A

TRAINING REPORT
ON

SUMMER INTERNSHIP
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Award of
Bachelor of Technology Degree
Of
Rajasthan Technical University, KOTA

2014-15
Submitted To:
Shri K.K.SRIVASTAVA
(ASSISTANT ENGINEER)

Submitted By:
Mohit Kumar Gupta
IVth year (ECE)

Submitted To:
PRASAR BHARATI
( INDIAS PUBLIC SERVICE BROADCASTER )
ALWAR-301001 (RAJASTHAN)
i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Front page.....i
Table of contents ..ii - iii
Figure Index..iv-v

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Modulation

2-6

Chapter3 propagation

7-8

Chapter4 Microphones

Chapter5 Control Room

10-13

Chapter6 Automatic voltage regulator

14

Chapter7 Isolation Transformer

15

Chapter8 Dummy load

16

Chapter9 Amplifiers

17-19

ii

Chapter10 A.C.Plant

20

Chapter11 Desial Generator

21-22

Chapter12 M.P.Studio

23-24

Chapter13 Antenna

25-27

Chapter14 Transmission Booth

28

iii

FIGURE INDEX

Modulation

Amplitude modulation

Phase modulation

Frequency modulation

Sky propagation

Space propagation

Micro-phone

Rack controller

11

Net c.c.u.

12

Transmitter

13

Automatic voltage regulator

14

Isolation transformer

15

Dummy load

16

Class a amplifier

17

Class c amplifier

18

Class d amplifier

19

Internal structure of A.C.

20

Internal structure of generator

21

Generator (63.5kva)

22
iv

Phone in console

23

Dipole Antenna

24

Parabolic disc antenna

25

Radio station TurnTable

26

Chapter1
INTRODUCTION

All India Radio (AIR) ,officially known since 1956 as

Akashvani ( voice of the sky ) ,is the national public radio broadcaster of india
and a division of Prasar Bharati. Established in 1930, it is the sister service of
Prasar bharatis Doordarshan, the national public television broadcaster.
The word Akashvani was coined by M.V.
Gopalaswamy after setting up the nations first private radio station in his
residence, Vittal Vihar in 1936.Akashvani means celestial announcement;
the world of Sanskrit origin , is often found in hindu mythology.
All India Radio is one of the largest radio networks in
the world. Its headquarters is at the Akashvani bhavan in New Delhi. Akashvani
Bhavan houses the drama section, the FM section and the National Service
.Doordarshan Kendra (Delhi ) offices are also located on the sixth floor at
Akashavni Bhavan.

Chapter2
MODULATION

1.Modulation:In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying

one or more properties of a periodic waveforms, called the carrier signal (high frequency
signal), with a modulating signal that typically contains information to be transmitted.
In telecommunications,modulation is the process of conveying a message signal, for
example a digital bit stream or an analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be
physically transmitted. Modulation of a sine waveform transforms a baseband message signal
into a passband signal.
If we look at a general function for a sinusoid:

we can see that this sinusoid has 3

parameters that can be altered, to affect the shape of the graph. The first term, A, is called
the magnitude, or amplitude of the sinusoid. The next term, is known as the frequency,
and the last term, is known as the phase angle. All 3 parameters can be altered to transmit
data.

Modulation
fig(a)

1.a. Need of Modulation :(i). modulate a signal is to allow the use of a smaller antenna. A
baseband (low frequency) signal would need a huge antenna because in order to
be efficient, the antenna needs to be about 1/10th the length of the wavelength.
Modulation shifts the baseband signal up to a much higher frequency, which has
much smaller wavelengths and allows the use of a much smaller antenna.
(ii). consider a channel that essentially acts like a bandpass filter:
both the lowest frequency components and the highest frequency components are
attenuated or unusable in some way, with transmission only being practical over
some intermediate frequency range. If we can't send low-frequency signals, then
we need to shift our signal up the frequency ladder. Modulation allows us to send
a signal over a bandpass frequency range. If every signal gets its own frequency
range, then we can transmit multiple signals simultaneously over a single channel,
all using different frequency ranges.

