Marihuana Use and Social Control

Author(s): Howard S. Becker

Source: Social Problems, Vol. 3, No. 1 (Jul., 1955), pp. 35-44
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for the Study of Social
Problems
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/798741
Accessed: 27-09-2015 17:24 UTC
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MARIHUANA USE AND SOCIAL CONTROL

HOWARD S. BECKER*
Studies,Inc.,KansasCity,and Department
Community
ofSociology.
of Chicago
University
When deviantbehavioroccursin a
Such a perspective
invitesus to anwhichfloutsitsbasic alyze the genesisof deviantbehavior
society--behavior
valuesand norms--oneelementin its in termsof eventswhichrendersancin tionsineffective
which
and experiences
cominginto beingis a breakdown
social controls, those mechanisms shiftconceptions
so thatthe behavior
tothe
whichordinarily
possibility
operateto maintain becomesa conceivable
valuedformsof behavior.In complex person. This paper is devotedto an
more analysisof thisprocessin theinstance
theprocessis somewhat
societies,
in social of marihuanause. Its basic question
sincebreakdowns
complicated
controlare oftenthe consequences
of is: whatis thesequenceof eventsand
in experiences
the personbecominga participant
by whicha personcomes
a subculture
whosecontrolsoperateat to be able to carryon theuse of marito thoseof the larger huana,in spiteof the elaboratesocial
cross-purposes
to preventsuch
in thegene- controlsfunctioning
factors
society.Important
?
sis of deviantbehavior,then,maybe behavior
sought in those processesby which
A numberof potentforcesoperate
fromthelarger to controlthe use of marihuanain
peopleareemancipated
set of controlsand becomeresponsive this country.The act is illegal and
to thoseof thesubculture.
punishableby severe penalties. Its
Social controlsaffect
individualbe- illegalitymakes access to the drug
havior,in the firstinstance,through difficult,
placing immediateobstacles
the use of power,the applicationof beforeanyonewho wishesto use it.
sanctions.Valued behavioris reward- Actualuse can be dangerous,
forarrest
ed and negatively
valued behavioris and imprisonment
are alwayspossible
punished. Controlwould be difficultconsequences.In addition,thosewho
to maintainif suchenforcement
were are discovered
in theiruse of thedrug
always needed,so that more subtle by family,friends,or employers
may
mechanisms
thesamefunc- be subjectto variouskindsof informal
performing
tionarise. Amongtheseis thecontrol buthighlyeffective
sanctions
andsocial
of behaviorachievedby affecting
the punishments;
of
withdrawal
ostracism,
conceptions
personshave of theto-be- affection,
etc. Finally,a set of tradiand of the possi- tionalviewshave grownup, defining
controlledactivity,
of engagingin it. thepractice
bilityor feasibility
as a violationof basicmorThese conceptions
arisein socialsitua- al imperatives,
as an actleadingto loss
tionsin whichtheyare communicatedof self-control,
paralysisof the will,
by personsregardedas reputableand and eventualslaveryto thedrug.Such
validatedin experience. Such situa- views are commonplaceand are an
tionsmaybe so orderedthatindivid- effective
marihuana
force preventing
uals come to conceiveof the activity use.
as distasteful,
or immoral, The developmentof marihuanainexpedient,
do notengagein it.
and therefore
in an individualmaybe
usingactivity
* The research on which this paper is dividedinto threestages,each reprea distinct
shiftin theperson's
based was done while I was a memberof senting
of the
relations
to thesesocialcontrols
the staffof the Chicago Narcotics Survey,
and thoseof thesubcula projectdone by the Chicago Area Project, largersociety
use is found.
Inc., under a grant from the National turein whichmarihuana
Mental Health Institute.I wish to thank
is represented
The first
stage
bythebeEliot Freidson, Erving Goffman,Anselm
Strauss, and R. Richard Wohl for reading
inner,thepersonsmokingmarihuana
for the firsttime;the second,by the
and commentingon an earlier version.
35

