
and
to 0ayo>.
eV0ia>
*/if,
V tp,ol fJLfVd KOI
CUjMa,
TOVTOV TOV apTOv ^TjafTai
invariably,
present, answering
p.f,
els
TOV al5>va.
not once, used as the
In modern Greek
rpavya) is
the
In Polybius, indeed, we have

only present of $oya> in use.
dvo Tpwyopfv d8fX0ot, but this is quoted as a proverb, a
familiar colloquial expression, just as fressen
and saufen are
APPENDIX
I.
183
used in German for essen and trinken.
Igarly
It is there-
an exceptional usage, which goes to prove the point
re
we desire to settle, namely, that rpuya as

human being in the sense of simply eating,
hich
applied
did not
language until the time of

perhaps be told that in chap. xiii.
stablish itself in the written
But
John.
shall
Psalm
quotes the Septuagint,
John
TOV
4.
eV
apTov, cirfipev
whether
fpe
TTJV
thus, 6
xli. 9,
TTTfpvav OVTOU.
rpwyw
St.
St.
/uer'
Let US See
Let us turn to the passage in

That St. John has actually
question, and what do we find ?
been at the pains of translating eV&W into rpnyav, thereby
a quotation.
this is
proving beyond the possibility of a doubt that he deliberately

preferred rpuyav to
does
vTrayo)
familiar
and more
intelli-
constantly, and indeed almost invariably,
John use
St.
Mark
how
Again,
gible.
more
as
eV&W,
for
vTrayw
effu
where
St.
Matthew and
frequently use /ScuW, rropeuopai, &c., and with whom

is of comparatively rare occurrence.
Again, the use
of &o>po>, the
modern Greek
as simply equivalent to
0o>pa>,
characteristic of St. John, and to some extent of St.

Notice too the continued recurrence of mo-reva els in
/3Xe7ra>, is
Luke.
John instead of ma-reva with the
St.
We
isms in
St.
array from
give a brief view of the remaining modernJohn, and challenge any one to produce a like
either St.
Mark
ElS TOV KO\7TOV TOV TTUTpOS
TOV
l/jidvTa
TOV
vTroSjyjLtaTOf,
stand for a dative
not
Iva (Saorao-oo.
is
or
'.
St.
OV
Matthew
y<0 OVK
flfjit
O.lOS
"(.VOL
\V(TO) O.VTOV
where one of these genitives must
observe that Matthew says &gto$
whereas in
fiaorao-ai,
modern Greek
compare
classical Greek this kind of
in
Ilpairds fiov yv,
P.OVOS p,ov, Trore /zov,
relation
dative.
now
will
expressed by the dative,
e. g.
ZSia
aur
modern Greek axrav ; trov

Thucydides
ri pe Sepetff, both familiar modern Greek
phrases
in
an
in
as
modern Greek,
aorist
TTJS o-vKr)s; <pep<-Te
sense,
in
a><r
for <$,
where the present
is
(pepva>
the continual use of apn for
APPENDIX
184
vvv,
I.
the
frequency of diminutives, as $pay<fXXtoi/,

(modern Greek equivalent of npros), WTLOV, &c.
for
f tort
TTOI
TTOV
the frequent use of periphrastic perfect

1
passives,
&C.
et/zt, rjv ftfl3\T]fj.fvos,
drreoTaX/nei'or,
eyevero
aTroo-raX/xei/o?,
rjv
aTrecrraX/ieVos
with the
eVavco TTOvrtov for eVt Tram, eVJ
accusative implying rest; dcpê rfv 'lovdalav, in the modern

sense, instead of dvfx<*>pw V 7r
fKade^ro irpoaKwat, used now
;
'>
with the dative,
now
with the accusative
modern Greek a-vvdfci Kapirov;

common modern Greek word
as
XnXtd,
dvdpaKia
vernacular forms, as
a-waya Kapnov,
the frequent use of KOTTOS, a

the frequency of such forms
accent
the
itself
shows, though with some analogy (e. g. orpnrta) in classical

Greek.
In modern Greek as spoken by the common
people the termination
La
regularly appears as
id
the fourth
Evangelist says also ovcoria for CTKOTOS, preferring the form in ia

with the modern Greeks, who say a-KOTtd, 8po<rid, cfxand, for O-KOro?, SpoVoy, (pS>s
d0' tavTov for
e'(jf>'
the subjunctive
ciple,
5'Xos
frequently for TTOS, as in modern

the far more frequent use of
;
eavroG
Greek ;
iva
with
the comparative rareness of the aorist parti-
and frequency of the copulative
/cat
instance out of many), eyepdels apov

Here too observe
eyetpat apov, St. John.
for
example (one
Matthew
a-ov rfjv K\ivr)v,
modern
a.Trri\6f,
Kpdft&arov
St.
John
fj.avrov for
without
crdrjre,
fv
7T*
^pe TOV
(fj.avTOi>
and
avrdv
with dWo)f
p.
avrov KOI nepifirdrfi
ov fairiKaTc, 7rai8dpiov ev, for
and
t'êo,
loss of
-n\oiov for vavs

;
all
fOT
tyv&KCUn,
',
OTT'
iratftiov
eôprd-
the frequent repetidistinction
TT&S ovros ypdp.fuiTa ol8(,
between
modern Greek
7rS>s
ds Kadds, one by one ; rjvoi^f side by side

(h TO. orrtVo) J oTTtVo) f/xoG for
fU)tova for ovdfva
KO(Tp,OS
for
and the
John uses the
Matthew says eycpdds
common modern Greek word
OVTOS ypdpftar r)fvp(i
fJ.TCl
/cpd/S/Saroi/
et?
TrXotdptov for TrXoiov,
tion of avroG, avrov,

avrbv
St.
(Kptftfidriov)
St.
O^Xof
cf.
fitO
/i/CTOU
aVT&V for
modern Greek
nposcpdyiov, /SaoTaêj,
passim for
evprjKav;
(pcpa>'f
8l
OUTOOJ/
<r/cop7rtâ>,
vndytis
et
APPENDIX
br
f Keure
evnW<Ttt, ycpifa, (yyifa
Stead of
pioro) tor X aP lv
Ol
ine
Greek
many
;)
eon o-v^âa
^TO;
fivai
o~as
crvvr]6eLd
777 /xia
TOV 'ATrpiXi'ov
ia
put
v/x,Ti/
/êp//
roO
*al avrol e'Xa/3oi/ for
Ôôy
;'
^v,
in
in
for ftcoârf,
in
ran/ o-a/3,3aTa>i>,
et/ni
modern and Byzan-
o(pfi\d airoQavfiv
ra Se^ta
6ty
TrapacrKevrj
modern
modern
without
modern Greek Trapamodern Greek rfj
so in
TrXoi'ou.
of these modernisms occur in the other Gospels ;

the frequency of their occurrence, the comparative
Many
but
wane
'
the article as a proper name, so
= Friday ;
the
OTTOV VTrcryco tor OTTOI
epcpavi&iv
/SaXe in the sense of
Greek ^vôs
Greek
monastery
on
is
is
(P.OVTJ
dwelling-places
for a
e'Xa/3oi/
fTOf)acv eavrov,
TO. ip.a.Tia
ovapiov,
.own TroXXai,
/it
enecrev fls TOVS rroftas avTOv
that the middle voice
showing
vToV,
avT<a Trpo 7roSa>z>
eVeo-ei/
185
7.
it is
and consistency
regularity
in the usage,
and above
all
the
presence of certain special modernisms of a very marked

character,
sionate
which make
impossible, I think, for any dispasavoid the conclusion that the fourth
reader to
it
Gospel must have been composed
at least two, or
perhaps
three, generations later than either the first or the second.

As to the Revelation of St. John, it can scarcely be compared with the Gospel, for it approaches much nearer the
vernacular,
that
is
it
home
and
in the
modernisms
grammar,
perfectly at
Therefore the very striking

eyxpi-o-ov TOVS 6<p6a\p.ovs o-ov,
KoXXovptoi/ eyxpio-e TOVS 6<f)6a\p.ovs o-ov, in

TO"IS 6(p6a\fjLols o-ov,
TOVS o(p6aXp.ovs
and
its
was written by one
as Ko\\ovpiov
it,
Ko\\vpiov eyxpio-ov
Sobo-wo-t,
it
Greek language.
in
modern Greek
crat
so wild and barbarous in
is
hard to believe
that for
in
ancient
Or, better, KoXXvpiop fyxpi-
Vcrr6? for Qeppos, dwar] for 5<S, Swo-ovo-t for

Sojo-t,
eVra&j for eWq, &c.,
do not enable
us to assert on philological grounds the later origin of the

Apocalypse, while the matter and spirit of the book point
rather to an earlier period.
The
Epistles of John, at least the
first
Epistle,
which alone
APPENDIX
1 86
/.
gives fair scope for judging, closely resembles the Gospel in

phraseology, but it is a kind of resemblance that looks like
imitation.
few words on the Gospel according to St. Luke. This,

we have already observed, betrays a certain pedantry of style.
There is a would-be classical ring about such phrases as
dvaraâcrdai 81^77 crti/, Iva finyvws
an
o>v
Trepl
avvOev
iraprjKoXovdrjKOTL
fdoe Kapn
KaTrjxTjdrjs TTJV do-fpaXfiav,
iracriv
aKpij3a>s,
common
effort to struggle against the
which shows
familiar style of
writing prevailing among the early Christians, who were

All the more
mostly, as St. Paul says, ifowrai TW Xoya>.
in
St.
the
modernisms
are
therefore
Luke, which are
striking
continually cropping
most
effort is
troduction to the Gospel.
Again,
inform.
sustained, as in the in-
For example, T&V irfn\r)po^)opr]^tva)v

those things of which information
which probably means

has been given/ 7r\r)po<pop> meaning
'
fiSoTroio), to
in
modern Greek
f<pr)nfpias 'A/3/a is
modern expression, and hardly intelligible

in modern Greek efapepios means a priest.
all
in
most ambitious
in the midst of his
up
attempts, even when the
his Atticizing tendencies,
till
like
an extremely
we know
that
Notwithstanding
all but St.
John
Luke exceeds
modernisms, and some of these are of a very startling

