In order for a structure to be in equilibrium, all the forces and couples

(including support reactions) acting on it must balance each other,

and there must neither be a resultant force nor a resultant couple acting
on the structure. Recall from statics that for a space (three-dimensional)
structure subjected to three-dimensional systems of forces and couples
(Fig. 3.1), the conditions of zero resultant force and zero resultant couple
can be expressed in a Cartesian xyz coordinate system as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PFz 0
PMx 0 PMy 0 PMz 0
(3.1)
These six equations are called the equations of equilibrium of space
structures and are the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium.
The first three equations ensure that there is no resultant force acting on
the structure, and the last three equations express the fact that there is
no resultant couple acting on the structure.
For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected to a coplanar
system of forces and couples (Fig. 3.2), the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium can be expressed as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PMz 0 (3.2)
These three equations are referred to as the equations of equilibrium of
plane structures. The first two of the three equilibrium equations express,
respectively, that the algebraic sums of the x components and y components
of all the forces are zero, thereby indicating that the resultant

determine the four unknowns. The additional equation is based on the

condition that an internal hinge cannot transmit moment; that is, the
moments at the ends of the parts of the structure connected to a hinged
joint are zero. Therefore, when an internal hinge is used to connect two
portions of a structure, the algebraic sum of the moments about the
hinge of the loads and reactions acting on each portion of the structure
on either side of the hinge must be zero. Thus, for the structure of Fig.
3.13(b), the presence of the internal hinge at B requires that the algebraic
sum of moments about B of the loads and reactions acting on the
individual members AB and BC must be zero; that is, PMAB
B 0 and PMBC
B 0. Such equations are commonly referred to as the equations
of condition or construction. It is important to realize that these two
equations are not independent. When one of the two equationsfor
example, PMAB
B 0is satisfied along with the moment equilibrium
equation PM 0 for the entire structure, the remaining equation PMBC
B 0 is automatically satisfied. Thus, an internal hinge connecting
two members or portions of a structure provides one independent
equation of condition. (The structures that contain hinged joints connecting
more than two members are considered in subsequent chapters.)
Because all four unknown reactions for the structure of Fig. 3.13(b)
can be determined by solving the three equations of equilibrium plus
one equation of condition (PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0), the structure is
considered to be statically determinate externally.
Occasionally, connections are used in structures that permit not
only relative rotations of the member ends but also relative translations
in certain directions of the ends of the connected members. Such connections
are modeled as internal roller joints for the purposes of analysis.
Figure 3.13(c) shows a structure consisting of two rigid members AB
and BC that are connected by such an internal roller at B. The structure
is internally unstable and requires a minimum of five external support
reactions to be fully constrained against all possible movements under
a general system of coplanar loads. Since an internal roller can transmit
neither moment nor force in the direction parallel to the supporting surface,
it provides two equations of condition;
PF AB
x 0 or PF BC
x 0
and
PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0
These two equations of condition can be used in conjunction with the
three equilibrium equations to determine the five unknown external
reactions. Thus, the structure of Fig. 3.13(c) is statically determinate
externally.
From the foregoing discussion, we can conclude that if there are ec
equations of condition (one equation for each internal hinge and two
equations for each internal roller) for an internally unstable structure,
which is supported by r external reactions, then if
In order for a structure to be in equilibrium, all the forces and couples

(including support reactions) acting on it must balance each other,

and there must neither be a resultant force nor a resultant couple acting
on the structure. Recall from statics that for a space (three-dimensional)
structure subjected to three-dimensional systems of forces and couples
(Fig. 3.1), the conditions of zero resultant force and zero resultant couple
can be expressed in a Cartesian xyz coordinate system as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PFz 0
PMx 0 PMy 0 PMz 0
(3.1)
These six equations are called the equations of equilibrium of space
structures and are the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium.
The first three equations ensure that there is no resultant force acting on
the structure, and the last three equations express the fact that there is
no resultant couple acting on the structure.
For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected to a coplanar
system of forces and couples (Fig. 3.2), the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium can be expressed as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PMz 0 (3.2)
These three equations are referred to as the equations of equilibrium of
plane structures. The first two of the three equilibrium equations express,
respectively, that the algebraic sums of the x components and y components
of all the forces are zero, thereby indicating that the resultant