2.. Types of Modulation :There are 3 basic types of modulation: Amplitude modulation,
Frequency modulation, and Phase modulation.
2.a. Amplitude modulation :a type of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier
signal is modulated (changed) in proportion to the message signal while the frequency
and phase are kept constant.
AM was the earliest modulation method used to transmit voice by radio. It remains in use
today in many forms of communication; for example it is used in portable two way
radios, VHF aircraft radio and in computer modems .AM is often used to refer to medium
wave AM radio broadcasting.
One disadvantage of all amplitude modulation techniques (not only standard AM) is that
the receiver amplifies and detects noise and electromagnetic interference in equal
proportion to the signal.

amplitude modulation
Fig (b)

2.b.Phase Modulation :A type of modulation where the phase of the carrier signal is varied
accordance to the low frequency of the message signal is known as phase modulation.

signal) is

Suppose that the signal to be sent (called the modulating or message

and the carrier onto which the signal is to be modulated is

Annotated:- carrier(time) = (carrier amplitude)*sin(carrier frequency*time + phase shift)

This makes the modulated signal :This shows how

modulates the phase the greater m(t) is at a point in time, the greater the

phase shift of the modulated signal at that point. It can also be viewed as a change of the
frequency of the carrier signal, and phase modulation can thus be considered a special case of
FM in which the carrier frequency modulation is given by the time derivative of phase
modulation.

Phase modulation
Fig (c)

2.c.Frequency Modulation :A type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier

signal is modulated (changed) in proportion to the message signal while the amplitude
and phase are kept constant.
In radio systems, frequency modulation with sufficient bandwidth provides an advantage in
cancelling naturally-occurring noise.
FM is widely used for broadcasting music and speech, two-way radio systems, magnetic taperecording systems and some video-transmission systems.

Frequency modulation
Fig(d)

Chapter-3
PROPOGATION
3.Wave Propogation:Wave propogation is any of the ways in which travel with respect to
the direction of the oscillation relative to the propogation direction, we can distinguish between
longitudinal wave and transverse wave.
.

3.a. Ground to Ground Propagation :It is a method of radio frequency propagation that uses the area
between the surface of the earth and the ionosphere for transmission. The ground wave can
propagate a considerable distance over the earth's surface particularly in the low
frequency and medium frequency portion of the radio spectrum. Ground wave radio
propagation is used to provide relatively local radio communications coverage.
.3.b. Sky Propagation :Sky wave propagation is of radio waves bent back to the Earths
surface by the ionosphere. As a result of sky wave propagation , a night time broadcast signal
from a distant am broadcasting or shortwave radio station can sometimes be heard as clearly as
local stations .
Most long-distance high frequency radio communication ( between 3 and 30 MHZ ) is a result
of sky wave propagation.

Sky propagation
Fig(e)

3.c. Space propagation:The radio waves having high frequencies are basically called as
space waves. These waves have the ability to propagate through atmosphere, from transmitter
antenna to receiver antenna. These waves can travel directly or can travel after reflecting from
earths surface to the troposphere surface of earth. So, it is also called as Tropospherical
Propagation. In the diagram of medium wave propagation, c shows the space wave propagation.
Basically the technique of space wave propagation is used in bands having very high
frequencies. E.g. V.H.F. band, U.H.F band etc. At such higher frequencies the other wave
propagation techniques like sky wave propagation, ground wave propagation cant work. Only
space wave propagation is left which can handle frequency waves of higher frequencies. The
other name of space wave propagation is line of sight propagation. There are some limitations
of space wave propagation.