For instance, eV avrfj rfj &pa, in that hour ; in
character.
modern Greek
St.
Matthew,
(1$ avrrjv rrjv
St.
&pav.
St.
Mark,
John,
all
have avrbs used with-
equivalent to OVTOS or
have discovered, uses
far
as
I
as
Luke,
out the article as

St.
and a noun
in this
Nor does any
sense.
but only
with the article
eKel>>os,
it
other use even
avros, especially with *m, so persistently as a simple demonstrative or personal pronoun. Other remarkable modernisms
are evXa^fjs for

for
TTJS
St.
Matthew
fiVf/S^s-, prjSfv
7r/;o<re7rf<re
oiKi'a?
J
for
17
for ov8tv,
cf.
TTTaxrtf
fiiKporepos
ir\r)v
for aXXa passim,
modern Greek pyx
for
tifpfs
KJ3a\a>
fXaîoroy,
~ îWo)
he shares with
irfpia-fTOTepov
for
APPENDIX
modern Greek
are
Xebi>,
re; t/utmoyieW
187
so too are p?re
for ofce
fi^re
the very frequent use of oXoy for TTOS; the
employment of
i.
(common
vTrapx"
vTrrjpxf,
to
Luke and
St.
John) as simply equivalent to rjv, eWt; iropevov ei?

for ev elpfjvT]
QfXeis (*ura>p.fv ; Kara awyKvpiav (in modern
St.
also
KCLTO.
<rwTvxiav)
Els
vision.
fTT)
flpi'ivrjv
Greek
arrived simply; oTTTao-m for

a regular form of congratula-
f(pda<rev for
',
TToXXd, xii. 19, is
The phrase rich toward

God is hard we should rather say rich in God/ taking s as
O
equivalent to fv. Hoia u>pa for rivi &pa is modern Greek.
of
festive
Kavo-cav is also modern Greek.
Ev<ppaivoiJ.ai,
enjoy'
tion in Greece at the present day.

'
'
'
ment/
in St.
used in exactly the same connection in three places
is
Luke
modern Greek drinking-song
as in the
KepacrTf
<&e'/)re
BaXre vu
Na
The phrase
ring in
it
7riovp.e,
ev<
ev(ppaLv6p.fvos Kad
which
is
loquial Greek.
^tpav
'Qdwao-ai, <pdyca-at KOL
have, again,
irifo-ai
spelling
for
meaning
in the middle.
dwwreo-e,
for
chap.
Am
(TTO.S,
passim
xvii.
has a modern
one familiar with
rfv KOITTJV
for eV
rfj
col-
KOIT~J.
modern forms, com-
'Avdirea-ai is clearly
a false
as there could
be no
7,
pea-ov 2apap*las KOL
FoXtXauw,
p-era
with observation, a singularly modern phrase,

Svo-KoXus for âXeTroiy, TpvpaXias, cf. dvdpaiudy
&C., Kaipbs for xpovos, eyyifav,

larxy<0
els
are startling
ing as they do so close together.
\ap.rrp5>s
quite astounding to
We
for
tovvaftcu,
eirdvoa
for
eiri,
TraiSeuo-co
castigabo,
TO TTWS TrapaSoj, eixaipiav, \peiav
TO f fvamiov avrov, u>p.i\ovv for e'XaXow,
a-vgrjrf'iv,
eô/uei/,
ev\oy),
simple âvw, are other modernisms of St. Luke.

an
*EKpvfie
interesting form because condemned by Phrynichus, who, if the German critics be right, was almost a conis
temporary of the writer of
this
Gospel,
APPENDIX
88
There can be
little
I.
doubt that the Acts of the Apostles
an age as late as the Gospel according to St.

not later.
There is much general similarity in the
belongs to
if
Luke,
language, notwithstanding the difference in the spirit and

tendency of the whole; but one phrase claims our especial
notice, as a very decided
New
in the
Testament.
modernism not found elsewhere

This is the word yevcracrdai used in
the sense not of 'to taste/ but 'to eat/ in fact 'to dine;'
cytvcro
TrpoaTTfivos
is
Kai
fjQeXe
dinner, yfvop.m,
to
yevcrao-dai.
dine ;
In modern Greek
irpoyfi>op,ai,
to
breakfast ; TO
the afternoon.
I
need not remind those who are acquainted with the

investigations of Baur, Schwegler, and Hilgenfeld,
critical
which a purely philological examination seems likely to lead us are the same to which they
have arrived on other grounds, grounds quite strong enough
that the conclusions to
so readily admitted by most,

that they can altogether afford to dispense with even such
evidence as the present, which, while not altogether as conin
themselves, but
clusive as
still
some might
not
desire,
is
yet, as
think even this
meagre sketch has shown, not mere fancy or guess-work, but

subject to definite rules ; and capable of leading to definite
results.
Above all, I think it is an advantage when a question of this kind can be removed for a moment from the
heated arena of theological strife, and looked upon in the
'
clear dry light' of the passionless science of philology.
APPENDIX
A
II.
Short Lexilogus, containing a few of such words in

modern and ancient Greek as seem to derive additional light by comparison.
or a
"A/3aXe,
,
a>$eXe,
That
Callim. Fr. 455, Anth. P. 7. 699,
/3<iXe,
Alcman. Fr.
said to be equivalent in
2, is
and seems
&c.,
/3aXe,
or
to
should
/3aXe,
and
meaning
to
be an imperative from
grant' is not at all
mean
'
unnatural, but what an abundant confirmation of this theory

is
it
to find in
modern Greek
the derivative form /SoXeT-
licet.
;,
The probable radical identity of

The modern Greek
epwrtKos, seems to make this etymo-
ayavo'y, "Aya/3os.
these words has been noticed above.

dyavrtKos, or dya^riKos
logy
still
more
Ayye'XXco.
likely.
The
derivation of this
other than ai/a-xeXXoo;
KeAXco
Ke'Xo/zai,
and possibly
At any
rate the root of the
Professor
Max
Ke'Xofiai, Ke'XaSor,
word can hardly be any
being used in the
identical in root with
re'XX&>
sense
of
in eVireXXco.
second half of the word
is
(as
me) gar-, which appears in

and as the form ye'X- is not found
Miiller informs
and
KaXe'co
elsewhere in Greek, I think

result of the contact
of
we must assume
with the nasal.
that the y is the
APPENDIX
190
This
"Ayovpos.
is
interest attaching to
form
ya>pa for &pa,
modern Greek form of
the
The
aa>pos.
consists in the fact that
it
it
implies a
precisely what the cognate forms

German, &c., would lead us to
which
is
Zend, jahr in
in
ydre
II.
expect.
This word would mean,
'AypoiKoi.
found in ancient
if
Greek, 'to be boorish, rude, or ignorant;' in
on the other hand,

Kai
ocroi
means
it
TOV
to
7roXe/x,ou
know,
TTJV
modern Greek,
e. g.
rexvrjv dypoiKOvv.
War Song
Here
of Rbegas.
the signification which usage has sanctioned seems to
be the very reverse of the
original.
Perhaps we have an
'
intermediate stage in the aypouoo-oôf,

coarsely wise,' of
Philo, and the aypoi<os o-o^m of Plato's Phaedrus, 299 E.
We
too talk of being rough and ready.' What if we should

have in the history of this word the record of the popular
'
prejudice against philosophy, as a useless unpractical study

in the Republic of Plato ?
which we have described

Is
it
o-oêTre,
not as though the honest farmer

de dypoiKoi),
<ryo>
i.
said, vpcls pev <f>i\o-
while you are star-gazing I am

To such a man <iAoo-o0/a is 'the
e.
'
working in my farm.'
would-be-wisdom,' aypoueia useful knowledge.'
This accords very well with the usage of
'
means
to
know an
art,
rather than a science;
example quoted above.

the boor, as
you philosophers
transitive use of dypoiKw in the

fully adopt Professor
originally have meant

'AXerpi
is
Max
'
call
me.'
example
likely a
'
it
were,
With regard
am
to the
cited above, I thank-
comparing
for aporpov.
the
in
Mailer's suggestion, that
to cultivate/
modern Greek
as
There was, moreover, very
sense of irony in this use of aypoiKu, as though
which
dypoiKa>,
it
may
oiKovopS>.
Does not
this
go
far
to establish the original identity of the roots dpo- and d\e- or

Petavius, Uranolog. p. 258, calls the constellation
APPENDIX
Orion
less
than a ploughshare.
the constellation in question

'A/IT),
is
modern Greek word
think be written
191
In modern Greek
d\Tpoir68iov.
more nor
II.
or
dfifj
&^
Its aptitude as applied to
striking.
'
'
however/ should I
which in classical Greek is
for
but/
hardly found save in the compound d^yenr) =

'
meanings,
in
neither
aAerpoTro'Sioi/ is
some way or another/ and
'
The
OTTOHTOVV.
'
anyhow/
how-
ever/ are very nearly allied.
"Atos
is
from
according to Liddell and Scott ; whether

'that which is esteemed.'
aya>,
which weighs' or
in the sense of 'that
This derivation prepares us to recognise in
Greek for
'solitude/
etymology
and
e. p.ovat;ia
(cf.o-rparta
i.
in povag or p,ovvd,
juoray-o-iaj
'
'
povagid,
modern
for orpaTta, &C.), the
Od.
417? povdy-s',
ii.
lead a lonely life.'