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36

SOCIALPROBLEMS

occasionaluser,whoseuse is sporadic The analysisis basedon fifty

intenwith marihuanausers
and dependent
on chancefactors;and sive interviews
the third,by the regularuser, for froma varietyof social backgrounds
whomuse becomesa systematic
daily and presentpositionsin society.*The
routine.
interviews
focusedon the historyof
The analysiswill be pursuedin theperson'sexperience
withthedrug,
termsof the processesby whichthe seekingmajorchangesin his attitude
variouskindsof socialcontrols
become towardit and in his actualuse of it
less effective
as the user and the reasons for these changes.
progressively
movesfromlevel to level of use or, Generalizations
constatingnecessary
of use at
the waysin whichthey ditionsforthe maintenance
alternatively,
preventsuchmovement
by remaining eachlevelweredevelopedin initialineffective.The majorkindsof controls terviews,
and testedagainstand revised
to be consideredare: (a) control in the lightof each succeedingone.
throughlimitingof supplyand access The statedconclusionshold truefor
to the drug; (b) controlthroughthe all the casescollectedand maytentaas trueof all marinecessityof keepingnon-usersfrom tivelybe considered
thatone is a user;(c) con- huana users in this society,at least
discovering
evidenceforcestheirrevitrol throughdefinition
of the act as untilfurther
immoral.The rendering
ineffective
of sion.**
thesecontrols,
at thelevelsand in the
SUPPLY
combinations
to be described,
maybe
Marihuanause is limited,
in thefirst
takenas an essentialcondition
forconlaws
or
instance,
by
making
possession
tinuedand increased
marihuana
use.
sale of drug punishableby severe
One explanatory
noteis in order.It penalties. This confinesits distribuis obviousthatpeopledo notdo things tion to illicit sourceswhichare not
simplybecausetheyare notprevented availableto the ordinaryperson. In
fromdoingthem. More positivemo- orderfora personto beginmarihuana
tivations
are necessarily
present.This use, he must begin participation
in
paperdoesnotdeal withthegenesisof some group throughwhich these
thesepositivemotivations
involvedin sourcesof supplybecomeavailableto
thecontinuation
and increaseof mari- him,
ordinarilya group organized
huanause (exceptin passing),focus- aroundvaluesand activities
opposing
to use, and thoseof the largerconventional
ing ratheron the barriers
socimoreor less for ety.
takingthemotivation
granted.I have describedone impor- In those unconventional
circlesin
tant elementin this motivation
elsewhichmarihuana
is
it is
used,
already
where. (2) This is the knowledge
just a matterof timeuntil
thatone can gainpleasurebysmoking aapparently
situationarisesin whichthe newmarihuana,achievedin a processof comeris givena chanceto smokeit:
learningto smokethe drug so that
I was with these guys that I knew
definitesymptoms
occur,learningto
recognizethese effectsand connect from school, and one had some, so they
went to get high and they just figured
themwith the use of the drug,and
that I did too, theyneverasked me, so I
learningto findtheseeffects
enjoyable. didn't want to be no wallflower or
Thislearningtakesplacein interaction nothin',so I didn't say nothin'and went
out in the back of this place with them.
withmoreexperienced
userswho prewere doing up a couple of cigaThey
sentthenovicewiththenecessary
sym- rettes.
bols and conceptswithwhichto or* Most of the interviews
ganize this otherwisevague and amweredone by
biguous experience. By and large, me. I wishto thankSolomonKorbinand
however,the motivationto continue HaroldFinestoneforallowingme to make
donebythem.
use will, in this discussion,
be taken use ofinterviews
for grantedand emphasisplaced on
** This is an application
of themethod
the breakdown
of deterrents
to this.
of analyticinduction
described
in (3)

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37

MarihuanaUse and SocialControl

chance
is not im- of supply than more-or-less
In othergroupsmarihuana
with otherusers,and this
mediatelyavailable,but participationencounters
in the groupprovidesconnections
to means establishingconnectionswith
othersin whichit is:
personswho makea businessof dealing in narcotics.Althoughpurchases
But the thing was, we didn't know
in
large quantitiesare necessaryfor
where to get any. None of us knew
where to get it or how to findout where regularuse, theyare not ordinarily
to get it. Well, therewas this one chick madewiththatintent;
but,oncemade,
there .. she had some spade girl friends
render
such
do
use
possible,as it
they
and she had turnedon beforewith them.
tend
Such
was
before.
not
purchases
Maybe once or twice. But she knew a
little more about it than any of the rest to be made as theuserbecomesmore
of us. So she got hold of some,through responsive
of thedrugto thecontrols
these spade friends,and one night she
using
group:
down
a
of
sticks.
brought
couple
I was