Space propagation
Fig (f)

Chapter 4
MICROPHONES
4.Microphones :A micro-phone ( colloquially called a mic or mike ; both pronounced is
an acoustic to- electric transducer or sensor that converts sound in air into an electrical signal
Micro-phone are used in many application such as telephones ,taps recorder, karaoke system,
hearing aids, motion picture production ,live and recoded audio engineering, megaphones in
radio and television broadcasting and in computers for recording voice, speech recognition and
for non-acoustic purpose such as ultrasonic checking .
Most microphones today use electromagnetic induction (dynamic microphone), capacitance
change (condenser microphone) or piezoelectric generation to produce an electrical signal from
air pressure variations. Microphones typically need to be connected to a preamplifier before the
signal can be amplified with an audio power

Micro-phone
Fig (g)

Chapter 5
Control Room

R&SNR8210 VHF FM Solid-State Transmitters :5.a Features of Transmitter :1.Powerful FM transmitters of solidstate design with excellent specifications.
2. Compact models featuring only 800 mm rack depth and up to 15 kW output power in a 19
rack.
3. All transmitters feature outstanding technical parameters, an optimum cost/benefit ratio, plus
maximum reliability and ease of servicing.
4.frequency range :- 87.5 MHz to 108 MHz (103.1 MHz )
5. Internal tunning :- menu-controlled in 10 kHz steps Internal tunnternal tuning
6. Sound broadcasting at its very best 2.5 to 30 kW.

5.b. Exciter :

The low-power RF stages of a radio transmitter

A component of an electrical generator

It is used for modulation purpose in transmitter.

10

5.c. Rack controller :Rack controller is a line of controllers designed for the more
complex and advanced systems. The availability of inputs and outputs covers the requirements
of the most sophisticated compressor racks in terms of the number and the function of the
required control algorithms. The control software in six languages, compatible with the different
sizes of hardware, satisfies both the most common control requirements as well as the more
advanced applications. Possibility to separate compressor and fan control on one single user
interface, with local network connection between the controllers. Drastic reduction in the cost
of electrical connections to remote fans. Modulating capacity control using special inverter
outputs for the compressors and/or inverter/phase control outputs for the condenser fans.
Operation with fl oating condensing and evaporation* pressure to increase the efficiency and
the performance of the compressor racks. * requires a compatible CAREL supervision software.

Rack controller
Fig (h)

5.d Net C.C.U. :The Control Unit R&S NetCCU800is included as a common distributing
center both in the new generation of R&SNH/NV8200 TV transmitters and in the new family
of VHF FM Transmitters R&SNR8200. For network operators, this has the advantage of low
operation and training costs as well as simplified logistics with regard to stock keeping of spare
parts. For the first time, the control concept and user interfaces in TV and FM transmitters are
uniform.
This also simplifies their integration into network management systems and facilitates the setup
and putting them into operation, plus reduces maintenance and service costs

11

net c.c.u
Fig(i)

5.e.Power Amplifier :The term power amplifier is a relative term with respect to the amount of
power delivered to the load and/or provided by the power supply circuit. In general the power
amplifier is the last 'amplifier' or actual circuit in a signal chain (the output stage) and is the
amplifier stage that requires attention to power efficiency. Efficiency considerations lead to the
various classes of power amplifier based on the biasing of the output transistors or tubes:
see power amplifier classes.
Power amplifiers by application

Audio power amplifiers

RF power amplifier, such as for transmitter final stages (see also: Linear amplifier).
Servo motor controllers, where linearity is not important.
Piezoelectric audio amplifier includes a DC-to-DC converter to generate the high
voltage output required to drivepiezoelectric speakers

12

Transmitter (103.1 MHz)

Fig (j)

10

13

Chapter 6

Automatic Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage

regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control
loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on
the design, it may be used to regulate one or more ACor DC voltages.
Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplieswhere they
stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In
automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the
output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed
at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage
independent of how much power is drawn from the line.

