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Chapter 6
The ANACOM 2 Board
6.1
Figure 71
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6.2
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ANACOM 2
Power input
FM COMMUNICATIONS TRAINER
Audio
input
Switched
faults
Demodulators
Modulators
Figure 72
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6.3
Power Input
We will start with the simplest block. These are the electrical input connections
necessary to power the module. The LJ Technical Systems "IC Power 60" or
"System Power 90" are the recommended power supplies.
+12V
0V
-12V
Figure 73
6.4
AMPLITUDE
OUTPUT
FREQUENCY
1
MIN
MAX
MIN
MAX
Figure 74
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The Modulator
This section of the board accepts the information signal and generates the final
frequency modulated signal. Two different designs of modulator are provided
(Reactance Modulator and Varactor Modulator).
MODULATOR CIRCUITS
5
NOISE
INPUT
REACTANCE MODULATOR
0V
0V
26
6
AUDIO
INPUT
MIXER/AMPLIFIER
13
REACTANCE
CARRIER
FREQUENCY
FM
OUTPUT
25
VARACTOR MODULATOR
VARACTOR
14
24
0V
JL
AMPLITUDE
CARRIER
FREQUENCY
Figure 75
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6.6
Figure 76
Notes:
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INPUT
QUADRATURE
DETECTOR
OUTPUT
INPUT
FOSTER-SEELEY/
RATIO DETECTOR
OUTPUT
PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
DETECTOR
FOSTERSEELEY
OUTPUT
INPUT
INPUT
RATIO
OUTPUT
FOSTERSEELEY
OUTPUT
OFF
VCO
RATIO
ON
FREQUENCY
ADJUST
Figure 77
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6.8
AMPLITUDE LIMITER
INPUT
OUTPUT
INPUT
OUTPUT
GAIN
Figure 78
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Notes:
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FM Modulators
Chapter 7
Chapter 7
FM Modulators
7.1
Information signal
High amplitude
gives increased
frequency
Frequency modulated
carrier
The amplitude
does not change
Figure 79
Notice in Figure 79 that the amplitude is not affected by the modulation process.
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Frequency Deviation
How much the frequency is changed for each volt of information signal is called the
Frequency Deviation and a typical value is 15kHz/V with an upper limit of
75kHz
As an example, an information signal of peak-to-peak voltage of 6 volts and a
frequency of 10kHz with a frequency deviation of 15kHz/V would cause an FM
carrier to change by a total of 90kHz (45kHz above and below the original carrier
frequency). The carrier frequency would be swept over this range 10,000 times a
second.
7.3
The Advantages of FM
There are three advantages of frequency modulation for a communication system.
(i)
In the last section, we saw that the information signal controlled the
frequency of the carrier but had no effect on its amplitude. Now, when any
transmission is affected by electrical noise, the noise signal is superimposed
on the transmitted signal as shown in Figure 80 below.
An FM signal
Noise spikes
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(ii)
FM Modulators
Chapter 7
7.4
The Disadvantage of FM
This is the wide bandwidth of the transmission.
The medium frequency broadcast band extends from about 550kHz to 1,600kHz,
and is therefore only a little over 1MHz in width. If we tried to use FM using a
bandwidth of 250kHz for each station, it would mean that no more than four
stations could be accommodated. This wide bandwidth forces us to use higher
carrier frequencies, usually in the VHF band that extends from about 85MHz to
110MHz. This is a width of 25MHz and would hold many more stations.
7.5
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An FM Transmitter
As we can see from Figure 81 below, the FM transmitter is very similar to the AM
transmitter that we met in Figure 31 of Chapter 3.
Information signal
Antenna
Audio
oscillator
FM Waveform
FM
Modulator
Output
Amplifier
Carrier
Generator
Carrier Wave
Amplified Output
Signal
The audio oscillator supplies the information signal and could, if we wish, be
replaced by a microphone and AF amplifier to provide speech and music instead of
the sinewave signals that we are using with ANACOM 2.
The FM modulator is used to combine the carrier wave and the information signal
in much the same way as in the AM transmitter. The only difference in this case is
that the generation of the carrier wave and the modulation process is carried out in
the same block. It doesnt have to be, but in our case, it is.
The output amplifier increases the power in the signal before it is applied to the
antenna for transmission just as it did in the corresponding block in the AM
transmitter.
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FM Modulators
Chapter 7
The only real difference between the AM and FM transmitters are the modulators,
so we are only going to consider this part of the transmitter.
We are going to investigate two types of modulator, they are called the
VARACTOR MODULATOR and the REACTANCE MODULATOR.