around with this whole

In eithercase, such participation crowd ofrunning

people who turned on then.
And theywere alwaysturningme on, you
providesthe conditionsunderwhich
marihuanna
becomesavailableforfirst know, until it got embarrassing. I was
really embarrassedthat I never had any,
for
use. It also providestheconditions
that I couldn't reciprocate. . . . So I
the next level of occasionaluse, in
asked aroundwhere I could get some and
whichtheindividualsmokesmarihuana picked up forthefirsttime.
andirregularly.
Whenan
sporadically
froma dealeris more
individualhas arrivedthroughearlier Also,purchasing
sincethereare no middleeconomical,
a
at
able
he
is
where
experiences point
of largerquanand thepurchaser
to use marihuanafor pleasure,use men
as in theordinary
busiof avail- titiesreceives,
tendsat firstto be a function
ness
lower
a
world,
price.
ability.The personusesthedrugwhen
However,in orderto make these
he is withotherswho have a supply;
theusermusthave a "conwhenthisis notthecasehisuseceases. purchases,
It tendstherefore
to fluctuate
in terms nection"-know someonewho makes
of theconditions
of availability
created a businessof sellingdrugs.Thesedealand in orderto do
withotherusers;a ersoperateillicitly,
byhis participation
musicianat this stage of use said: businesswith them one mustknow
whereto findthemand be identified
That's mostlywhen I get high,is when to themin such a way thattheywill
I play jobs. And I haven'tplayed hardly not hesitateto make a sale. This is
at all lately . . . See, I'm marriedtwelve
forpersonswho arevery
years now, and I really haven't done quitedifficult
involvedin drug-using
much since then. I had to get a day job, casually
groups.
you know, and I haven't been able to But as a personbecomesmoreidentiplay much. I haven't had manygigs, so fied with these
groups,and is conI really haven'tturnedon much,you see.
the necesLike I say, the only time I really get sideredmoretrustworthy,
to
on is if I'm workingwith some cats who saryknowledgeand introductions
do, then I will too. Like I say, I haven't dealersbecomeavailableto him. In
been high formaybesix months.I haven't
one is
becomingdefinedas a member,
turnedon in all thattime. Then, since I
as a personwhocansafely
also defined
come on this job, that's threeweeks, I've
been high every Friday and Saturday. be trustedto buy drugswithoutenThat's the way it goes with me.
anyoneelse.
dangering
(This man was observedover a period
Even whentheopportunity
is made
of weeks to be completelydependenton
other membersof the orchestrain which availableto them,manydo not make
he worked and on musicians who
use of it. The dangerof arrestlatent
dropped into the tavernin which he was
in such an act preventsthemfrom
playing for any marihuana he used.)
it:
attempting
If an occasionaluserbeginsto move
it
were
If
freelydistributed,I think
on toward a more regularizedand
that I would probablykeep it on hand
mode of use, he can do it
systematic
all the time. But . .. (You mean if it
somemorestablesource wasn't againstthe law?)
onlybyfinding
Yeah. (Well,

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38

SOCIAL

PROBLEMS

thanthroughits actingas a directdeterrent

to users.
Each level of use, frombeginning
to routine,
thushas itstypicalmodeof
forsuch
supply,whichmustbe present
stuff. I just . . . someone usually has
use to occur. In thissense,thesocial
some and you can get it when you want
which operate to limit
it. Why, just why, I've never happened mechanisms
to run into those more or less directcon- availability
of the druglimitits use.
tacts,the pushers,I supposeyou'd explain
in
in
it on the basis of the fact that I never However,participation groups
is
which
used
creates
marihuana
the
the
felt
need for scroungingor looking
conditions
underwhichthesecontrols
up one.
which limit access to it no longer
Such fearsoperateonlyso long as the
also inoperate. Such participation
attemptis not made,for once it has volvesincreasedsensitivity
to theconinthe
beensuccessfully
accomplished
trolsof the drug-using
group,so that
dividualis able to use the experience thereare forces
towarduse of
pressing
inof
the
revise
his
estimate
to
danger
new
of
the
sources
Changes
supply.
volved;thenotionof dangerno longer in the mode of
turn
create
supply
in
purchase. Instead,the actis theconditions
prevents
new
for
to
a
movement
approachedwith a realisticcaution
of
level
use.
it
be
may
Consequently,
whichrecognizes
without
overemphasiof arrest.The pur- said thatchangesin groupparticipazingthepossibility
lead to changes
chaserfeelssafeso longos he observes tionand membership
theindivicommonsense
precautions. in levelof use byaffecting
elementary,
dual's
access
to
under
marihuana
presAlthoughmanyof the interviewees
had made suchpurchases,
onlya few ent conditionsin which the drug is
illicitoutlets.
of a legal kind availableonlythrough
reportedanydifficulty
it to thefailureto
and theseattributed
SECRECY
takesuchprecautions.
Marihuanause is limitedalso to the
suchcon- extentthatindividualsactuallyfindit
Forthosewhodo establish
nections,regularuse is ofteninter- inexpedient
or believethattheywill
real or
ruptedby the arrestor disappearance findit so. This inexpediency,
of themanfromwhomtheypurchase presumed,
arisesfromthefactor belief
theirsupply. In such circumstances,thatif non-users
discover
thatone uses
regularuse can continueonlyif the thedrug,sanctions
of someimportant
user is able to finda new sourceof kindwill be applied. The user'sconsupply. This youngmanhad to give ceptionof thesesanctions
is vague,beup usefora whilewhen:
cause fewof themseemeverto have
Well, like Tom went to jail, theyput had such an experienceor to have
him in jail. Then Cramer,how did it known
he
anyonewho did. Although
Oh yeah, like I owed him
happen ...
to exsome money and I didn't see him for does notknowwhatspecifically
the
quite a while and when I did tryto see pect in the way of punishments,
him he had moved and I couldn't find outlinesare clear:he fears
repudiation
out from anyonewhere the cat went. So
andacceptance
bypeoplewhoserespect
that was that connection . . ." (So you
he requiresbothpractically
and emojust didn't know where to get it?) No.
(So you stopped?) Yeah.
tionally. That is, he expectsthathis
with non-userswill be
of sourcesof supplyis relationships
This instability
and disrupted
if theyshould
controloverregularuse, disturbed
an important
theuse of legal findout, and limitsand controlshis
and reflects
indirectly
in the behavioraccordingly.
sanctionsby the community
This kindof controlbreaksdownin
in drugs.The
arrestof thosetrafficking
of the law controlsuse the courseof the user'sparticipation
enforcement
because with otherusersand in the developbymakingaccessmoredifficult
of sources,rather mentof his experience
of this instability
withthedrug,
so does that mean that you don't want to

get involved . . . ) Well, I don't want

to get too involved,you know. I don't
want to get too close to the people who
traffic
in, ratherheavilyin it. I've never
much in gettingany
had any difficulty