Automatic voltage regulator

Fig(k)

14

Chapter 7
ISOLATION TRANSFORMER

An isolation transformer is a transformer used to transfer electrical power from a source

of alternating current (AC) power to some equipment or device while isolating the powered
device from the power source, usually for safety reasons. Isolation transformers
provide galvanic isolation and are used to protect against electric shock, to suppress electrical
noise in sensitive devices, or to transfer power between two circuits which must not be
connected. A transformer sold for isolation is often built with special insulation between
primary and secondary, and is specified to withstand a high voltage between windings.

Isolation transformer
fig(l)

15

Chapter 8
DUMMY LOAD

In radio this device is also known as a dummy antenna or a radio frequency termination. It is a
device used in place of an antenna to aid in testing a radio transmitter. It is substituted for the
antenna while adjusting the transmitter, so that the transmitter does not interfere with other
radio transmitters during the adjustments. If a transmitter is tested without a load, such as an
antenna or a dummy load, the transmitter could be damaged. Also, if a transmitter is adjusted
without a load, it will operate differently from with the load, and the adjustments may be
incorrect.
The dummy load ordinarily should be a pure resistance; the amount of resistance should be the
same as the impedance of the antenna or transmission line that is used with the transmitter
(usually 50 or 75 ). The radio energy that is absorbed by the dummy load is converted to
heat. A dummy load must be chosen or designed to tolerate the amount of power that can be
delivered by the transmitter.
The ideal dummy load provides a standing wave ratio (SWR) of 1:1 at the given impedance.
Veterinarian-grade mineral oil, an inexpensive source for mineral oil, is frequently used
by amateur radio operators as coolant in RF dummy loads.

Dummy load
Fig (m)

16

Chapter 9
AMPLIFIERS
9.Amplifiers :An electronic amplifier, amplifier, or (informally) amp is an electronic device
that increases the power of a signal. It does this by taking energy from a power supply and
controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with a larger amplitude. In this sense,
an amplifier modulates the output of the power supply.
Amplifiers divided into different types:-

9.a. Class A Amplifiers :Amplifying devices operating in class A conduct over the entire
range of the input cycle. A class-a amplifier is distinguished by the output stage devices
being biased for class A operation. Class A stages where the grid is allowed to be driven slightly
positive on signal peaks, resulting in slightly more power than normal class A (A1; where the
grid is always negative), but this incurs a higher distortion level.

Amplifier
Fig(n)

17

9.b. Class B Amplifier :Class-B amplifiers only amplify half of the input
wave cycle, thus creating a large amount of distortion, but their efficiency is greatly improved
and is much better than class A. Class-B amplifiers are also favoured in battery-operated
devices, such as transistor radios. Class B has a maximum theoretical efficiency of /4. (
78.5%) This is because the amplifying element is switched off altogether half of the time, and
so cannot dissipate power.

9.c. Class C Amplifier :Class-C amplifiers conduct less than 50% of the input signal
and the distortion at the output is high, but high efficiencies (up to 90%) are possible. The usual
application for class-C amplifiers is in RF transmitters operating at a single fixed carrier
frequency, where the distortion is controlled by a tuned load on the amplifier. The input signal is
used to switch the active device causing pulses of current to flow through a tuned
circuit forming part of the load.

Class c amplifier
Fig(o)

18

9.d. Class D Amplifier:In the class-D amplifier the active devices (transistors)
function as electronic switches instead of linear gain devices; they are either on or off. The
analog signal is converted to a stream of pulses that represents the signal by pulse width
modulation, pulse density modulation, delta-sigma modulation or a related modulation
technique before being applied to the amplifier. The time average power value of the pulses is
directly proportional to the analog signal, so after amplification the signal can be converted
back to an analog signal by a passive low-pass filter

Block diagram of a basic switching or PWM (class-D) amplifier

Fig (p)

19

Chapter10
A.C.Plant

Air conditioning (often referred to as air con, AC or A/C) is the process of altering the
properties of air (primarily temperature and humidity) to more favourable conditions, typically
with the aim of distributing the conditioned air to an occupied space to improve comfort. In the
most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of technology, heating, cooling, dehumidification, humidification, cleaning, ventilation, or air movement, that modifies the
condition of air.