7.7
Figure 82
1
2 LC
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The tuned circuit is part of the oscillator used to generate the carrier frequency so,
if the capacitance changes, then so will the carrier frequency. This is demonstrated
in Figure 83 below:
Voltage increases
Voltage decreases
Capacitance decreases
Capacitance increases
Frequency increases
Frequency decreases
Figure 83
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7.8
FM Modulators
Chapter 7
Varactor diode
Non-conducting
region
Conducting regions
Capacitor
Symbol
insulator
Conducting plates
Symbol
Figure 84
By increasing the reverse biased voltage, the width of the insulating region can be
increased and hence the capacitance value decreased. This is shown in Figure 85.
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More capacitance
Less capacitance
Figure 85 Operation of the Varactor Diode
If the information signal is applied to the varactor diode, the capacitance will
therefore be increased and decreased in sympathy with the incoming signal.
Notes:
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7.9
FM Modulators
Chapter 7
+ Supply
Varactor
Diode
Tuned
Circuit
C1
FM
Output
L1
Information
Signal
Oscillator
0V
Figure 86 The Varactor Modulator Circuit
We can see the tuned circuit that sets the operating frequency of the oscillator and
the varactor, which is effectively in parallel with the tuned circuit.
Two other components, which may not be immediately obvious, are C1 and L1. C1
is a DC blocking capacitor to provide DC isolation between the Oscillator and the
collector of the transmitter. L1 is an RF choke that allows the information signal
through to the varactor but blocks the RF signals.
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The information signal is applied to the base of the input transistor and
appears amplified and inverted at the collector.
(ii)
This low frequency signal passes through the RF choke and is applied across
the varactor diode.
(iii) The varactor diode changes its capacitance in sympathy with the information
signal and therefore changes the total value of the capacitance in the tuned
circuit.
(iv) The changing value of capacitance causes the oscillator frequency to increase
and decrease under the control of the information signal.
The output is therefore an FM signal.
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FM Modulators
Chapter 7
+ Supply
Tuned
Circuit
C
R
Oscillator
FM
Output
Information
Signal
0V
Figure 87 The Reactance Modulator Circuit
Now, if we use the voltage across the resistor as the input to the base of a
transistor, the resulting collector current will be IN PHASE with the base voltage
and will LEAD the collector voltage by 90 just like a real capacitor.
The result is that the transistor now appears to be a capacitor.
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+ Supply
Tuned
circuit
A transistor appearing
to be a variable capacitor
Osc.
0V
+ Supply
Tuned
circuit
Tuned
circuit
Figure 88
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FM Modulators
Chapter 7
In the first part of the diagram, the capacitor and associated components have been
replaced by the variable capacitor, shown dotted.
In the next part, the two supply lines are connected together. We can justify this by
saying that the output of the DC power supply always includes a large smoothing
capacitor to keep the DC voltages at a steady value. This large capacitor will have a
very low reactance at the frequencies being used in the circuit - less than a milliohm. We can safely ignore this and so the two supply lines can be assumed to be
joined together. Remember that this does not affect the DC potentials, which
remain at the normal supply voltages.
If the two supply lines are at the same AC potential, the actual points of connection
do not matter and so we can redraw the circuit as shown in the third part of the
diagram.
The oscillator and tuned circuit provide the unmodulated carrier frequency
and this frequency is present on the collector of the transistor.
(ii)
The capacitor and the resistor provide the 90 phase shift between the
collector voltage and current as described in Section 7.11. This makes the
circuit appear as a capacitor.
(iii) The changing information signal being applied to the base has the same effect
as changing the bias voltage applied to the transistor and, as we saw in
Section 7.12, this would have the effect of increasing and decreasing the value
of this capacitance.
(iv) As the capacitance is effectively in parallel with the tuned circuit the
variations in value will cause the frequency of resonance to change and hence
the carrier frequency will be varied in sympathy with the information signal
input.
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Oscillator
Frequency
kHz
kHz
Base Bias
Voltage
V
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FM Modulators
Chapter 7
Oscillator
Frequency
kHz
kHz
Base Bias
Voltage
V
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Notes:
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FM Frequency Demodulators-1
Chapter 8
Chapter 8
FM Frequency Demodulators-1
8.1
Demodulation of FM Signals
An FM receiver is very similar to an AM receiver. The most significant change is
that the demodulator must now extract the information signal from a frequency,
rather than an amplitude, modulated wave.
Antenna
RF Amplifier
Mixer
IF Amplifier
IF Amplifier
Local
Oscillator
Demodulator
AF Amplifier
Speaker
Figure 96 An FM Receiver
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Amplitude of
Output Signal
A straight characteristic
causes no distortion
AM Signal
Input Frequency
FM Signal
Figure 97 An Ideal Linear Voltage/Frequency Characteristic
110
How linear is their response - this determines the amount of distortion in the
final output?
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8.2
FM Frequency Demodulators-1
Chapter 8
Amplitude of
Output Signal
AM Signal
Input Frequency
FM Signal
Figure 98
In Figure 98 above, we can see that the amplitude of the output signal will increase
and decrease as the input frequency changes. For example, if the frequency of the
incoming signal were to increase, the operating point would move towards the right
on the diagram. This would cause an increase in the amplitude of the output signal.
