SEQUENCE MODELING OF POWER APPARATUS

We begin with a brief review of per unit calculation used in power system analysis.
Review of Per unit Calculation and Modeling of Apparatus
Per unit value of any quantity is the ratio of that quantity to its base value.
Actual Quantity
Per Unit Quantity =
Base Quantity
Quantities like voltage, current, power, impedance etc can be expressed in per unit. In
the per-unit system there are four base quantities: base apparent power in volt-
amperes, base voltage, base current and base impedance.

The following formulae apply to three- phase system, where the base voltage is the
line-to-line voltage in volts or kilovolts and the base apparent power is the three-
phase apparent power in kilovolt – amperes or mega volt- ampere (MVA)

Base(kVA) ×1000
BaseCurrent ( Amp.) =
3 BaseVolts

Base(Volt )
Base Impedance(Ohm.) =
3 BaseCurrent

Actual Impedance (Ohm) × Base ( MVA in 3 phase)

Z P.U =
( Base( Line Voltage in kV )) 2
Briefly the advantages of doing computation in per unit are as follows.
1. Manufactures usually provide equipment data with nameplate rating as base.
2. Range for acceptable % or p.u. values can be easily fixed.
3. Especially useful in networks with multiple voltage levels interconnected through
transformers.
4. P.U impedance of transformer is independent of the kV base.
5. Standard base conversion (scaling with MVA Base) formulae are available.
Note: Many books in first course on power system analysis cover per unit in detail.
Readers who wish to go into more details can look into these references.
We now begin discussing on the sequence modeling of power apparatuses.
Modeling Aspects of Static Apparatus (Main Heading)
We first consider modeling of transmission lines and transformer.
Modeling of Transmission Line (Sub Heading)
A balanced three phase transmission line model is given by (FIG)

 ∆Va   Z s Z m Z m   I a 
 ∆V  =  Z Z Z   I 
 b  m s m  b (1)
 ∆Vc   Z m Z m Z s   I c 
Applying sequence transformation ∆V1 = Z1 I1 , ∆V2 = Z 2 I 2 and ∆V0 = Z 0 I 0
Where, Z1 = Z 2 = Z s − Z m and Z 0 = Z s + 2Z m
 Thus for a transposed transmission line, the positive and negative sequence
impedances are equal. A good approximation for Z 0 is 3 times Z1 .
Modeling of Mutually Coupled Lines (Sub Heading)
If a pair of 3 φ - transmission lines are for enough, then mutual coupling between them is
neglible (or zero). Fig 12.2 shows two three phase rtransmission lines running parallel and
uur uu
close to each other. As per Ampere’s law, [ Ñ ∫ Hi dl = inet ] if the lines a1 , b1 and c1 carry
balanced +ve or –ve sequence currents, flux linking in circuit 2 is zero. (
Q inet (t ) = ia (t ) + ib (t ) + ic (t ) = 0 ) However, for zero sequence currents in circuit 1, flux
linking in circuit 2 is not zero. Thus, we see for parallel coupled lines, mutual coupling is
predominantly seen only in the zero sequence circuit. However, it is not modeled for
positive and negative sequence circuits. The same result can be mathematically derived
as follows.

Consider two three phase transmission lines on the same tower. Assume that all the lines
are transposed. Then all the mutual impedances between the two circuits will be equal.
Let mutual impedance of phase a2 with phases a1 , b1 and c1 be equal to α . Then the
model of such transmission line in phase coordinates is given by,

 ∆v a 1  Z Z Z  I a 1  I a 2 
 1  s m m     1 1 1  
b  
 ∆v  = Z m Z s Z m  I  + jα 1 1 1  I b 
b1  2

 c1     1    
 ∆v   Z m Z m Z s   I c  1 1 1  I c 2 
     

Applying sequence transformation we will get,

 ∆v 0 1  Z + 2Z  I 01   02 
 1  s m    3α 0 0   I 
 ∆v1  =    11 
j 0 0 0   I 1 
2
Z − Z  I  +
 21  
s m
 
 ∆v   Z s − Z m   I 2 1  0 0 0   I 2 2 
     

It can be seen that mutual coupling between positive and negative sequence network of
parallel transmission lines is zero. But, mutual coupling in zero sequence network is not
zero. Hence three phase faults and line to line faults will not be affected by mutual
coupling. But for all faults involving ground, fault current will be affected by mutual
coupling. This will affect the performance of relays.