Internal structure of AC
Fig(q)

Air conditioning can also be provided by a simple process called free cooling which uses pumps
to circulate a coolant (typically water or a glycol mix) from a cold source, which in turn acts as
a heat sink for the energy that is removed from the cooled space. Free cooling systems can have
very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined with seasonal thermal energy
storage (STES) so the cold of winter can be used for summer air conditioning. Common storage
media are deep aquifers or a natural underground rock mass accessed via a cluster of smalldiameter, heat exchanger equipped boreholes. Some systems with small storage are hybrids,
using free cooling early in the cooling season, and later employing a heat pump to chill the
circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is added-in because the temperature of the
storage gradually increase during the cooling season, thereby declining in effectiveness. Free
cooling and hybrid systems aremature technology
20

Chapter11
Desial Generator

Introduction About Generator :Generators are useful appliances that supply

electrical power during a power outage and prevent discontinuity of daily activities or
disruption of business operations. Generators are available in different electrical and physical
configurations for use in different applications. In the following sections, we will look at how a
generator functions, the main components of a generator, and how a generator operates as a
secondary source of electrical power in residential and industrial applications.

Internal structure of generator

Fig(r)

21

Generator Working :An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy
obtained from an external source into electrical energy as the output.
It is important to understand that a generator does not actually
create electrical energy. Instead, it uses the mechanical energy supplied to it to force the
movement of electric charges present in the wire of its windings through an external electric
circuit. This flow of electric charges constitutes the output electric current supplied by the
generator. This mechanism can be understood by considering the generator to be analogous to a
water pump, which causes the flow of water but does not actually create the water flowing
through it.
The modern-day generator works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831-32. Faraday discovered that the above flow of
electric charges could be induced by moving an electrical conductor, such as a wire that
contains electric charges, in a magnetic field. This movement creates a voltage difference
between the two ends of the wire or electrical conductor, which in turn causes the electric
charges to flow, thus generating electric current.

generator 63.5 kva

fig(s)

22

Chapter12
M.P.Studio

M.P.Studio means multi purpose studio. It is used for transmit the signal and receive the signal.
When the transmission booth section is not work properly then we used m.p. studio for relay the
program. Basically m.p.studio work as a control room and transmission booth , because when
the equipments established in control room is not work properly then we use multi purpose
studio for handling the programs which is transmit by the different radio station.

12.a. Distribution Amplifier :A distribution amplifier, or simply distribution amp or

DA, is a device that accepts a single input signal and provides this same signal to
multiple isolated outputs.
These devices are important because they allow a signal to
be distributed to multiple destinations without ground loops or signal degradation. They are
used for a number of common engineering tasks, including multiple amplification, cable
television, splitting monitor and front of house mixes, and "tapping" a signal prior to sending it
through effects units to preserve a "dry" signal for later experimentation.

23

12.b.Phone in console :The Phone-in-Program Console is used to interface telephone lines

with the broadcast mixing console which in-turn interfaces with the expert sitting in a studio.
This unit has provision for receiving three telephone lines at a time. The system is based on the
design developed by R&D department, All India Radio.

Phonein console
Fig (t)

Features :1.Conversation with the remote participants in the live program.

2.To transfer incoming messages to the panel expert in the Studio for direct communication.
3.Music-on-hold.
4. Interface with telephone line.
5.Interface with studio equipment.
24

Chapter13
ANTENNA
This is a device connected to the base station / repeater to propagate the Radio Frequency (RF)
energy. Antenna system plays an important role to determine the efficiency of converting
electrical energy into RF energy. Thus, determine the area of coverage.
There are several antenna configurations to meet various condition and terrain.
A typical antenna parameters are:
Frequency Band: This is the range of the band that the antenna will operate in (i.e. 806870 MHz). This only means that the antenna will operate within this band. It usually
does not necessarily mean that the antenna will operate over the entire band.