An FM signal will therefore result in an amplitude modulated signal at the output it is really that simple!
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Figure 99 below shows the circuit diagram of the Detuned Resonant Circuit
Detector.
De-tuned
Circuit
Diode Detector
+ Supply
C1
FM
Input
R1
Audio
Output
0V
Figure 99 Detuned Resonant Circuit Detector
If we break it down, the operation becomes very clear. The FM input is applied to
the base of the transistor and in the collector there is the detuned resonant circuit
that we have met earlier. In reality, it also includes the loading effect caused by the
other winding which acts as a transformer secondary.
The signal at the collector of the transistor includes an amplitude modulated
component that is passed to the diode detector.
The diode detector was discussed in detail in Section 3.16 but a brief summary is
included here as a reminder.
In the diagram, the diode conducts every time the input signal applied to its anode
is more positive than the voltage on the top plate of the capacitor.
When the voltage falls below the capacitor voltage, the diode ceases to conduct and
the voltage across the capacitor leaks away until the next time the input signal is
able to switch it on again.
The output is passed to the Low Pass Filter/Amplifier block. The unwanted DC
component is removed and the low-pass filter removes the ripple at the IF
frequency.
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FM Frequency Demodulators-1
Chapter 8
One disadvantage is that any noise spikes included in the incoming signal will also
be passed through the diode detector and appear at the output. If we are going to
avoid this problem, we must remove the AM noise before the input to the
demodulator. We do this with an Amplitude Limiter circuit.
8.3
8.4
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FM input
signal
Phase
Shifting
Circuit
Phase
Comparator
Circuit
Low
Pass
Filter
Audio
output
signal
Figure 104
This circuit compares the phase of the original input signal with the output of the
phase shifting circuit. It then produces a DC voltage level that depends on the result
of the comparison according to the following rules:
(i) It provides no change in output voltage if the signal phase has been shifted by
90.
(ii) Phases over 90 result in an increased DC voltage level.
(iii) Phases less than 90 result in a decreased DC voltage level.
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Chapter 8
As the phase changes, the DC voltage level moves up and down and re-creates the
audio signal.
A low pass filter is included to reduce the amplitude of any high-frequency ripple
and also blocks the DC offset. Consequently, the signal at the output closely
resembles the original input signal.
The characteristic as shown in Figure 105 is straight enough to cause very little
distortion to the final audio output.
Amplitude
Audio
Output
Signal
Frequency
FM Input Signal
Figure 105 Quadrature Detector Characteristic
8.6
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Chapter 8
FM input
signal
Phase
Comparator
Circuit
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Low
Pass
Filter
Audio
output
signal
Voltage
Controlled
Oscillator
Figure 106 Block Diagram of the Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) Detector
The overall action of the circuit may, at first, seem rather pointless. As we can see
in Figure 106 there is a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). The frequency of this
oscillator is controlled by the DC output voltage from the output of the low pass
filter. Now, this DC voltage keeps the oscillator running at the same frequency as
the original input signal and 90 out of phase.
The question often arises as to why we would want the oscillator to run at the same
frequency and 90 out of phase. And if we did, then why not just add a phase
shifting circuit at the input to give the 90 phase shift? The answer can be seen by
imagining what happens when the input frequency changes - as it would with an FM
signal.
If the input frequency increases and decreases, the VCO frequency is made to
follow it. To do this, the input control voltage must increase and decrease. It is
these changes of DC voltage level that form the demodulated signal.
The AM signal then passes through a signal buffer to prevent any loading effects
from disturbing the VCO and then through an audio amplifier if necessary.
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FM Frequency Demodulators-1
Chapter 8
Amplitude
Audio
Output
Signal
Frequency
FM Input Signal
Figure 107 Phase-Locked Loop Detector Characteristic
8.7
Information
Signal
'Squared up'
FM Input
VCO
Output
Mean voltage
is half the
peak value
Phase Comparator
Output
Figure 108
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The input signal is converted into a square wave and, together with the VCO
output, forms the two inputs to an Exclusive-OR gate.
Remember that the Exclusive-OR gate provides an output whenever the two inputs
are different in value and zero output whenever they are the same.
Figure 108 shows the situation when the FM input is at its unmodulated carrier
frequency and the VCO output is at the same frequency and 90 out of phase. This
provides an output from the Exclusive-OR gate with an on-off ratio of unity and an
average voltage at the output of half of the peak value (as shown).
Now let us assume that the FM signal at the input decreases in frequency (see
Figure 109). The period of the squared up FM signal increases and the mean
voltage level from the Exclusive-OR gate decreases. The mean voltage level is both
the demodulated output and the control voltage for the VCO. The VCO frequency
will decrease until its frequency matches the incoming FM signal.