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MarihuanaUse and SocialControl

39

as he comesto realizethat,thoughit patternof social participation

which
withnon-users
almost
wouldbe reducescontacts
mightbe truethatsanctions
applied if non-usersfoundout, they to the zero point. Withoutthis adneed neverfindout. At eachlevelof justmentin attitude,
or
participation,
use, thereis a growthin thisrealiza- both,the user is forcedto remainat
tionwhichmakesthenew levelpossi- thelevelof occasionaluse. Theseadtakeplace in termsof two
justments
ble.
or risks involved: First,
categories
For the beginner,these considera- thatnon-users
will discovermarihuana
tionsare veryimportant
and mustbe in one's
and second,that
possession
overcomeif use is to be undertaken
at one
will be unableto hide theeffects
all. These fearsare challengedbythe
of the drugwhenhe is "high"while
sight of others-more experienced withnon-users.
users-who apparentlyfeel thereis
The difficulties
of thewould-bereglittleor no dangerand appearto enular
in
terms
of possession,are
user,
withimpunity.If
gage in theactivity
in the remarks
of a young
one does "tryit once,"he maystillhis illustrated
man
who
unsuccessfully
attempted
fearsbyobservations
of thiskind.Participationwith otherusers thus fur- regular use while living with his
nishesthe beginnerwith the ration- parents:
I never did like to have it around the
alizationswithwhichfirstto attempt
Well, I
house, you know. (Why?)
the act.
thoughtmaybe my mothermightfindit
Furtherparticipation
in the mari- or somethinglike that. (What do you
think she'd say?) Oh, well, you know,
huana use of thesegroupsallows the
noviceto drawthe further
conclusion like . . . well, theynever do mentionit,
you know, anythingabout dope addicts
thattheact can be safeno matter
how
or anythinglike that but it would be a
oftenindulgedin, as long as one is
really bad thing in my case, I know, becarefuland makessurethatnon-users cause of the big family I come from.
are not presentor likelyto intrude. And my sistersand brothers,they'd put
me down the worst. (And you don't
This kindof perspective
is a necessary want
that to happen?) No, I'm afraid
not.
prerequisitefor occasional use, in
which the drug is used when other In such cases, envisioning
the conseusersinviteone to join them. While quences of such a secretbeing disit permitsthis level of use, such a covered preventsthe person from
does not allow regularuse maintaining
perspective
thesupplyessential
to regto occurfor the worldsof user and ular
use. Use remainserratic;sinceit
non-user,while separateto a degree mustdependon encounters
withother
allowingthe occasionaluse patternto usersand cannotoccurwheneverthe
persist,are not completely
segregated. userdesires.
The pointswheretheseworldsmeet
Unlesshe discovers
somemethodof
appear dangerousto the occasional overcoming
the person
this difficulty,
user who must,therefore,
confinehis
to
use
can
progress
regular
onlywhen
use to thoseoccasionson whichsuch
meeting
doesnotseemlikely.
leave
en. People do not ordinarily
Regularuse,on theotherhand,im- theirhomesand familiesin orderto
and routineuse of smoke marihuanaregularly. But if
plies a systematic
the drug which does not take into theydo, forwhateverreason,regular
accountsuchpossibilities
and planper- use, heretofore
becomesa
proscribed,
iods of "gettinghigh" aroundthem. possibility.Confirmedregularusers
It is a modeof use whichdependson oftentake into veryseriousaccount
anotherkind of attitudetowardthe theeffect
on theirdruguse of forming
possibilityof non-usersfindingout, new social relationshipswith nonthe attitude
thatmarihuana
use can be users:
carriedon underthenosesof non-users,
I wouldn't marrysomeone who would
on the living of a
or, alternatively,
be belligerent if I do (smoke mari-

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40

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

is never
forthosewhoseparticipation
so completely
segregated.This consistsin learningto controlthe drug's
while in the companyof noneffects
If such attachments
are formed,use users,so thattheycan be fooledand
tendsto revertto theoccasionallevel: the secret successfullykept even
one continuesparticipation
(This man had used marihuanaquite though
withthem. If one cannotlearnthis,
intensivelybut his wife objected to it.)
Of course,largelythe reasonI cut offwas thereexistssome groupof situations
my wife. There were a few timeswhen in whichhe dare not get "high" and
didn't actually crave
I'd feel like ..
useis notpossible:
for it but would just like to have had regular
huana), you know. I mean, I wouldn't
marrya woman who would be so untrustingas to thinkI would do something
... I mean, you know, like hurtmyself
or tryto hurtsomeone.