Modeling of Transformer (Sub Heading)

For modeling of transformers, the magnetization branch is neglected since
magnetizing current is very small. Hence, only leakage impedance is taken into (abc
or bac) consideration. The leakage impedance is not affected by change in phase
sequence as the transformer is a static device. Therefore, for transformers, positive
sequence impedance and negative sequence impedance are identical.
However, zero sequence impedance of the transformer
uu
r uu r uu r depends on the type of core
used. For a core type (Fig 12.3) transformer, φa + φb + φc = 0 .

With
uur uzero
u rsequence
r uu uu
r excitation, we get uu
r
φa = φb = φc = φ0 . Substitutiting in above equation we get φ0 = 0 . Thus
L0 = N φ0 I 0 = 0 .
Ideally, zero sequence impedance of an ideal core type transformer is zero.
Practically, the flux, φa , φb and φc will not be zero. Rather a leakage flux would exist
in the high reluctance path through air. Hence, leakage impedance of a core type
transformer would be nonzero; its value being much less than positive sequence
impedance.
In contrast, for a shell type transformer (fig 12.4) there exists a low reluctance path
through side limb for zero sequence flux. Hence Z 0 is much higher for shell type
transformer.
Three phase Transformer Using Bank of three Single phase Transformers (Sub’s Sub
Heading)
It can be easily argued that for such a configuration, low reluctance zero sequence
flux path exists and hence appreciable zero sequence flux can stay in the core.
Therefore, zero sequence impedance of three phase transformer bank can be as high
as the positive sequence impedance.
It should be mentioned that actual impedance should also include resistance of the
windings. So far we have discussed characterization of the zero sequence impedance
of the three phase transformer, this impedance may not always appear between the H
(HV) to L (LV) bus. In case of positive or negative sequence currents, there is always
a path for line currents from H to L through the sequence leakage impedance. This is
irrespective of the transformer connection (D/Y or Y/Y etc) because, there is always a
path for positive and negative sequence line currents to flow.
However, zero sequence currents in transformer depend not only on zero sequence
impedance but also on the type of transformer connection. For example, a star
ungrounded winding does not provide any path for flow of zero sequence current. The
neutral current is given by I n = I a + I b + I c = 3I 0 . Since neutral current is ungrounded
I n = 0 and hence I 0 is also zero. Delta winding permit circulating zero sequence
currents which cannot appear in the line. Fig. 12.5 This leads to dependence of zero
sequence transformer model on the type of connection. Fig. 12.6 shows zero sequence
modeling for different transformer connections.
N1 indicates neutral bus for positive sequence, N2 indicates neutral bus for negative
sequence and N0 for zero sequence networks.
c
v

Modeling of Rotating Machines

Modeling of Synchronous Machines
Positive sequence Impedance of Synchronous Generators
"
The subtransient reactance X d determines the current during the first cycle after fault
'
occurs. In about 0.1sec reactance increases to transient reactance X d . In about 0.5sec
to 2sec, reactance increases to X d , the Synchronous reactance; this is the value that
determines the current flow after a steady state condition is reached.
Synchronous generator data available from manufacturers includes two values of
" " "
direct axis reactance – X dv and X di . The X dv value should be used for short – circuit
calculations.
Positive Sequence Impedance of Synchronous Motors and Condensers
During fault motor acts as a generator to supply fault current. The rotor carrying the
field winding is driven by the inertia of the rotor and load. Stator excitation is reduced
due to drop in voltage. The fault current diminishes as the rotor decelerates. The
generator equivalent circuit is used for synchronous motor. The constant driving
" '
voltage and three reactance X d , X d and X d are used to establish the current values
at three points in time. Synchronous condensers can be treated in same manner as
synchronous motors.