Bandwidth: The maximum frequency separation that this antenna will operate within the
frequency band.

Gain: Antenna gain is proportional to the product of directivity and the antennas
efficiency. Directivity is a measure of how an antenna focuses energy. Antennas
efficiency accounts for loss associated with antenna. Gain is achieved in an antenna by
re-directing energy from some directions into the desired directions. The higher the gain
of the antenna, the further the coverage obtained. However, a higher gain antenna
typically means higher cost.

Radiation Pattern: In Two-Way Radio, there are usually uni-directional antenna or

omni-directional antenna. The names reflect the radiation pattern produced by each type
of antenna.

Maximum Input Power: Look for the specs with the maximum input power rating of
the antenna is greater than the RF power output rating of the transmitter(s).

VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio): A high VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave
Ratio) implies a large amount of reflected power. This means that the amount of forward
power is less. Therefore, the higher the VSWR, the less efficient the antenna.

Length: This refers to the physical length of the antenna. A long antenna is
cumbersome to ship, store or install.

Wind Loading: In windy areas, the load of the wind on the antenna must be taken
into account.

25

13.a.Dipole Antenna :A dipole antenna or doublet is the simplest and most widely used
class of antenna. It consists of two identical conductive elements such as metal wires or rods,
which are usually bilaterally symmetrical. The driving current from the transmitter is applied, or
for receiving antennas the output signal to the receiver is taken, between the two halves of the
antenna. Each side of the feedline to the transmitter or receiver is connected to one of the
conductors. This contrasts with a monopole antenna, which consists of a single rod or conductor
with one side of the feedline connected to it, and the other side connected to some type
of ground. A common example of a dipole is the "rabbit ears" television antenna found on
broadcast television sets.
The most common form of dipole is two straight rods or wires oriented end to end on the same
axis, with the feedline connected to the two adjacent ends. This is the simplest type of antenna
from a theoretical point of view. Dipoles are resonant antennas, meaning that the elements serve
as resonators, with standing waves of radio current flowing back and forth between their ends.
So the length of the dipole elements is determined by the wavelength of the radio waves used.
[3]
The most common form is the half-wave dipole, in which each of the two rod elements is
approximately 1/4 wavelength long, so the whole antenna is a half-wavelength long.

Dipole antenna
Fig(u)
26

13.b.Parabolic Disc Antenna :A parabolic antenna is an antenna that uses a parabolic

reflector, a curved surface with the cross-sectional shape of a parabola, to direct the radio
waves. The most common form is shaped like a dish and is popularly called a dish
antenna or parabolic dish. The main advantage of a parabolic antenna is that it has
high directivity. It functions similarly to a searchlight or flash lightreflector to direct the radio
waves in a narrow beam, or receive radio waves from one particular direction only. Parabolic
antennas have some of the highest gains, that is, they can produce the narrowest beam widths,
of any antenna type. In order to achieve narrow beam widths, the parabolic reflector must be
much larger than the wavelength of the radio waves used, so parabolic antennas are used in the
high frequency part of the radio spectrum, at UHF and microwave (SHF) frequencies, at which
the wavelengths are small enough that conveniently-sized reflectors can be used.

Parabolic disc antenna

Fig(v)

27

Chapter14
Transmission Booth
It is the place where the operator is operate the program .In transmission booth the operator play
the song and other programs according to the choice of customer .In the the transmission booth
we consider these parts which is provide the help for easily operate the transmission booth.
1.Transmission console
2.two- computer system
3.turn table

Turn Table:The first one is a Broadcast Electronics model 16C with a Rek-O-Kut tonearm.
This is a 3 speed turntable that will play records up to 16" in diameter. Surprisingly, this TT was
made in the mid 80's.

Radio station turntable

Fig(w)

28