some. (He was unable to continueusing

the drug except irregularly,on those occasions when he was away from his
wife's presenceand control.)

thatjust
Say, I'll tell you something
killsme,man,I meanit's reallyterrible.
Have you evergot highandthanhad to
face yourfamily? I reallydreadthat.
Like havingto talk to my fatheror
man, it's just too
mother,or brothers,
much. I just can'tmakeit. I justfeel
like they're
sittingtheredigging(watching) me, and theyknowI'm high.It's a
I hateit.
feeling.
horrible

If thepersonmovesalmosttotallyinto theusergroup,the problemceases

in manyrespectsto exist,and it is
possibleforregularuse to occurexcept
withthe
when some new connection
Most usershave thesefeelingsand
worldis made.
moreconventional
move
on to regularuse, if theydo,
If a personusesmarihuana
regularly
of thefollowing
it is almostinevitable-- onlyif an experience
and routinely
theirconception
sinceeven in urbansocietysuchroles orderoccurs,
changing
of detection:
cannotbe keptcompletely
separate-- of the possibilities
thathe one day findhimself"high"
(Were you makingit muchthen,at
while in the companyof non-users first?) No, nottoo much. LikeI said,
I was a littleafraidof it. But it was
from whom he wishes to keep his
about1948 thatI reallybeganto
finally
use secret. Giventhevarimarihuana
makeit strong. (What wereyou afraid
of
the
ety symptoms drugmayproduce, of?) Well, I was afraidthatI would
it is naturalforthe userto fearthat
gethighandnotbe abletoop (operate),
he mightrevealthroughhis behavior you dig, I mean,I was afraidto let go
and see whatwouldhappen. Especially
that he is "high",thathe mightbe
on jobs. I couldn'ttrustmyselfwhen
and
unable to controlthe symptons
I was high. I was afraidI'd get too
or do
thusgive awayhis own secret. Such
high, and pass out completely,
in focusing stupidthings. I didn'twantto get too
phenomenaas difficulty
wigged.
on norand in carrying
one'sattention
(How did you ever get over that?)
create a fear that
mal conversation
man.
Well, it's justone of thosethings,
One nightI turnedon andI justsuddenwill knowexactlywhyone is
everyone
feltreal great,relaxed,you know,I
behavingin thisway,thatthebehavior ly
was reallyswinging
withit. Fromthen
as a
will be interpreted
automatically
on I've justbeenable to smokeas much
use.
of
sign drug
as I want withoutgettinginto any
troublewithit. I can alwayscontrolit.
Those who progressto regularuse
The
is one in which
It
dilemma.
avoid
to
this
typicalexperience
manage
mayhappen,as notedabove,thatthey the user findshimselfin a position
whilehe
almostcompletely wherehe mustdo something
come to participate
in thesubcultural
groupin whichthe is "high"thathe is quitesurehe canpracticeis carriedon, so that they not do in thatcondition.To his sursimplyhavea minimalamountof con- prise,he findsthathe can do it and
tactwithnon-usesaboutwhoseopin- can hide fromothersthe factthathe
ionstheycare.Sincethisisolationfrom is underthedrug'sinfluence.One or
of this kind allow
conventionalsocietyis seldom com- more occurrences
plete, the user must learn another the user to concludethathis caution
methodof avoidingthedilemma,one has been excessiveand based on a
method falsepremise. If he desiresto use the
whichis the mostimportant

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MarihuanaUse and SocialControl