-ao>
It seems very likely that the termination
is often to be
thus explained, as standing for an original -dya>. So we have
in povafa, povdyu!)
I live lonely/
'
7mpao>, to lead an attempt/ i. e. to attack, tempt, or tease,
of which the aorist is in modern Greek eWpaa pointing to
;
an original
just as a-wdya>
ireipdyo),
metaplastic for dpds.

iveco,
cited
is
in
This word throws
The word
by Hesychius.
modern Greek means turn/ order/

'
modern Greek
'
'
light
on
dpdda
in
row.'
probably connected with the Sanscrit bdrbaras,

= stultus, and with the
which
vdrvaras,
according to Bopp
Latin lalbus, balbutio.
mering/
'
/3ep.3epia),
to
The modern Greek

stammer/
is
'
/3e'p/3epor,
stam-
a striking and obvious
confirmation of this etymology.
a very interesting word, because its

etymology involves so many others; and also because, while
it occurs in almost
every Greek writer from the age of
Ba<7Tao>.
This
's
APPENDIX
192
Homer
II.
New
Testament, we only find its deriBaordo> is plainly a compound

vation in modern Greek.
to that of the
standing for fiaora

OTCIKTOS,
and the modern
e/3d<rraa.
Baora
burdens.'
But what
the answer in
and
we may
as
aya>,
(really
see from /3doray/ia,
most ancient) Greek
can mean nothing
aya>
the etymology of
is
modern Greek,
in
which
than 'I bear
else
We
/3a<rrd ?
means
/3d
fia-
aorist
'
have
I put/
in sense = /3dXXo>.
Baora means, accordingly, burdens,

loads, things placed on the back of the horse, mule, or ass.
word of cognate meaning is /3aW, which leads us to
connect /SaiW, /SaW,
Assuming, as
and
fiafa,
/3t/3a'o>.
we may,
I think
that this is the radical sig-
nification of the ancient /3aco in the

TrcTrvvpcva
fidgets,
Homeric, di/e/icoXia pdîs,

have
a
&c., we
striking analogy in the
word Xe'yoo, which originally meant to put,' the English lay

and the German legen being doubtless from the same root.
Here belong ep.irdfrp.at, modern Greek ep.7rdfrp.ai or ep.fidfrp.ai,
'
with the simple verb
= curae mihi
t'is
fidfrp.at
est,
i.
e.
'I put
With fidfrp,ai, ep.irdfrp.ai, cf. franca, ep,fiaTeo),

it.'
and in modern Greek fiaiva>, cpiraiva>. For the phonetic law
on which such changes depend, see p. 37.
myself into
more than
suspect this is a vulgar corruption, taken from the mouth of
the common people, of eVc/3a\Ao>, the modern Greek /SyoXXw,
which is by metathesis for ey/SoXXw. BydXXo> at/wi means I
So /SyoXXw ya'Xa, I
I am bled.'
bleed,' and /3ydXXo/iai alpa,
'
BSoXXo) means, in ancient Greek,
to milk.'
'
'
milk/ and
'
/3yaXXo/xai
ya'Xa,
fi8d\\ovrai ya'Xa, Arist.

fideu
from
i,
'
eK-fieat,
go ;'
for
yield
3,
put forth/
/35eXXa,
eK/3dXX<u,
H. A.
'
'I
'
i.
e.
21,
fie<a
milk.'
2.
being the transitive of
the vomiter/
whence
also
Compare fifes
The etymology of
from
/3SeXvo-o-o),
is
/35eXXto,
i.
e.
more than
probable.
or
fifKKos,
which Herodotus says
is
Phrygian, Hip-
APPENDIX
II.
for 'bread/ should
ponax Cyprian,
193
be compared with the
Here too belong,

Albanian dowa, which also means
as Professor Max Miiller reminds me, the German backen,
'
bread.'
Gebdck, the English bake.
and
form ydXavbs means,
modern,
'
in ancient
''
Greek,
another form for yvpivos;

Greek yvpvco and yepvu = yvpa>.
Tiepddvt for yiepddviov
He
tioris/ aquatile.
may
compare
modern
in
'
rightly connects
it
with dpbaiva.
Are
be Indogermanic) and
not connected with the same root ? This seems
names Jordan (supposing
We
likely.
sea, in
means, according to Passow, in the

Carmina popularia Graeciae recen-
to his
Glossary appended
'idpSavos
calm/ of the
blue/ of the sky.
Ttpivos is
the
The Doric
are said to be connected.
yaXfjvr}
must
stand for
TXrjyopa,
fit-,
it
not, however, forget that the yi- in yiepddvi

i.
yprjyopa,
e. Sid.
or 6y\r)yopa
eyprjyopa
',
a neuter plural,
used adverbially from ypfyopos (connected with eyeipa), lypi]The word ypfjyopos, though found only in modern
yopa).
Greek, plainly existed in the age of the Septuagint, as is
proved by the word yprjyopw, which is equivalent in force to
ypyyopos
tlfU.
rx/o-xpos, oXto-âiVo), 6\i<r6r)p6s.
That these words are con-
nected seems probable from the modern Greek yXiarpda),

to slide/ yXiarepos = 6\i<r6r)p6s.
'co,
'
This word
mean
'
the
Grim
ing of yopyos
*
One.'
explained by Liddell and Scott to
is
The mediaeval and modern mean'
simply swift/
Xenophon uses yopybs of
and
Eustathius
of
a concise style.'
Is not
spirited horses/
is
'
yopybs connected with eyeipu, standing for yopios?

p. 1 1 6 ^wpya for x</3ta.
Aidfpopov in
pare Thuc.
modern Greek =
iv.
KepSos,
86.
TO.
8id(popa
See on
= TOKOS
com-
APPENDIX
194
II.
Clem. Al. 231, receives abundant
from the modern formations,
for
ira6alvu>
illustration
TTUO-Ô), p.a&aiv<o
for Tvy\a.vu>, aTrodaivw for dTrodvrjo-Ka, K.
Are not these words connected with the
eiipus.
modern Greek
for
r. X.
fipup-T],
stink?
stench,
/3p<0fiao>,
If apw/xa be,
'
as Pott suspects, connected with the Sanscrit ghrd, to smell,'

that too must stand for an original yp5>p.a or /3payia.
Za/3a, lorica,
Does not
modern Greek word.
this
To
mean,
that which goes across/ i. e. Ataâ.

ai>a',3rt,
So too
occur in the sense of dvdpao-is and Kardpao-ts.
'
seems to be formed from

or
'slants'
meaning,
by
A
'
'
'
strange/
silly/
etymology
'
wrinkle/
fail
hardly
Qavfj
equally
and
furrow/
'
Zo/36s
which
Its derivative
diagonal.
be illustrated
well
foolish/ may
is suggested for
'
to wrinkle/
to detect the
that
compared with the German
the English 'queer/

similar
to
mean
as
'goes across/
'
and
Sia/3a-,
TO Kara/3a
p?>
to furrow/
etymology
quer.
tpoi>, fcp6va>
where we can
8i-dpos, 8i-dpov, 8i.ap6co.
is modern Greek for Odvaros, which is, however,

common.
Savr] is plainly a more primitive form,
ddvaros, like Kaârof,

implied in rîidavos, Bavfiv, &C.
being a derivative, and adjectival or participial rather than
is
substantival
"I.
in
we
form, as
This, the nominative of
Greek as the masculine
see
article.
dBdvaros]
cf.
appears in modem
In some parts of Greece/
e, "v,
'
in
or
u>,
'the
says Mr. Sophocles (Modern Greek Grammar, p. 65),
he
uneducated use for 6, as 8da-Ka\os, avdpas.' But
adds,
f)
17
'
f)
This peculiarity does not extend beyond the nominative
a most significant fact, and proves

beyond dispute that this (or i as I should write it) is certhe mascutainly not the feminine article used ignorantly for
singular.'
Surely that
is
f]
line.
Add
to this the fact that in
Albanian
or
appears
APPENDIX
II.
195
as the masculine nominative of the definite article,

is
any room
scarcely
modern and
ri
rtaa>
is
ancient
common
and there
doubt as to the identity of the
for
1.
in the
New
Testament and Septuagint
for
we have no example of this in modern Greek, but Ivameans to be obstinate ;' which, if the word be of Greek
'
derivation at
all,
must mean
'
to
keep asking why?'

form, but
we
only find the forms eyxdpo-toy, eVtKapo-ios in classical writers.
It
Hesychius and Suidas give
Kapo-*oy.
is
therefore
seem
K\QVCO,
too of the
xXavyco,
German
meet with
Cretan
Kpava>,
The modern
compared with
We
more
likely than not.

klagen and our cry.
Kpavyij,
should think
means the kernel of a pine-cone/ KOKKaXia,

In modern Greek TO. Ko<Ka\a stands for TO.
'
KoKKaXos
snails.'
With regard
oarrpciKov, and
KoXa.
pound
to
Is not this connected with K/mo>?
to render this
leech,'
modern Greek
in
fvavrlov.
KAmco.
Greek
interesting
this
association of ideas, compare

oorptHus = KOKKO\OS.
to the
Does not
this
word mean
perhaps connected with

/3pov-Ko'Xa,
/3pu*oXa, in
'
'
landoa-ra.
OO-TOVV,
one who sucks
like a
The com-
*o'XXa, KoXXaco?
modern Greek
means 'a
'
blood-sucker,' a vampire/
Epovs, according to Hesychius,
= ineiv ; and ftpvv flrceiv, Ar. Nub.
1382 = to cry for drink.'
The flatterer is called *oXa because he is a parasite.
'
Koj/ra in
tion?
If
modern Greek means
Donaldson (New Cratylus,
right in regarding *ca-Ta as a
What
'near.'
is its
deriva-
349, 3rd edit.) is

of *a = <ev and the
p.
compound
he points out, there must have been a form

case KOVTO. may very well be another form of
suffix TO, then, as
In
a,
this
the change of o and
being, as
o 2
we have
seen, almost
APPENDIX
1^6
= by/ or 'near/
short, which occurs already in
From
a matter of course in Greek.
we
II.
get the adjective KOVTOS,
'
KOI/TO
Byzantine Greek, and Kovrevu, 'to approach/ also

'
KOVTO.K.IOV,
a breviary/
is
In modern Greek
KpuoraXXof, Kpvepos.
common word
the
With these should be
dfjL<pi\vKrj, Xeucro-co, yXaixrcra).
?,
modern Greek
the
compared
<pva t
itpvos,
for
'
it
yXuKoâpaêi,
y\vK.o$eyyfi,
dawns.'
In modern Greek
Mo.
tive
and
and
p.a
positive sense
TO vat,
which
appears to be a
being
also
this
word
used both
is
as in the formulas
latter
&eo\>.
fjif)v,
and the whole
modern Greek we have

'
with/ for
/xcTo.
p.f)v
for
This leads us
really for n^-va, just as
crit.
Now
is
to
Ma
7rapaaXo>
p.a
is
//a
as another
considering mere
also connects
tê,
He
Now
it
is
be significant, that in
^.e in the sense of
^, and
to the further inference that
appears to be for fna, Sansactually found in modern Greek as an
P.TJV is
p.fjva
o-e
series with ê in fif-ra.
and seems
certainly interesting,
for vaov.
Donaldson considers
form of M, and connects both with ê,

subjectivity to be the primary notion.
with
TOV o-ravpov,
/xa
of heathen times, the obvious derivation
relic
TO vatov, vaiov
TOV dfbv for Trpbs TOV
a nega-
form of affirmation or negation
being a diminutive
used in formulas of supplication, as
p.a
in
r\v
interrogative particle.
This leads us
to consider the force of va,
which Donaldson
from the speaker.