Negative Sequence Impedance of Synchronous Machines

For a synchronous machine positive and negative sequence impedances cannot be
equal. In case of a synchronous machine, negative sequence currents create a rotating
mmf in opposite direction to the rotor mmf. Double frequency emf and currents are
induced in rotor. Negative sequence impedance is 70-95 % of subtransient reactance.
It can be approximated by subtransient reactance. For a salient pole machine it is
" "
taken as a mean of X d and X q .
Zero Sequence Impedance of Synchronous Machines
Zero Sequence Currents cannot create rotating mmf. In fact, with sinusoidally distributed
three phase windings, the net flux at any point in the air gap is zero. Hence, Zero
Sequence Impedance is only a small % (0.1-0.7) of the positive sequence impedances. It
varies so critically with armature winding pitch that an average value can hardly be
given. Since synchronous machines only generate positive sequence voltage, the internal
voltages used with negative sequence and zero sequence networks are zero. If Y point is
grounded through impedance Z g , then 3Z g will have to be added to zero sequence
impedance of generator.
Sequence Modeling of Induction Machines
In asynchronous machines, transient state of current is damped quickly i.e. within 1-2
cycle. During fault, rotor is driven by inertia of load and rotor itself. There is no dc field
excitation on rotor. Rotor winding is short circuited. Hence, whatever rotor excitation is
present, it is due to the induced fields in the rotor from the rotating stator mmf. As stator
excitation is lost and rotor slows down, this field is lost quickly.
The current contribution of an induction motor to a terminal fault reduces and disappears
completely after a few cycles. As a consequence, only the sub transient value of reactance
X d" is assigned. This value is about equal to the locked rotor reactance. Subsequently,
kV 2
machine behaves as a passive element with impedance of value Z = where rated
MVA
LL voltage and 3 phase MVA rating is used. Zero Sequence modeling can be treated in
similar lines as synchronous machines because rotor plays no significant role.
For fault calculations an induction generator can be treated as an Induction motor.
Wound rotor induction motors normally operating with their rotor rings short – circuited
will contribute fault current in the same manner as a squirrel cage induction motor.
Occasionally, large wound – rotor motors operated with some external resistance
maintained in their rotor circuits may have sufficiently low short circuit time constants
that their fault contribution is not significant and may be neglected.
Modeling of Electrical Utility Systems
The generator equivalent circuit can be used to represent a utility system. Usually, the
utility generators are remote from the industrial plant. The current contributed to a fault
in the remote plant appears to be merely a small increase in load to the very large central
station generators, and this current contribution tends to remain constant. Hence it is
represented at the plant by single valued equivalent impedance referred to the point of
connection.

Sequence Network Admittance Matrix Formulation

A three phase admittance matrix model for power system in phase coordinates can be
expressed as follows
 I1abc  Y11 Y12 − − − − Y1n  V1 
abc abc abc abc

   abc abc   abc 

 |  Y21 Y22 − − − − Y2 n  V2 
abc

|  = | | |  | 
    
 |   | | |   | 
 
 I abc  Y abc Y anc − − − − Y abc V abc 

 n   n1 n 2 nn    n 
In the above equation, each entry in the Y-matrix is itself a 3 × 3 matrix with a cyclic
T T
structure, Vi abc  = Vi a ,Vi b ,Vi c  ;  I iabc  =  I ia , I ib , I ic  . Vi refers to the voltage of a node
i and I i refers to the current injection at a node i. The sequence transformation on nodal
voltages can be expressed as follows:

V1abc  V1012 
 abc  [T ]   012 
 V2    V2 
|  =  [T ]  | 
   [T ]   
|    | 
 abc   [T ]  012 
Vn  Vn 