41

thathis fearsare exceshe is no longerdeterred userdiscovers

drugregularly
sive
and
as he comes to
for
he
can
this
use
such
an
fear,
unrealistic,
by
experienceto justifythe belief that conceiveof the practiceas one which
non-usersneed neverknow:
can be kept secretwithrelativeease.
was madethatmany Each levelof use can occuronlywhen
(The suggestion
users findit difficult
to performtheir the personhas revisedhis conception
worktaskseffectively
while high. The of thedangersinvolvedin sucha way
a machinist,
interviewee,
repliedwiththe
storyof how he got over thisbarrier.) as to allowit.
It doesn'tbother
methatway.I hadan
MORALITY
once thatprovedthatto me.
experience
I was out on a pretty
This sectiondiscussesthe role of
roughpartythe
nightbefore.I gotpretty
high. On pot conventional
notionsof morality
as a
(marihuana)and lushing,too. I gotso
high thatI was still out of my mind means throughwhichmarihuanause
whenI wentto workthenextday.And is controlled.The basicmoralimperaI had a veryimportant
job to workon. tives which operate here are those
It had to be practically
perfect-precisionwhichrequiretheindividualto be remefor
stuff.The bosshadbeenpriming
it fordays,explaining
how to do it and sponsibleforhis own welfare,and to
be able to controlhis behaviorrationeverything.
(He wentto workhighand,as faras ally. The stereotype
of thedopefiend
he could remember,
musthavedone the
a
who violatesthese
job, althoughtherewas no clearmemory portrays person
of
imperatives.A recentdescription
of it sincehe was stillquitehigh.)
Abouta quarter
to four,I finally
came the marihuanauser illustratesthe
downand I thought,
"Jesus! Whatam principal
of thisstereotype:
features
I doing?" So I just cut out and went,
In the earliest stages of intoxication
home. I didn'tsleep all nighthardly,
the will power is destroyedand inhibiI hadf .. kedup
aboutwhether
worrying
tions and restraints
are released; the moron thatjob or not. I gotdownthenext
al barricadesare brokendown and often
the boss putsthe old "mikes"
morning,
debaucheryand sexualityresult. Where
on thething,andI had donethef.. kin'
mental instabilityis inherent,the behavjob perfectly.So afterthatI just didn't
ior is generallyviolent. An egotistwill
worryanymore. I've gonedowntowork
delusions of grandeur,the timid
reallyoutof mymindon somemornings. enjoy
individual will suffer anxiety,and the
I don'thaveanytroubleat all.
aggressiveone oftenwill resortto acts of

This problemis not equallyimpor- violence and crime. Dormant tendencies

are released and while the subject may
ant for all users,for thereare those
know what is happening,he has become
whosesocial participation
is suchthat
powerless to prevent it. Constant use
it cannot arise; all their associates produces
an incapacityfor work and a
knowtheyuse marihuana
and noneof
disorientationof purpose. (1)
them care, while their conventional One mustadd to this,of course,the
contactsare fewand unimportant.In notionthattheuserbecomesa slaveto
addition,somepersonsachieveidiosyn- thedrug,thathe voluntarily
surrenders
craticsolutionswhichallow themto himselfto a habitfromwhichthereis
act"high"and haveitignored:
no escape. The personwhotakessuch
with
is presented
They (the boysin his neighborhood) a stereotype
seriously
can nevertell if I'm high. I usually a seriousobstacleto druguse. Use
am, but they don't know it. See, I will ordinarily
be begun,maintained
all through
alwayshad the reputation,
highschool,of beingkindof goofy,so and increasedonly when some other
no matter
whatI do, nobodypaysmuch way of viewingthepracticeis acceptattention.So I can get awaywithbeing ed bytheindividual.
highpractically
anyplace.
The beginnerhas at some time
In short,personslimittheiruse of sharedtheseviews. In the courseof
marihuana
in proportion
to thedegree his participation
in some unconvenof theirfear, realisticor otherwise, tionalsegmentof society,
he
however,
that non-userswho are important
to is likelyto acquirea more "emancithemwill discoverthattheyuse drugs pated"viewof themoralstandards
imof the
and reactin somepunishing
way.This plicit in this characterization
kind of controlbreaksdown as the druguser,at leastto thepointthathe

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42

SOCIALPROBLEMS

a very strong appetite. It makes you

will not rejectactivities
out of hand
hungry. That's probablygood for
simplybecause theyare convention- very
some people who are underweight.
condemned.
The
observation
of
ally
othersusing the drug may further Finally,theuser,at thispoint,is not
tempthim to apply his rejectionof usingthe drugall the time. His use
conventionalstandardsto the speci- is scheduled,therebeingtimeswhen
and times
fic instanceof marihuanause. Such he considersit appropriate
then,tendsto provide when he does not. The factof this
participation,
underwhichthesecon- scheduleallowshimto assurehimself
the conditions
at leastsuffi- thathe controlsthe drug,ratherthan
trolscan be circumvented
him,andbecomes
for
to
be
first
use
ciently
attempted. thedrugcontrolling
of the
In the courseof further
experience a symbolof the harmlessness
He
does
not
himself
consider
practice.
a
in thesegroups,the noviceacquires
and a slaveto thedrug,becausehe can and
whole series of rationalizations
with whichhe may an- does abidebythisschedule,regardless
justifications
swerobjectionsto occasionaluse if he of the amountof use the particular
decidesto engagein it. If he should schedulemay allow. The fact that
of conven- thereare timeswhenhe does not,on
raisehimselftheobjections
use thedrug,can be usedas
he findsreadyanswers principle,
tionalmorality
availablein thefolkloreof marihuana proofto himselfof his freedomwith
to it.
respect
usinggroups.
One of the mostcommonrational- onI like to get on and mostlydo get
when I'm relaxing, doing something
izationsis that conventional
persons I enjoylike listeningto a real good classical
record or maybe like a movie or
indulgein muchmoreharmfulpractices and thata comparatively
minor somethinglike thator Ilisteningto a radio
Something enjoy doing, not
vice like marihuanasmokingcannot program.
participatingin, like... I play golf dursuch
as
be
when
things
really wrong
ing the summer,you know,and a couple
the use of alcohol are so commonly of guys I play with got on, turned on
while they were playing golf and I
accepted:
couldn't see that because, I don't know,

(You don'tdig (like) alcoholthen?)