As a termination he finds it in ai/, JW, and fjv, but nowhere
as a separate word.
But in modern Greek we have va
as an independent word in what, if Donaldson be right, is
everywhere regards as denoting remoteness
its
most primary form and
there/ voilh } va TO, le voila.
signification.
It is also
used
Na means
(like
vrj
in
'
see
APPENDIX
as a strengthening
II.
demonstrative
197
avrdva
e. g.
suffix,
and
not twice, though modified in the second place, in

once,
the forms epevave, etrevave.
if
In the vulgar, but we cannot doubt extremely ancient,

forms avTijvos, avrovvos, CLVTOVOS = avros, avrfjvr) = avrr], avTovoov =
we
avrcov, &c.,
find this objective particle
'Am occurs
middle of a word.
Greek
very
Miiller,
as in ancient
e. g. dvdfiados,
means, in modern Greek,

a
inserted in the
modern
in
for the shorter a privative,
v-
'
dvap.e\)
The
to fight.'
one, which, according to Professor

have under a great variety of forms ; which
be referred however
to
for
root
common
we
is
Max
may
two main heads, namely mar- or mal-
as their respective starting-points.

From it we get,
grind or crush.
The
original sense
is
to
other words, mri-
among
ndmi
Sanscrit, fj.dpvap.ai Greek, and I suspect also p.w\os,

as well as the modern Greek /uaAo'i/co, and p.a\fpbs, which
means 'quarrelsome/
root
in
Mola and
are from the
JJLV\OS
same
need hardly be added, the English mill/ which

secondary and vulgar employment bears the same
'
and,
its
it
sense as na\6va>.
Mrjyapr),
riyapr),
lent in sense to
riyap, i.e.
^.
p.a>v,
p.rj
The
yap
fj,
ri
yap
rlyap,
fj,
equiva-
force of the several particles
is very plain, and is

preserved intact, although the particles
themselves are for the most part obsolete in modern Greek.
Tap = ye ap is equivalent to
*
do not imagine/ and i) =
verb
[or]
so wyapr)
is
he
'
f'pxerai
In
'
German
'
why then/
'
w has
the force of
or/ introducing the following
surely then he
is
not coming
the form of expression
is
very
common, and wyapr) epxtrai might be almost literally translated thus, Er wird ja denn nicht kommen, oder ?
Similarly
riyaprj
forms
would mean
wyaprj,
'
What
riyaprj
are
then
?'
or
'
Is
interesting,
it
really so
inasmuch
?'
as
The
they
APPENDIX
198
II.
preserve the old conjunction yap which
planted by
and
Mvtjo-Ka
Compare
elsewhere sup-
is
diori.
are
pvaio-Kio
modern Greek forms
and the Doric
0j/jJo-Ko>
dvaia-KO)
for
peW
in ancient Greek.
are allowable.
Perhaps both ways of accenting this word

'OpoCo-e would then be an imperfect from the
root opo-, as in
modern Greek
'OpoCo-c, opovo-e.
while opova-e would be a
o-oi/ca),
modern Greek we seem

yiovpovcriov,
first
to have a derivative
6. diopovcriov
i.
from ^pvo-dw (xpvaorist from 6pova>.

In
e'xpuo-ovo-e
'
opp.Tjp.a,
form
opovo> in
a sally/
and ireraXov. These appear to be but different forms

of the same word, when we know that nfraXov in modern
ne'StXoz/
Greek
pare
is
the regular
Treftavpos
We may
for a horse- shoe.
The
ireravpos.
which
for
nTT)\ov,
and
word
neriXov,
com-
Ionic form of ircraXov
would
ireSiXov,
be
IS
natural
iotacism.
am
Trepaca.
inclined
sense of the
,
connect both these
to
words by means of the modern Greek
which has the
Trepi/aw,
latter.
This word
TTOU.
never as an enclitic
always written as a proclitic nov,

in modern Greek; but this can
is
TTOU,
hardly be more than a matter of writing, for

qualifying particle
though more
is
very similar to
tions as the following

that
Here
'
he
dvo-Tvxn?
is/ or ri SUOTU;^S TTOU
seems a connecting
it
que paresseux que vous
ing particle in ancient Greek,

TTOU,
come
Does
to be
'
And
e. g.
employment,
used in such exclama-
*lvai,
eivai,
use as a
i.
e.
'
unhappy man
how unhappy
like the
is it
French
is
he/
que, as
not also a connect-
in
ra>r TTOU,
roâ TTOU,
so
we
'if
that'
in old
Just
say
not this help us to understand how irov has
fdv TTOV, ore irov
English.
KV
particle,
etes/
classical
its
It is chiefly
restricted.
its
used in modern Greek as an indeclinable
rela-
APPENDIX
II.
Let us see whether we have not
tive?
199
at least
something
which looks very like this vulgar usage in the colloquial
In the Knights,' line 203, the
language of Aristophanes.
'
d\\avT07ra\7)s puts the question
S'
fOTWj
d-yicuXo^TjX^f
which the answer
to
is
avTO TTOU Xeyet,
on
ayKvkais rat? x P (T ^ v apirdfav
<pep*i-
Here Adolph von Velsen (Aristophanis Equites, Leipzig, 1869)

being offended at avrbs used apparently as
a simple demonstrative. Mr. W. G. Clark (Journal of Philology,
vol. ii. p.
314) retains the reading of the MSS., but transreads TOUTO
lates
the
TTOV Xe'yei,
The
'
thing speaks for
must be translated
TTOU
itself;' in
'
take
which case, I presume,

But surely this is a
it.'
very stilted expression for so colloquial a style. With regard

meaning of avro, there are innumerable instances
to the
where
as,
it
plainly
means simply
for example, avrb owe
362 d; and
aui-6
av (fa TO
to say with Liddell

is
stood,
ment
'
that,'
eiprjrai,
fie'oi/
and Scott
efy,
even in
classical
e8,
fiaXiora
Xen. An.
that TOVTO or
Greek
Plat.
4. 7,
e'/mi/o
Rep.
7; where
is
under-
In the New Testavery like begging the question.

meets us at every turn in the sense of OVTOS or
avTos
cKdvos,
and indeed
it is almost a
necessary demonstrative,
holds a middle position between OVTOS and
just as O.VTOV, in modern and ancient Greek, holds a
inasmuch as
exelvos,
it
middle place between
Now
in
o>8e
modern Greek
should prefer to write
it,
and
c.
the sense of auro

avTb TTOV
TTOU
Xey,
or, as
we
Xry, would be very simple
indeed, and suit the passage exactly.
The
answer
question
is,
better than,
AUTO
is,
'What does
'Just what
'
it
says;'
dyKuXo^j/X^s
mean?' and the
co>r6 TTOU Xe'yei.
Surely this
is
imagine it speaks for itself.'

a very common phrase in modern Greek
TTOU Xe'yeis is
APPENDIX
2OO
II.
so common, that I have known and conversed

who invariably prefaced their remarks by this
means
with people
singular ex-
you say/ and implies either that the

words
have
been
speaker's
suggested by some remark which
It
pression.
'
as
the person addressed has let

rate
or
fall,
or that he reckons at any
on your agreement with what he
says.
This word means, as stated on page 94, a ghost

the modern Greeks.
Yet that is hardly a
demon among
sufficient definition of the
word.
Sroixflov
the popular belief, the principle of
which
lies
life
is,
according to
or spiritual power
concealed in every natural object, animate or
For a very striking and singularly felicitous

of
the origin of this superstition, see an essay
explanation
On the Origin of Animal Worship &c., in the Fortnightly
inanimate.
'
'
Review'
'
May i, 1870, by Mr. Herbert Spencer, who,

the
belief in the continued existence of an active
regarding
personality after death as the origin of all religious befor
supposes that the names of natural objects, as mountain/ 'bear/ lion/ &c., were first applied to the living in
'
lief,
default of abstract names, in order to indicate height, shagginess, fierceness,
and so
in
forth
that such
metaphors were
that
succeeding generations,
perpetuated
patronymics;
ignorant of the origin of the metaphor, interpreted it as
literal
fact,
and supposed
that they were really descended
from mountains, bears, or lions hence arose the belief that

other self, which continued to exist when the body
was dead, and needed to be propitiated, was to be looked
:
that
animate or inanimate natural objects. The belief in

monsters would arise from compound patronymics, such as
for in
would be formed when, for instance, 'a chief, nicknamed

away from an adjacent tribe a wife who is
the Wolf, carries
remembered
a
woman/
either
under the animal name of her
tribe,
or as
APPENDIX
Unite with
this
201
II.
once universally prevalent superstition, the
power of the Greek's poetic and vivid imaginaand w e seem at once to understand the secret of Greek
reserving
tion,
mythology and of Greek
The
superstition.
Christian
has succeeded to a great extent in supplanting the

it has left the second almost untouched.
The
vrjpfiftes,
among
dogma
first,
but
or water nymphs, still survive as vapaidfs or

the modern Greeks while Xdpwv, though de;
prived of his boat and his office of ferryman, conducts the