Similar transformation is defined for current vector. Thus, in the sequence coordinates,
the admittance model is given by the following equation,
 I1012  T −1 Y11abc T T −1 Y12abc T − − − − T −1 Y1abc
n T  V1012 
 012   −1 abc −1 −1
  012 
 I 2  T Y21 T T Y22 T − − − − T Y2 n T  V2 
abc abc

|  =  | | |  | 
    
|   | | |  | 
 012   −1 abc −1 −1   012 
 I n   T Yn1 T T Yn 2 T − − − − T Ynn T  Vn 
abc abc

abc
It can be seen that, if 3 × 3 matrix Yij enjoys a cyclic structure, then
Yij0 
 
Yij012  = T −1 Yijabc  T =  Yij1 
 2
 Yij 
Thus, there is no coupling between the zero, positive and negative sequence components
of a balanced network because 3 × 3 matrices Yij  and Yii  are diagonal matrices.
012 012

By permuting the rows and columns in such a way that all the zero sequence, positive
sequence and negative sequence quantities are grouped together, a three phase admittance
matrix can be described by three decoupled sequence matrices as follows,
 I bus
0
 YBUS
0
 Vbus
0

 1    1 
 I bus  = 
1
YBUS  Vbus 
 I2   2   2 
 bus   YBUS  Vbus 

In the above equation each of the sequence admittance matrix represents the
corresponding sequence network.

Short Circuit Analysis Using Sequence Components

Let the prefault network be described by the following model,
 I s  = Ybuss
 V s  where s ε {0, 1, 2} are the sequence components under consideration.
For a balanced system, typically representing a prefault transmission network,
 I 0  =  I 2  = 0
Hence, in the prefault condition, the only equation of interest is
 I 1  = [ Ybus ] V 1 
We use subscript old to indicate prefault value. Hence, prefault equation is given by
 I old 1  = Ybus
old 1
 V old 1 
For simplicity, we restrict analysis to bus fault which is created at a bus i. Faults on
intermediate points of transmission line can be modeled by introducing phantom buses.
The prefault load flow analysis (typically carried out on the positive sequence network)
th
provide the Thevenin's (open circuit) voltage (Vi ) , while the fault impedance ( Z f ) is
treated as the “load impedance” on the i th bus. One approximate way of accounting
prefault load flow condition in short circuit analysis is to model load as positive sequence
shunt impedance.
V1 | Vi |2
=
I 1 ( Pi − jQi )
old
The shunt load impedances are added into diagonal of Ybus . The synchronous generator is
modeled as a positive sequence current source E X gen (t ) in parallel with the positive
sequence impedance X gen (t ) where X gen (t ) can be X d or X d or X s etc, depending upon
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the time of interest of the study. This impedance is also aggregated in the diagonal of
Ybus
old
 . To compute the Thevenin's impedance at faulted bus i, all the current sources are
open circuited (made zero) and then 1 p.u. of current is injected at bus i. In the vector
notations, this process is represented by vector ei where ei s the ith column of identity
matrix. Then, the equation Ybus  V  = [ ei ] is solved by sparse LU factorization and
old 1 1

forward backward substitution. The ith element of the resulting voltage Vi gives the
Thevenin's impedance. The Thevenin's impedance for negative and zero sequence
networks proceed more or less on similar lines except that loads are not aggregated in
Ybus . Alternatively, loads can also be represented by simple positive sequence current
sources obtained from load flow analysis. Obviously, the result will depend upon the
modeling of load. The fault currents are computed by well known sequence network
interconnections, discussed in the previous lecture.

φa + φb + φc
∆Vb ∆Vc φ ± +− m
2
3φ − short circuit MVA = I 3φ (in pu ) × 3φ − base MVA
S − L − G − short circuit MVA = I S − L −G (in pu ) × 3φ − base MVA
100
j = j 0.2 pu
500