No, I don'tdig it at all. (Why not?) I
don't know. I just don't. Well, see,
here'sthething. BeforeI was at theage
wherekids startdrinking
I was already
gettingon (usingmarihuana)and I saw
of getting
the advantages
on,you know,
I meantherewas no sicknessand it was
muchcheaper.Thatwas one of thefirst
thingsI learned,man.Whydo youwant
is dumb,youknow.
to drink? Drinking
It's so muchcheaperto get on and you
don't get sick,and it's not sloppyand
takesless time. And it justgrewto be
thething,
youknow. So I goton before
I drank,
youknow....
(What do you meanthat'sone of the
first
thingsyoulearned?) Well,I mean,
to play
as I say,I was just firststarting
jobs as a musicianwhenI got on and I
was also in a positionto drinkon the
jobs, you know. And theseguys just
toldmeit was sillyto drink.Theydidn't
drinkeither.

Additional rationalizations
enable
theuserto suggestto himselfthatthe
ratherthanbeingharmdrug'seffects,
ful,arein factbeneficial:
I have had some thatmade me feel
and also it gives
like...very invigorated

when you're participatingin something

you want your mind to be on that and
nothingelse, and if you're. . because I
think,I know it makes you relax and...
I don't thinkyou can make it as well.

Occasionaluse can occurin an individualwho acceptstheseviews,for

he has reorganized
his moralnotions
in sucha wayas to permitit,primarily
thatconby acquiringtheconceptions
ventionalmoral notionsabout drugs
do notapplyto thisdrugand that,in
anycase,his use of it has notbecome
excessive.
If use progresses
to thepointof bethese
comingregularand systematic,
questionsmayagain be raisedforthe
user,for he beginsnow to look, to
himselfas well as others,liketheuncontrolled"dope fiend" of popular
himself
mythology.
He mustconvince
again, if use is to continueat this
levelthathe has notcrossedthisline.
The problem,and one possibleresoluin thisstatement
by
tion,arepresented
a regularuser:

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MarihuanaUse and SocialControl

I know it isn't habit formingbut I
was a little worried about how easy it
would be to put down, so I tried it. I
was smokingit all the time, then I just
put it down for a whole week to see
what would happen. Nothing happened.
So I knew it was cool (alright). Even
since then I've used it as much as I want
to. Of course, I wouldn't dig being a
slave to it or anythinglike that, but I
don't thinkthatthatwould happen unless
I was neuroticor something,and I don't
thinkI am, not to thatextent.

43

aren'tverymany... I thinkthatseventyfive percentor maybe even a biggerpercent of the people that turn on have a
behaviorpatternthatwould lead themto
get on more and more pot to get more
and more away from things. I thinkI
have it myself. But I thinkI'm aware
of it so I thinkI can fightit.

The notionthat to be aware of the

such
problemis to solve it constitutes
a rationalein the above instance.
cannot be
Where such justifications
The earlierrationalization
withre- discovered,
use continueson an occagard to the beneficialeffectsof the sional basis, the user explaininghis
drugremainunchangedand mayeven reasonsin termsof his conception
of
undergo a considerableelaboration. psychiatric
theory:
Butthequestionraisedin thelastquoWell, I believe that people who indulge in narcoticsand alcohol and drinks,
tationprovesmore troublesome.In
any stimulantsof thattype,on thatlevel,
view of his increasedand regularized are
probablylooking for an escape from
of the drug,the useris
consumption
a more serious condition than the more
or
less
occasional user. I don't feel that
notsurethathe is reallyableto control,
I'm escaping from anything. I think
thathe has not possiblybecomethe
that, however,I realize that I have a lot
slave of a vicioushabit. Tests are
of adjustmentto accomplishyet . . So I
made-use is given up and the concan't say thatI have any serious neurotic
that I'm trying
sequencesawaited-andwhennothing condition or inefficiency
to handle. But in the case of some acuntowardoccurs,the user is able to
drawtheconclusion
thatthereis noth- quaintances I've made, people who are
chronic alcoholics or junkies (opiate ading to fear.
dicts) or prettyhabitual smokers,I have
The problemis, however,
morediffound accompanyingthat conditionsome
ficultfor some of the moresophisti- maladjustmentin their personality,too.
cated users who derive their moral
Certainmorallytoned conceptions
directives
not so muchfromconven- aboutthenatureof druguse and drug
tional thinkingas frompopularpsy- users thus influencethe marihuana
chiatric"theory." Theiruse troubles user. If he is unableto explainaway
use will
them,not in conventional
terms,but or ignoretheseconceptions,
becauseof whatit mayindicateabout notoccurat all, and thedegreeof use
theirmentalhealth. Acceptingcur- appearsto be relatedto thedegreeto
no longerare
rentthinking
aboutthecausesof drug whichtheseconceptions
use,theyreasonthatno one woulduse influential,
having been replacedby
and justifications
curdrugs in any large amountsunless rationalizations
were"wrong"withhim, rentamongusers.
"something"
unlessthereweresomeneurotic
maladDISCUSSION
whichmade drugsnecessary. The extent
justment
use of
of an individual's
The fact of marihuanasmokingbe- marihuana
is
least
at
partly
dependent
comes a symbolof psychicweakness
moralweakness.This on the degreeto whichconventional
and,ultimately,
social controlsfail to preventhis enthe
prejudices personagainstfurther
in the activity. Apart from
regularuse and causes a returnto gaging
other
it
conditions,
necessary
possible
occasionaluse unlesssomenew rationmay be said that marihuanause can
ale is discovered.
occurat the variouslevels described
Well, I wonder if the best thingis not
eventsand
to get on anythingat all. That's what only when the necessary
they tell you. Although I've heard psy- shiftsin conceptionof the activity
chiatristssay, "Smoke all the pot (mari- have removed
theindividualfromthe
huana) you want, but leave the horse influence
of thesecontrolsand substi(heroin) alone."
of thesub(Well, that sounds reasonable.) Yeah, tutedforthemthecontrols
but how manypeople can do it? There culturalgroup.