But in no respect
souls of the dead to "AS*?? on horseback.
is
the belief of ancient Greece
more
faithfully
preserved than
in regard to the da[p.oves or oroixa, the personified
powers of
According to the Greek belief, anything may become a o-roixflov, from a rock or a river to a bird or a beast.
Nature.
Often
conceived
this oroixeToz/ is
of, like
the ancient daip.wv, as
the spirit of some departed hero, with whose actions during

associated.
life this or that natural
object has been especially
Sometimes, on the other hand, and
this is
still
more com-
mon, the powers of nature are personified without being

identified with
any particular human being.
Achilles con-
versing with his horses, or with the river Scamander, is

exactly the kind of thing which meets us at every turn in
The question which we

popular modern Greek poetry.
have now to ask is, How old is the signification which the
modern Greeks
is
give to oroixetoi/,
the
force
of o-roi^t lov ?
really
and how did

In the
first
it
arise
place,
?
What
we must
from Liddell and Scott, who regard it

as a diminutive of o-roixos, a row/ and leave us to infer that
most decidedly
differ
'
because
means a row of
'
o-roiôr
poles' (or indeed of anything
else), that therefore the so-called
mean
of
'
'
little
o-roixflov,
sundial.
tive,
but
diminutive
pole ;
the upright rod which throws
But
O-TOIÔS-
a-roixiov, just
oroixetoi/
might
hence they give as the original
would not give us
its
meaning
shadow on the
O-TOIXÔV as a
as roixos gives us rotxiov
diminu-
-flov is
never
APPENDIX
II.
cause surprise
that, believing as we do in the general identity of the modern
and ancient pronunciation of the Greek language, we should
have so much difficulty in accepting an etymology which
used as a diminutive termination.
would simply require us
may
It
as another
to regard
way of
but here the modern Greek language itself enters

writing
a most emphatic protest against confusing a short t with the
diphthongal el, or even with I. Had oToiêlov stood for orott
a matter of absolute certainty, which no one

acquainted with the principles of modern Greek etymology
could doubt for a moment, that its Romaic form would have
is
Xiov,
it
been
a-rotxi
just as
fiov
pvT)p.tlov
and
lov
this
a-Tolxos,
as
mean a
There
come,
/ui^/ietd,
Si-oêio?
cannot
little
rod ;
It
and the
regularly preserve the
it
is
not the case.
is
appears as
modern Greek.
in
it
But
it
no diminutive form of
is
stand for orotxiW.
if it
Nor,
would rather mean a
it
as regularly loses
o, lov
then
appears as aroixeio,
never lost
final o is
little
were, could
row.
no doubt about the derivation of
like orolxoy,
from
oreiâ,
(rroixelov ; it must
which although only found in
the derivative sense of 'directing one's steps,' 'proceeding,' may

have meant originally to arrange.' Hence we see its con'
nection with
(m'xoff
and
force of the termination,
oroxab/Liai.
we
Bearing in mind the
see that as TO
/nz/i/êlov
means
(rroixtiov might mean 'that

which arranges,' marks out,' points.' The ovoixflov of the
sundial was the intelligent part of it, compared to a human
being who observes the progress of the sun in the heavens,
'that which reminds,' 'memorial;' so

'
'
and hence called also yvupw. Or, to get the meaning still
more simply from orei'x<>, may not orotêtov have signified
that which moves ?' referring of course to the shadow
'
of
the
upright
<rrotxeioi>
really
SfKuTrovv
o-Toixftov,
ten
feet
long.
rod,
had
i.
In
rather
than
the
rod
itself.
That
meaning appears from the phrase

supper time when the shadow was
this
c.
any
case,
the
idea
of
regular,
in-
APPENDIX
tentional,
403
motion indicative
intelligent
:ontained in the
II.
word
and
crm'x<<>
course the shadow to which
life
of intelligence
o-Toiêtoi/;
and
and
intelligence
it
is
was of
were
attri-
There must have been something awfully mysterious

in the regular progression of that shadow across the dial,
even to the inventor who had some dim perception of
buted.
and effect but how much more to the ordiThat little upright rod, he obnary man who had none.
a
shadow like his own, a second
had
with
served
amazement,
far more knowing (yvd>pa>v)
self; and this second self was
natural cause
rod which always stood still in the same place.

Then he would soon observe that rocks and trees and
than the
little
animals had also their
O-TOIX*
become with him a name

to
ality which he seemed
and
aToixeiov
would naturally
for that living or moving person-
behind
(TKia is
all
Do we not now understand why
natural objects.
used of the
spirits
more remarkable, how
it
of the departed ? and, what is still

that we have inherited the word
is
gnome, plainly connected with

or genie
spectively
or
yi/eb/ieoi',
to frighten/
to-Ktof,
from
'
O-KIU,
to
in the sense of spirit
modern Greek remeaning

fear/ and the masculine derivative
SKidfa, a-Kid&iwi,
?
'
a-Kios
connected with, and hidden
find
in
are sufficient indications of the ap-
palling sense of personality with
which the Greeks
still
con-
tinue to regard shadows.
But now, how are we to connect this meaning of aroixôv

with the Platonic and subsequent philosophic usage of the
word in the sense of element?' This is not very difficult.
The shadow, the orotxeloi/, was the mysterious hidden self, the
'
shrinking away almost to

nothing in broad noonday, and slowly but regularly creeping
Therefore to the
out as the sun approached the horizon.
inner personality of
all
things,
popular mind, and more or less even to themselves, the

inquiry of the physical philosophers after the beginnings of
all
things
was a kind of necromancy, a search
for ghosts.
APPENDIX
204
Hence
II.
that for a long time the Ionic

philosophers
difficulty in enduing their oroiêTa or dpxal with life
no
had
it is
and
motion, or rather they were unable to conceive of them as

divested of these attributes of personality.
It belonged
naturally to Plato, the great popularizer of philosophy, to
adopt the people's word a-roixflov, and give it a philosophical
meaning, thus combating in friendly guise the eW/xn KOI d\i-
387 c) of the popular superstition. What a

conception do we here obtain of the struggle between
pavTfs (Rep.
fine
Greek enlightenment and Greek superstition. To get at the

bottom of these vTotxela, these dreadful phantoms, to penetrate to their pt&paTa with
Empedocles, and show, as he
thought he could, that there were but four of them after
this was, as the
physical
philosophers vainly hoped, to
all
'
rob
the grave of victory, and take the sting from death/

The word orotxe fa, as applied by Plato to the letters of the
alphabet, indicated originally not the signs, but the 'living
voices/ the souls, so to speak, of the letters, just as litterae
and elementa
arum were distinguished by the Latin

this word o-roiêtov would inevitably conPlato's mind with his doctrine of ideas, is seen
litter
grammarians. That
nect itself in
at once,
the
and the
force of his polemical attitude towards

belief appears when we consider that the
popular
of the
oroiêTa
own.
full
common
people were the antipodes of his

Shadows were with him the least real, with them
the most real, of

theirs
all
appearances.
were shadows and
His
oroiêta
were
ideas,
reflections.
was the very essence of the popular notion of O-TOIXÔV

that it should exist independently of the object which first
It
suggested
sky
it.
among
traced.
So bears and rams were soon found in the

stars, where their outlines were fancifully
the
Hence we have
the signs of the Zodiac also called
used by
ecclesiastical writers, and by Manetho especially, of the
o-Tot^fia
(Diog. L.
vi.
102).
Hence,
too, orotêTa is
APPENDIX
evenly bodies.
use of the word
iv.
(Gal.
drei
&c.
3,
Most
striking
beitungen
205
and conclusive
oroiêta in phrases like
Col.
ii.
TO.
St.
is
Paul's
oroiêm TOV KOO-ÔV
Baur (Christenthum der
20).
8,
ersten Jahrhunderte, p.
brief, p. 66,
II.
49) and Hilgenfeld (Galater-
Das Urchristenthum und
seine neuesten Bear-
Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie, erster
Jahrgang, Heft
i.
p.
expressly attribute
99)
sense to
this
words, and Hilgenfeld quotes Philo Judaeus (De

De Parentibus Colendis, 9, ed.
Humanitate,
3, p. 387
Tauchn. v. p. 62; De Vita Contemplativa,
i, p. 472), the
Clementine Homilies (x. 9. 25), and even a Sibylline fragSt. Paul's
ment
anterior to the time of Christ (Orac. Sibyll.
80, ed.
iii.
How too, he pertinently

support of this view.
Paul speak of the oroiêm TOV KOO-ÔV as the
guardians or tutors of mankind before Christ, and of their
being enslaved or in bondage under them, and how could
Friedl.), in
asks, could
he so
to
St.
oppose them
directly
them a
real personality
the heavenly powers
by
Christ unless he attributed
to
That
St.
Paul means especially
o-roiê?a TOV Koo-pov is plain
from the
connection in which he places them with the observance of

days and months and times and years.' How vivid his
'
between Christ and the
realization of the conflict

TOV Koo-p-ov
fj/.uv
may
TraXr)
f]
that ap;f7
is
be seen from Ephesians
Trpbs alp.a
KOI
synonym
crdpKa,
aX\a
vi.
12: "o
Trpbs TUS
OVK
apâs (observe
for oroiêioi'), Trpbs TUS
eowtaf,
TOVS KO(TfiOKpaTOpaS TOV CTKOTOVS TOV dltoVOS TOVTOV, TTpbs

p.(iTLKa TTJS irovrjpuu ev rots
We
are
now
in Byzantine
oW,
'
Greek comes
TiTdrj.
Trpbs
TTVfV-
enovpaviois.
in a position to understand
to haunt,' o-rotxaa>,
and
TO.
to
'
mean
to be
There
is
'
to
how
enchant/ and
haunted/ in modern Greek.
every reason to believe, with
Liddell and Scott, that these two forms are etymologically

connected.
The change of u and i, as well as the change of
APPENDIX
206
is
accent,
which we
'
come
is
In modern Greek,
&ddva>.
I
TO
;'
'
<pddo-i[j.ov,
be in time
to
steamer
this
:'
exact analogy as regards
supplied by the modern Greek /3dia,

cannot but regard as connected with pmos,
the meaning
'
An
perfectly regular.
II.
means simply
the arrival.'
as e<pda<ra TO
for,'
is,
<p6dva>
however,
its
It
'
'
nurse,'
'
little.'
I arrive,'
means, however, also