Frequency
decreases
Information
Signal
'Squared up'
FM Input
VCO
Output
Mean voltage
decreases
Phase Comparator
Output
Figure 109
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8.8
FM Frequency Demodulators-1
Chapter 8
DC Voltage
Frequency
(kHz)
Figure 111 The Frequency Response of the Quadrature Detector
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Record the DC voltage at tp60 against frequency on the grid provided in Figure
114 adding your own voltage scale.
DC Voltage
Frequency (kHz)
Figure 114 The Frequency Response of the PLL Detector
Notes:
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FM Frequency Demodulators-2
Chapter 9
Chapter 9
FM Frequency Demodulators-2
9.1
C1
R1
C3
FM
Input
Signal
Audio
Output
Signal
L3
C2
L1
L2
R2
D2
0V
0V
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V1
C1
R1
Unmodulated
Carrier
V2
L1
L2
C2
D2
R2
0V
0V
Figure 117
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9.3
FM Frequency Demodulators-2
Chapter 9
Figure 118
L1 and L2 are magnetically tightly coupled and by adding C3 across the centertapped coil they will form a parallel tuned circuit with a resonance frequency equal
to the unmodulated carrier frequency.
Capacitor C5 will shift the phase of the input signal by 90 with reference to the
voltage across L1 (and L2). These voltages are shown as Va and Vb in the phasor
diagram given in Figure 119.
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Using the input signal Vfm as the reference, the phasor diagrams now look the way
shown in Figure 119.
Va
and
Vb
C5
V1
C3
Vfm
Vfm
V1
Va
Vb
L1
V2
Vfm
L2
V2
0V
Circuit diagram
Phasor diagrams
Figure 119
9.4
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FM Frequency Demodulators-2
Chapter 9
This part of the diagram and the associated phasor diagram are shown in Figure 120
below.
C4
Vfm
D1
V1
R1
C1
Vfm
L3
Vfm
V2
L1
L2
C2
R2
D2
0V
0V
Voltage across
diode 1 (VD1)
V1
Vfm
V2
Voltage across
diode 2 (VD2)
Figure 120
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V1
FM signal frequency
GREATER THAN the
unmodulated
value
Vfm
V2
VD2
VD1
V1
FM signal frequency
LESS THAN the
unmodulated
value
Vfm
V2
VD2
Figure 121
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9.6
FM Frequency Demodulators-2
Chapter 9
*R3
C5
C1
C3
FM
Input
Signal
+
-
R1
+ *C6
-
L3
C2
L1
L2
*D2
*R4
+
-
R2
*Audio
output
signal
0V
0V
* Changes made
Diode D2 has been reversed so that the polarity of the voltage across C2 will be as
shown in the diagram. When the carrier is unmodulated, the voltages across C1 and
C2 are equal and additive. The audio output is taken across C2 (or R2 of course).
Capacitor C6 is a large electrolytic capacitor. It charges to this voltage and, owing
to the long time constant of C6, R1, and R2, the total voltage across it remains
virtually constant at all times. In fact it just acts as a power supply or a battery. The
important thing to note is that it keeps the total voltage of C1 + C2 at a constant
value.
The generation of the voltage across the diodes D1 and D2 are by exactly the same
process as we met in the Foster-Seeley Detector. Indeed even the changes in
voltage occur in the same way and for the same reasons. If necessary, a quick read
through Sections 9.1 to 9.5 may be helpful. For convenience, the resulting phasor
diagrams are repeated here in Figure 123 overleaf.
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Voltage across
diode 1 (VD1)
V1
Input carrier is
unmodulated
Vfm
Voltage across
diode 2 (VD2)
V2
VD1
V1
FM signal frequency
GREATER THAN
the unmodulated
value
Vfm
V2
VD2
VD1
V1
FM signal
frequency
LESS THAN
the unmodulated
value
Vfm
V2
VD2
Figure 123
An unmodulated FM signal will result in equal voltages across R1 and R2. The
voltage across R2 is the output from the circuit.
If the frequency of the FM signal increases, the voltage across R1 will increase and
that across R2 will decrease.
Conversely, if the frequency of the FM signal decreases, the voltage across R1 will
decrease and that across R2 will increase.
The final demodulated audio output voltage is taken across R2 and this voltage
changes continuously to follow the frequency variations of the incoming FM signal.
Since the sum of the voltages across R1 and R2 remains constant, the ratio of the
voltage across R2 to this total voltage, changes with the FM signals frequency. It is
this changing voltage ratio that gives the Ratio Detector its name.
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9.7
FM Frequency Demodulators-2
Chapter 9
9.8
DC Voltage
430
440
450
460
470
480
kHz
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DC Voltage
430
440
450
460
470
480
kHz
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