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44

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

This kind of analysisseemsto put thatthe holdingof a social position,

some experientialfleshon the bare in and of itself,cannotbe considered
thatthe as- to explain an individual'sbehavior.
bones of the contention
sumptionof rolesin a deviantsubcul- Rather,the analysisof behaviormust
ture accountsfor deviant behavior. takeaccountof socialrolesin a more
Thereis, of course,a closerelationshipsubtlefashion,by askingwhatpossibetweenthetwo. But a good deal of bilitiesof actionand whatexperiences
is which mightshape the individual's
theoreticaland practicaldifficulty
and tendency
an interveningappreciation
avoidedbyintroducing
to makeuse
are providedbya
processof changein social participa- of thosepossibilities
tion and individualconceptionmade givenrole. Such a viewpointcontinimportance
possible,but not inevitablebysubcul- uesto insiston theanalytic
and whichbecomes of the role concept,whichcalls our
turalmembership,
to thepatterning
of an indivfactor. In this attention
itselfthe explanatory
way, the elementof truthin the idual's experienceby the position
is conservedwhile whichhe holdsin an organizedsocial
simplerstatement
thedifficulties
posedbythosewhopar- group,but adds to this an emphasis
ticipatein suchgroupswithoutengag- on the experienceitselfas it shapes
ing in the deviantbehaviorare obvi- conductand theprocessbywhichthis
ated. For suchmembership
onlypro- shapingoccurs.
videsthepossibility,
notthenecessity,
whichwill
of havingthoseexperiences
REFERENCES
producethe behavior. The analysis
1. H. J. Anslingerand William F. Tompmaybe madefinerbythenconsidering kins,
Trafficin Narcotics,New York:
which tend to FunkThe
those contingencies
and Wagnalls Company, 1953, pp.
whetheror notthemember 21-2.
determine
of sucha groupactuallyhas the nec- 2. Howard S. Becker,
"Becoming a Mariessaryexperiences.
huana User," American Journal of SocioSuch a view necessarily
impliesthe logy, LIX (November, 1953), 235-42.
of someinterest
to 3. AlfredR. Lindesmith,Opiate Addiction,
generalhypothesis,
studentsof cultureand personality,Bloomington:Principia Press, 1947.
THE SOCIAL SCIENTIST AS RESEARCH ENTREPRENEUR:
A CASE STUDY*
WARREN G. BENNIS
and SocialScience
of Economics
Department
Institute
Massachusetts
of Technology
as
in most humanisticand social subjects
that
is
It onlytwenty-five
yearsago
researchercan work in comparative
J. FranklinJamesonwrote in the the
isolation. (1, p. 17)
HistoricalReview:
American
and comAlthoughcomprehensive
Research in the physical sciences is
statistical
data
on
the
parable
growth
perhaps more certain to be directed
are non-existoward useful ends than researchin hu- of socialscienceresearch
manisticfields,because the formeris most tent,thisstatement
seemsawkwardly
commonlycarriedon in organizedlabora- anachronistic
in
an
of appliedsocial
age
consultation
tories,where
is almostinevitand
science
research
organized
groups.
able and a consensus of opinion as to
what is worthwhileis easily formed,and To illustrate
thisgeneraltrend:Ogg
on theinvestigator,
where- reports
has its effects
thatthegovernment
disbursed
no fundsforsocialresearch
practically
* A version of a paper read at the
yearsago,whereasin 1952,
Annual Meeting of the American Socio- twenty-five
logical Society held at Urbana, Illinois, eleven million dollarswas spenton
research
alone. (1) The
September8-10, 1954.
psychological

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