'
dTp.6ir\oiov,
transitive sense.
caught the
The
ordinary,
employment oftftddvv in classical Greek is represented

The modern
in modern Greek by the compound Trpocpddvco.
usage of <$>0dva> approaches most nearly to the ancient in the
phrase cpddvfi, it is enough.' Yet the fact that the compound
irpo(p6dva> is used by Aeschylus, Aristophanes, and Euripides,
is proof enough that (pddvw might mean in ancient Greek
absolute
'
simply 'I arrive,' 'I come,' 'I reach' (i. e.

wise Trpofpddva would be a pleonasm.
of
this, in
modern Greek
the
my destination), other-
The non-recognition
common, and, as we believe,
even in ancient Greek the original meaning of (frOd, has

caused much difficulty to the commentators on Thuc.
III. 49. 3,
OTTO)?
fjif],
KOI
evBvs
rpirjpr)
<pdacrdcrr}s
rrjs
a\\r)v
UTrforeXXoz/
devrepas, fvptocn
Kara
8ie(pdapp,evr}v
<r7rov8j}v,
TJ\V
TTO\IV
where we have only to disabuse our minds of the prejudice

that (pQao-doys must mean having first arrived,' translating
'
find
simply, lest, on the arrival of the second, they should
the city destroyed,' and all is clear.
'
Xdw.
and
This root appears in the modern x av(
in x aT nP
(from
x aT ^(0 ) =
>
<to
se /
TTO'ÔJ.
word from ^dco,

termina^dXXco, âdd\\a>, âXdo-o-o), the -a<pda> being a mere
tion.' But even mere terminations must have some meaning,
and we will endeavour to suggest a more plausible and
complete etymology for ^Xaêo than one which barely exVr}\a(f>>.
plains
To
Liddell
and Scott
derive this
one half of the word.

begin with what
is
most obvious:
a(pda>,
II. vi.
322,
APPENDIX
TO'
KOI ay/cuXa
77,
and means
means
'
20 7
II.
simply enough from
dcpovvra, is derived
'
to touch/ or
'
to feel
therefore ^r)\-a(pda>
plainly, to touch or feel in a particular manner,
implies an adjective
But
\}/T)\a>s or ^77X0.
^77X0'?,
I//T/XOS,
with
and
adverb
corresponding
is not found.
so written,
We
know, however, by the derivation of ^1X6? from tyda>, that

this word is merely an iotacism for ^rf\6s, and ought so to be
written
cf.
aTrarr/Xo'?,
from
Now
dirarda).
what does
îXos-
or ^j/X6s according to its derivation mean ?

One signification is no doubt rubbed bare/ but an equally natural one,
and the prevailing one in modern Greek, is rubbed fine/
'
'
become powdery from

To distinguish this meaning
used, for instance, of tobacco that has
keeping, or of small
from the
coin.
preserving most faithfully the etymology from -vâo), we may, if we like, write the word ^X6swhen used in this sense. Hence we have, as a matter of
classical,
'
course, ^77X0*07,
'
<ro(j5)&),
to
to split hairs/
'
to
mince matters
be over-subtle/ no doubt a play upon

<
\}sr)\oypd<pa>,
and an
as
to write fine;'
number
infinite
'
;
^77X0-
<îXoo-o0w
^rj\oTpayov8>, 'to sing gently;'
besides,
for
the
modern Greek
language has an unlimited licence

multiplying such
compounds. Who, then, can resist the conclusion that
in
i^TjXaâco
means
'
to touch lightly/
'
to feel about
one/ like
ancient Greek bears
German herumtappen. Its usage in

out this etymology most strikingly.
Xenophon, Eq. 2. 4,
uses it in the sense of stroking/ Latin palpare. In Aristhe
'
tophanes, Pax 691,
we have
fv
o-oYa> ^r/Xaâv Ta irpdynaTd
In Odyssee
comp. Eccl. 315, and

ix.
416,
we have
it
fie
Plato, Phaed. 99 b.
used of the blind Cyclops
\lrr)\a(f)6(aVj
AUTOS
5' eii/i
Ei' rivd
<rrfvdx<0v re Kai a>SiVa>i> 68vvr)<nv}
Xfptrt
djro
p.ev
\LBov eiXe dvpdcov,
Ovpycri /caê'êro
TTOV p.fT oea-o-i XdjSoi
X f ^P
TTfao-trar
(rTfixovra
6vpae.
APPENDIX
208
also Acts Xvii. 27,
Compare
crfiav
rbv Kvpiov,
el
apa
avrov Kai fvpoifv.

is
and
r)Teiv
II.
used by Plutarch in the sense of
the essential condition of tickling
is,
as
'
tickling/
we know,
a light
touch.
This is one of those cases where a knowledge of modern

Greek enables us to pronounce with certainty for a derivation which it would seem has not so much as suggested itself
to philologers who have not made modern Greek their
study.
It is one of those extremely simple and obvious
etymologies
which,
when once
have so long
.
but
'
observed,
make
us wonder
how
they could
lain hidden.
In modern Greek, \^$a'o> means not
to care for
'
or
sense of cipher, as
'
'
we
regard
'
say,
apparently from
to reck not/
'
'
to vote,'
tyr/fos, in
reckless/ &c.
the
INDEX
OF
GREEK AND ALBANIAN WORDS.
e,
ov,
45.
p. 189.
107.
d|85eXXa, 12.
y,
105.
25.
afipdyw, 119.
af}pdfj.v\ov, 12.
",
12.
avai&aivca, 12.
35 I02<
9389.
, 136.
14436, 120.
)
Il6.
aitovfis,
93-
ava.6viJ.iaff is,
103.
a/SpoVai'OJ', 12.
113-
avdfiaOos, 190-
25.
aXaKaipais, 143.
60w, 36.
30.
29, 104,
16.
137.
190.
189.
a.yyfX\<a, 189.
117.
07705, &y/cos, 29.
190.
',
oAAa< uoi', -OTOS,

d\\ l/J-aTtov, 26.
1 08.
144-
103.
^10?, 191.
&ireipov, 93.
31.
&yKovpa, 2O.
&yovpa, 122.
&youpos, 189.
aypoiKw, 190.
aSava, 114.
1 08.
cbrd,
aflfa, 001,
dpataffis, 93.
'Apairta, 30.
37.
a, 37.
at av, 25.
&pSf/j.v, 129.
107.
aper)/, 96.
35.
"Ap77, 71-
35.
a?7a, afyay, 71, 74, 75at'et, 12.

12.
apaSa, 191.
30.
IO2.
,
Hpficav,
123.
at'ep, otes,
"ApojSas, 74apd" 7e, 99,
/C6Tos, 25.
28.
dere, 1 1 8.
006, 113.
OTrJ)
36.
aua, 12.
e/c,
77-
&/j.(ros irp6ra.ffis,
o/i^, a/i^,
IO2, 104.
146.
/jLa.Kp60ev, 105.
airoK6Ti]ffa,
35.
a/JLaprla,
t,
'A.tre\\<av, 24.
93.
a/yKouXa, 2O.
190.
a/j.o\yw, 35.
afiopyn, 20, 35.
fy>0T,
99.
130.
ap(n\os,
1 1 8.
apfiaOia, 12.
Sp/xora, 1 06.
,
106.
INDEX.
210
apow, 191.
192.
Sprt, 183.
107.
a>y,
A.
29.
/BeArepos,
78ua?, 144.
117.
So, 105, 108.
,83-
)S
w, 189.
/8jU)3pdy, 30.
d<7/mAa>7ray, 74.
jSepeflpoi/,
&<nra,K, 132.
/3er,
dtrrcuply, 12.
II.
ytpaKiv, 109.
192.
^^, 18.
yepwos, 193.
drdp, 131.
dre-fope, 132.
a-ne, 132.
76pj/w, 193.
yepovrs, 7432.
lS8.
16.
!,
192.
^132.
^27.
BiAapay, 30.
y(<f>vpa, 32.
BiAiTTTroy, 30.
7^?.
avrdva, 196.
3-
12.
r,
145-
777761/^5, 1 6.
7'a, 3 2 -
31.
avriov, 24.
aSrty, 38.
yiaivca, 32.
16.
)8oi', jSorjfleTv,
avros, parbs, 132.

aiâ--, 29.
Sêy, 103, 186.
d(p' oS,
fi>3,
118.
)8ovA77,
40.
yiovpovariov, 198.
fidyya, 24.
/3a{,ci), 192.
19.
103.
205.
3aAe, 185.
j8apu0w, 22.
fipiOca,
192.
fidp&apos, 191.
Bapiwâ, 24.
>,
74-
92.
143ro, 1 06.
jSaaTd,
31.
30.
c,
II 5
24.
i>,
192.
117.
30.
701)1',
2O.
1 1 8.
18.
7<ju'a?Ka,
30-
7oS7ro, 29.
1,31.
,33-
Vw, 192.
ta),
yopybs, 193.
7ouAia, 31.
184,
i,
2O2.
ya, 119.
1
193-
193.
31.
24.
70!,
"
)8aTe?j/,
>,
3-
*.
aâ>,
y\e<pff(0, \tvff &&>, 31.
12.
30.
71, 74.
192.
7AeTrw, 29.
y\t<papov, 29.
195193-
/Java),
.f'ay,
yXaKta, 31.
7Aapoy, 31.
y\-f)yopa, 193.
29.
5,8 3
32.
yia>K(*>,
'*.
6.
7/70?,
yivvos, 30.
115.
29
29
37-
134.
y,
31.
15
jSii'a, fiaibs,
145.
135.
'.45;u ,
24.
32.
jSoAe?, 189.
(fty,
105.
j8e'a>,
arfiOTrXovv,
73.
131.
&<pvpa, 29.
)37j,
at^v,
192
jSeA^ca, 12.
D/ia,
O.T p.6ir\oiov ,
187.
)8e/c^y, fitKKos,
93-
193.
&y, 103, 107.
do-di, 133.
,
29.
ydpyvpa, 29.
192.
33-
197.
yovpyovpas, 29.
ypdfJL/jiara olSe,
184.
ypdcpop, 121.
t
121.
INDEX.
ypacpovpevi, 121.
121.
',
103.
Si.
Siopifffj-bs,
ypov(T(ra, 119.
8(ou,
193.
119.
e/co>,
129.
ftlWKW, 32.
e\ e'x^Tj
1 1 6.
8a, 114.
5<5rcu,
Aa$i8, 29.
SayKavw, 31.
Sâs, Soâts, 71, 78, 82.
94, 2OI.
Sdvovv, 130.
SdpKva, 31.
Spditos, 1 68.
IjUepa, 1 8.
97. 132122.
103. 185.
143tyvwKav, 184.
fy&v, ô.
e'Se, IIO, 130.
Sepets, 183.
Aei/s, 31.
34.
SKO/J.CU, 38.
at,
194.
105.
s,
1 1 8.
8iai<pvpa, 32.
â>,
36.
127.
38.
, 37.
iW, 37, 7 2
187.
6t'8t/cbs,
:,
89.
>,
Sidpos, 194.
8/ara, 12.
!,
97.
106.
26.
<t>vr)s,
71, 108.
eft/ray, f?vra,
149.
',
1936.
eis,
8t8a>, 8t5($j/w, 1 1 6.
32.
187.
108
26.
93.
103, 184, 187.
:,
1 1 8.
1 6.
97.
24.
u, 109.
,
1 1 8.
93.
.1, 35.
117-
97103, 187.
71, 108.
118.
i,
efx^w,
slvai, five, 79>
83-
o,
1 1 6.
184.
38.
119.
119.
i,
87.
eTfle,
32.
8id\fKTos now)), 115.
37.
edr)Ka, 80.
Sia/ctov,
',
1 1 8.
evoi%,
f&ov, 127.
37.
37.
/,
',77-
32.
185.
28.
va),
80.
!,
t|ei/,
16.
103.
98.
y,
Sia/j.fffov,
f/j.iro'iKa,
13-
16.
192.
37122, 123.
36.
f,79S(ra, 76.
24.
.?]/uas, 16.
t'^w,
17.
'
Sere, 135.
y,
30.
e>eVa, 71, 78.
5eou, 132.
AiSuôs,
37.
ê, 134.
25.
Sefoi', 79*
C,
122.
y, 185-
72.
j,
80.
>
6>as, 71.
72.
5evov[j.eve, 1 1 8.
i/a,
e/*a,
184.
132, 135.
rfii,
119.
8e, Sev, 144.
Setx^w, 1 1 8.
72
:a,
eAAej/os, 113.
*E\ufAiros, 24.
Spoffia,
ScfcruAo,
Sia
20.
I,
8ai/ua>v,
72, 83.
?Ac-7ci,
lAefes, 72, 83.
>
ITJ/CTJ,
1 1 8.
\a, 115.
i&X vu> JI 8.
i,
187.
15-
2O.
j,
122.
Kl,
97.
193*
yvaXov, 32.
SfW,
1.
S,
132.
i,
yprjyopos, 193.
ypu>u.ct)
IIO, 123.
SiKaiov, Siaibv, 26.
"3ypdfyi/u.ov,
211
I O6.
INDEX.
*,
*'
9-
74
epiv,
36,
',
185.
33.
^Tjraei, 12.
CTo, 120.
ep/co/iai, 1 1 8.
^Tos,
epos, cpor, 74V
C/tepSaAe'oy,
fpffTJV,
II.
72.
w, 105.
^,,
,^, ^.
ZfJLVpVtt,
f/J.tl/VTf],
33-
129.
129.
0dî, 129.
0OOTT6, I3O.
,
opKa8iov, 31.
*Ve, 13.
eVels, 71.
;,
lo-eVa, 71, 78.
',
fs<, 117.
ecro, 79, 82, 107.
ecrov, 1 20, 125.
185.
eVrafljjj/, 103.
l(rra0T7,
Bpiyyos, 87.
0VfJ.OVKOV, 1 2O.
20.
12, 1 06.
IT, 197-
24.
129.
'> 143144, 183.
duo- tv, 130.
0ar, 129.
'
fiyov/Atvos, 103.
^7po0a, 117^5e, 16, 130.
13.
121.
e,
'HAl, 30.
C", 103.
y,
107.
eros, 29, 132.
104.
IO2.
D,
31-
119.
/CpOS,
104.
eVa, 122.
epo>s,
eVi/,
6r)Kapiov, 32.
Zei/s,
30.
24
',
3712.
32.
32.
IO.KIOV,
,31.
^774, 121.
',37.
',
94
72.
',
24-
tafj/a),
35-
127.
121.
4777, tyiV)
fvKaiplav, 187.
euAajS^y, 1 86.
105, 184.
tf-ma,
117.
~
^
Tlpua, 36.
ijpâro, III.
r;|eupcc,
ev\oya>, 187.
1 06.
0p7j/caj/,
21.
f,
D,
24.
>,
24.
107.
25.
fupctKav,
1 06.
194.
,33-
45-
26.
\TJ,
60,87,88,90, 130.
JfAAw, 26.
dayarepa, 114.
0aV, 130.
0a^, 194, 175.
0d$, 130.
0e, 8 7 .
1/j.dTia,
elVrtDjue*',
tVarl, iVaTtd^co, 194.
122.
Vi/i/oy,
187.
117.
iov/*iv, IOV/JLUV,
125.
iVep, 22.
fpTjv, 26.
194.
dfais, 94.
5fôy,
0cw, 24.
lw,
^w, ^4.
2O, 122.
dfcapw, 183.
30.
Jf^ray, Jf^ra,
0fAa) ya, 87.

y ,
t/'a),
0e'oy, I
8.
89, 104, 109.
frj/i,
0?oy, 119.
06'Aet va, 87.
06Aets
103.
1
t/xepa,
'/I'a,
35.
107.
f/caxri,
194.
3333-
119.
119.
iK/j.du, iK/j.as,
eroy, 39, 132.
tSov, 104.
//cai/a),
TJUpOV, 14.
103, 106.
3713.
16.
f0iy, 24.
14.
187.
23-
t'Se,
/epoy, 32.
23y,
2f7/cai',
22.
itbj/,
116.
idcvya,
109,
INDEX.
Kls,
Kpdfa, 195
K\pQS,
104.
\dpos, 31.
Xavpos, \dfipos, 24.
XrydfJ-evos, 72.
\fjfffat, 72.
34-
/cAafa),
/cafle'Aov, 1 1 8.
213
23.
/cAe?s, K\fjs,
15
\fjovTas, 7 2
A7ouj/, \eyovve, 72.
103.
a,
Ka06\ov, 97, II 8.
KOI, re, 25.
25.
y,
22.
12.
Kaipios, 34.
Aeutrffo!,
Koipavos, 34.
Aeo>,
KaKOppiiKOi, 144.
KoAa, 146.
8.
1 1
/caAos,
KaAcSs,
no.
130.
K<yt,
Kd/j,i\os, 17.
Ko/ccoAa, 195.
;,
8.
I 1
Ae'|ov, 72, 78.
103.
/COU^ f5tcA6KTOS, 21, IOI.
naipos, 109.
KCUJOOS,
Af|e, 72, 78.
rC&ci'a, 145-
KoifJ.&tJ.ai,
31.
30.
1
ATJO-T^S,
6.
\iyvpbs, 22.
Xiddpiov, 1 06.
35-
195105.
/coAAovpa, 2O.
AIOJ, 30, 1 1 6.
f,
Atotmas, 21, 121.
Ko\\ovpioV) 185.
KOVTO., 195, <Wa,
KOTtaSi, 108.
Aoyrjs, 89.
1
8.
KOTre'Ao, 35.
\oi/j.bs, \ifjibs,
28.
\onrbv, 97, 104.

\vK6(po}S, 31, 196.
'
89.
Kd/JLTTOffOS)
Kopdffiov, 106.
109.
/cay,
119.
39-
*95- f
129.
Kovppfvia t 131.
/carets, 99.
KopaKiffTiica, 157.
KaOTeAAaêVoS, IO8.
;ua,
jj-dyovXav, 115.
K6T(TV<t>OS, 37, I
8.
25.
KOTajSJflpa, 12.
KoCe, 119.
/couAAbs, 2O.
tcarat/Saiiw, 1 2.
KOVt/Sfp,
KaTfp, 135.
/carexco, 105.
103.
KouTaAioj/, 20, 83.
,J,
6,
Kpidpi,
/cpte,
1 1
8.
Kepiov, 15.
Kptie,
K6S, 115.
KTOVTTW, 119.
30.
144.
Ki.dfj.ovv,
KiaVco, 199.
Kl&OVpl, 2O.
KlO&V, 40.
24.
KIHOU,
Kt/XWJ',
34.
,
21.
34-
99.
197115.
71.
37.
131.
135.
1,
KpVOS, 195.
Kpv(f)VKd(J.ci>iJ.a,
134.
(j.d\t<TTa,
199.
KpovvbS) Kp"f)vrii 33KpV&W, 1 06, 187.
KcAoât, 189.
/cere,
/xaAepbs, 197.
38.
KpfftfiaTlOV, 12.
78.
OT**
7.
fj.aifj.ov,
KovQos, 15.
20.
25, 88, 115.
196.
Kop6/*r]\o, Kop6fj.Tr\o, 37.
Kopvo-crw, 37.
14!.
132.
fj-tyer,
fj.ed\os,
40.
KVK\OS, 12.
/j.e\i(r<Ta, 1 1
Kvirpos, 21.
/j.f \iff8o},
KVptOS, IO3.
fj.e\iffffiv,
39.
KitOpa,
Kxoi'Sia'Taj', 38.
/cai/co,
/ccoAe,
35.
123.
Kcos, 71.
ActyU'&j, 1 1 6.
8.
32.
1
1 6.
30.
97.
15.
Mecrapovpia, 116.
i'y,
Aaôâi, 29.
133.
115.
, 41, 46.
106.
107.
105.
INDEX.
214
..
û/crbs a/xoA745, 35.
197-
nr)i', fjitjva,
96, 196.
116.
, 181.
/,
119.
/"?, 185.
99.
131.
12.
*?,
uetr,
06.
Trapal, 12.
|77p5s, 15.
1 6.
irapaK\r]Tos,
103.
v,
1 1
p.\oiov,
6.
y7/cos, t77oy, 36.
146.
z,
oSui'Scrai,
Aios, 21.
I
/uââ
Hov-)i,
9I
143.
185.
6\fv9fpos,
83.
215.
191.
45-
Trarfpas, 71.
n-fHiAoj', TrcraAoy, 198.
Trej/Tj/cos, 1 18.
cÂos,
Âajj/,
8.
135-
TTfpyioitTovv, 133.
103,
184,
irepnra.Ta.Tf, 12.
187.
97141.
ruifjifvt],
86.
20.
iridvo), iriaivci), Trtdfa,
TTlffa, TTldfa, 1 1 8.
bvdpiov, 185.
33-
109.
81.
o/uop<pos, 1 1 8.
27.
yuottra,
80, 8t.
oj/ei'para,
187.
i,
UCO
30.
,
/LtTJKCtOyUOl,
22.
22.
/uOcroy, /xTtroy,
/J.vffTa, fj.d<TTa, 1 2.
Mapos,
103.
109.
7rA6fw, II, 23,29.
TrAV, 103.
7T\r]po<popa>, 1 86.
TrAci/ca,
12.
OI/CO,
21.
',
fj.avpos, 24.
taps, 131.
foray,
185.
ir\-f](ria,
OTTT^S, 38.
vo, 87, 196.
07T<|)is,
vdvdeT, 135, 136.

vapa'/'Ses, i/epe'/'Sey,
33-
O6,
S,
'#,
7TOT
8.
vf]<JTr)s,
2O.
183.
/iOU,
184,
TTOliA,
TToOAOS,
132.
2O.
TToC jtieVety, 183.
2O.
33'
^
irpay/j.a.TiKias,
1/^70;, 33.
ovpavdSpo/jLos, 141.
irpajjia,
30.
*
i/iTfT,
131;.
O
i>i?
ovpavbs, 103.
Trparr;,
117.
!l
ri9.
104.
99.
j/ioCra, 119.
vodca, 83.
TTOUa, I 2O.
133-
O&doVK, 131.
14.
34.
Trdita,
7TOU, TTOU,
31.
31-
120, 126, 135, 136.

i/tow, 137.
If),
132.
',
yi>((f>os,
.
1 1
Sroi/uos,
I
118.
y,
115.
^0*0?, 89.
OpOV(T, 197.
STJ, 97.
131.
Vfpbf, I'tpOV, VTtpbv,
144.
1 1 6.
38.
2OO.
"t. "fff, "^, 133VtfJiiKOVV)
99.
vditKiv, 131.
183.
22.
IS,
irvffTis,
2.
37-
/*0>p6,
/ua>j
6Wa, cJi'Te, 117.

iWas, 72.
oi>v,
1 86.
104.
eVe, 135, l8l.
31-
',
104,
^ /JllKpOTfpOS,
s,
7ra<rxa, 119.
6.
oA/os,
p.ovpya, 20.
fj.o fifMyyi, 20.
MoGVa,
iraaa, 144.
22.
115.
ofos, 27.
Movo7i'7y, 73.
ol,
187.
OOl^l'T?, cc5il^
4 97olv&piv,
Ta>i/e,
71.
',38.
115.
irp?(rTs, Trpfo-rr/y,
irpofffppr)tv, 1 86.
6.
12,
INDEX.
215
113.
99.
Trpovara, 1 20.
(rrafleiy,
83.
187.
ffradfpbs, 1 06.
ToSt, 134.
irpovKU, 27.
irva\ov, irve\ov,
ardirov, 79.
cmfrre, 135.
TOUS
99-
ffovffa.ij.1,
j.a,
1 1 8.
TOJ/, I 1 6.
22.
ffTfpê, 176.
7rvpiro\tj/j.fvos,
Io8.
TTO\ITIKOI, IIO.
99.
93, 99, 200.

*,
ffvyKvpiav, 187.
ii 6.
priyfj.a, p-f]x vw j 1
0/'C.
86.
pi&Kbv, 144.
TWV, IO9.
94,
pvyxos,
Tvpavvos, Koipavos, 34.

TUS, 27.
TUT, 134.
143.
118.
epii',
141.
22.
p"?s,
f>V7TTCa, p'iirTto),
pus, 129.
115, 145.
20.
32.
16.
uf, vT\via.)
116.
ffa.fj.fpf, 127.
ffapavrapya, Il6.
eras,
pa TrAeov,
134.
94.
131, 145.
(TO,
TW/>, ToVe, ToVa, 134.
Toipa, 89.
= a,
3,
22.
SovKavrj, 2O.
vr],
o-yîrye, 22.
9-
33119, 121.
<,
ffv&iTfiv, 187.
peTravt, pafpdviOf, 12.
P"*C<
rpovira, 83.
vos, 141.
II, 23, 29.
pf%0fj.fi>,
rpfirvbs, Tfpirvds, Il6.
W, 182.
132.
pe'fa>,
rpayi, 118.
T ^, 135-
29.
145.
1 1 6.
Totty^, 134.
(TTuAos, 22.
vpa, 22.
cr-n-jAT?,
30.
,
= OVS,
TOVTOV,
TrvKvcaats, 93.
TVActs,
126, 127.
rovfj,a,
t>tos,
TapTTjcrcros, 1 6.
71, 109.
U'AT?,
#o, 126.
37.
ffayar, 131.
28.
21, 99.
1 1 6.
re, 129, 133.
uTroyw, 103, 183.

virapxo, 99, 187.
crffias, 29.
Tfitvr), 1 1 8.
VTraTos, 25.
2ej87jpos, 29.
TfKVVS, IO7.
re/i-ar, 134.
T6^te, 134.
virevdwos, 45.
TeV crapes,
115.
MT, 134.
fff,
V,
ffe/j.ovi'dfT,
132.
(T)8o/xa<, <Tfvo/j.ai, 29.

CTiTeptV, 1 1 8.
0~KO,(pOS,
i',
1 1 8.
12.
in.
V7r68r)/j.ai>,
99.
133.
pm, 108.
A)s, 39.
s,
25.
rial', ffKiirav, 1 6.
fc, 203.
.
145.
39-
3429ffKO\fib, 39.
ffKorta, 184.
ffKOTOVto),
92.
ffKV\O,KlOV,
1 1 6.
(TKV(pOS, 12.
^,
80.
29.
^,83.
T^?,
rV,
108.
(pdyecrai, 187.
(paivfrai, 99.
75-
(paivca, <peyyca }
34.
120, 133.
TTJI/OS,
T(,
t,
25.
TI Ao-yTjs, 89.
127.
TteVpt, 137.
(pfpros, (pfprepos, (pfpraTOS, 83.
T^-lr, 134.
TtOV, 121.
Tii/as,
25.
(pe@yu, 29.
u|e, 82.
117.
TiTTOTa, I
rfjJfiyp.a,
33.
30.
i/w,
24, 187.
2l6
INDEX.
1
29.
<pi\oaro<pia,
<pirpov, (pvrpa, 22.
MS'
<f>\vvds, 22.
ovvi, 30.
<p\i!3p&v t 33.
(poov/j.fvos } 1 19.
27.
132.
.V*T,
15.
37-
hdpis,
3721.
206.
206.
W, 208.
1 1 8.
Xdpos, Xapwi/ray, 92.
ll/1/J.fJLvOlOV,
Aepe, 132.
ô^wiet,
117.
132.
40.
21.
,
22.
92
21.
24.
t
40.
1
>a>,
27,
xj
(poped five, 117.

', </)i)^<x!,
^5, 144.
hdvypovv, 132.
206.
Xava>,
XP'S,
^XouStoi/, 27.
4>o/3acra<, 12.
tyavrepiv, 31.
25.
(pKvdpiov, (prvdpiov, 34.
6.
132.
(pKeidvw, <pTidv<a, 34r,
196.
0)6l/,
19.
21.
pa, 189.
I S*
40.
dipa/ca,
128.
24.
28.
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<bwttnaan

RELATION TO ANCIENT GREEK

Formerly Scholar ofBalliol College, Oxford

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

the sense of the obligations I

helped and encouraged me.

Foremost among these must

under to those who have

Walker, Esq., late Fellow of Corpus

cause, in a sense which he will sufficiently understand, of

the publication of this work.

due to Professor Jowett for

thanks are also

looking over a portion of the same while

embryo, and for most valuable suggestions which

A. Pantazides for the loan of various works which have been

in the preparation of the final

communicate information with which

have attended the public instructions of the Professor of

Hessey, Grinfield Lecturer on the Septuagint,

obtained valuable information.

Professor Blackie of Edinburgh

Hermann Eduard Marotsky,

Minister of the Ger-

Manchester, without the encou-

ragement and confirmation afforded by whose

have derived help from his interesting

Last, but not least, I

thanks are due

kind and unexpected encouragement.

concluding essay on the dangerous domain of

theology would hardly have been hazarded.

have no right however to be

of a less personal nature in

proceeding from a personal and esteemed friend, the

Rev. George Perkins,

author of the lucid and able

Cambridge Journal of Philology for December,

Other works which

have advantageously consulted are

der Vergleichenden Grammatik,'

des Langues sdmitiques sur

Grammatik der Griechischen Vulgarsprache,' Liidemann's

und Neugriechen und

die Lautgeschichte der Griechi-

schen Sprache,' Sophocles' Modern Greek Grammar' and

Finally, I would take this opportunity of thanking the

which form the foundation of

I delivered a course of lectures

the present treatise.

have passed over any in silence I hope

relations with ancient Greek.

works on the subject with which

acquainted are Pro-

Modern Greek Grammar/ and

Glossary of Later and Byzantine Greek/

All three of these

works contain some account of the development of modern

the deficiencies of the others.

on the whole, the most scholarly and exhaustive. His account

would have been

recognition of the discoveries of

region of comparative grammar.