determine the four unknowns. The additional equation is based on the

condition that an internal hinge cannot transmit moment; that is, the
moments at the ends of the parts of the structure connected to a hinged
joint are zero. Therefore, when an internal hinge is used to connect two
portions of a structure, the algebraic sum of the moments about the
hinge of the loads and reactions acting on each portion of the structure
on either side of the hinge must be zero. Thus, for the structure of Fig.
3.13(b), the presence of the internal hinge at B requires that the algebraic
sum of moments about B of the loads and reactions acting on the
individual members AB and BC must be zero; that is, PMAB
B 0 and PMBC
B 0. Such equations are commonly referred to as the equations
of condition or construction. It is important to realize that these two
equations are not independent. When one of the two equationsfor
example, PMAB
B 0is satisfied along with the moment equilibrium
equation PM 0 for the entire structure, the remaining equation PMBC
B 0 is automatically satisfied. Thus, an internal hinge connecting
two members or portions of a structure provides one independent
equation of condition. (The structures that contain hinged joints connecting
more than two members are considered in subsequent chapters.)
Because all four unknown reactions for the structure of Fig. 3.13(b)
can be determined by solving the three equations of equilibrium plus
one equation of condition (PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0), the structure is
considered to be statically determinate externally.
Occasionally, connections are used in structures that permit not
only relative rotations of the member ends but also relative translations
in certain directions of the ends of the connected members. Such connections
are modeled as internal roller joints for the purposes of analysis.
Figure 3.13(c) shows a structure consisting of two rigid members AB
and BC that are connected by such an internal roller at B. The structure
is internally unstable and requires a minimum of five external support
reactions to be fully constrained against all possible movements under
a general system of coplanar loads. Since an internal roller can transmit
neither moment nor force in the direction parallel to the supporting surface,
it provides two equations of condition;
PF AB
x 0 or PF BC
x 0
and
PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0
These two equations of condition can be used in conjunction with the
three equilibrium equations to determine the five unknown external
reactions. Thus, the structure of Fig. 3.13(c) is statically determinate
externally.
From the foregoing discussion, we can conclude that if there are ec
equations of condition (one equation for each internal hinge and two
equations for each internal roller) for an internally unstable structure,
which is supported by r external reactions, then if
In order for a structure to be in equilibrium, all the forces and couples
(including support reactions) acting on it must balance each other,

and there must neither be a resultant force nor a resultant couple acting
on the structure. Recall from statics that for a space (three-dimensional)
structure subjected to three-dimensional systems of forces and couples
(Fig. 3.1), the conditions of zero resultant force and zero resultant couple
can be expressed in a Cartesian xyz coordinate system as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PFz 0
PMx 0 PMy 0 PMz 0
(3.1)
These six equations are called the equations of equilibrium of space
structures and are the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium.
The first three equations ensure that there is no resultant force acting on
the structure, and the last three equations express the fact that there is
no resultant couple acting on the structure.
For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected to a coplanar
system of forces and couples (Fig. 3.2), the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium can be expressed as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PMz 0 (3.2)
These three equations are referred to as the equations of equilibrium of
plane structures. The first two of the three equilibrium equations express,
respectively, that the algebraic sums of the x components and y components
of all the forces are zero, thereby indicating that the resultant

determine the four unknowns. The additional equation is based on the

condition that an internal hinge cannot transmit moment; that is, the

moments at the ends of the parts of the structure connected to a hinged

joint are zero. Therefore, when an internal hinge is used to connect two
portions of a structure, the algebraic sum of the moments about the
hinge of the loads and reactions acting on each portion of the structure
on either side of the hinge must be zero. Thus, for the structure of Fig.
3.13(b), the presence of the internal hinge at B requires that the algebraic
sum of moments about B of the loads and reactions acting on the
individual members AB and BC must be zero; that is, PMAB
B 0 and PMBC
B 0. Such equations are commonly referred to as the equations
of condition or construction. It is important to realize that these two
equations are not independent. When one of the two equationsfor
example, PMAB
B 0is satisfied along with the moment equilibrium
equation PM 0 for the entire structure, the remaining equation PMBC
B 0 is automatically satisfied. Thus, an internal hinge connecting
two members or portions of a structure provides one independent
equation of condition. (The structures that contain hinged joints connecting
more than two members are considered in subsequent chapters.)
Because all four unknown reactions for the structure of Fig. 3.13(b)
can be determined by solving the three equations of equilibrium plus
one equation of condition (PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0), the structure is
considered to be statically determinate externally.
Occasionally, connections are used in structures that permit not
only relative rotations of the member ends but also relative translations
in certain directions of the ends of the connected members. Such connections
are modeled as internal roller joints for the purposes of analysis.
Figure 3.13(c) shows a structure consisting of two rigid members AB
and BC that are connected by such an internal roller at B. The structure
is internally unstable and requires a minimum of five external support
reactions to be fully constrained against all possible movements under
a general system of coplanar loads. Since an internal roller can transmit
neither moment nor force in the direction parallel to the supporting surface,
it provides two equations of condition;
PF AB
x 0 or PF BC
x 0
and
PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0
These two equations of condition can be used in conjunction with the
three equilibrium equations to determine the five unknown external
reactions. Thus, the structure of Fig. 3.13(c) is statically determinate
externally.
From the foregoing discussion, we can conclude that if there are ec
equations of condition (one equation for each internal hinge and two
equations for each internal roller) for an internally unstable structure,
which is supported by r external reactions, then if
In order for a structure to be in equilibrium, all the forces and couples
(including support reactions) acting on it must balance each other,
and there must neither be a resultant force nor a resultant couple acting

on the structure. Recall from statics that for a space (three-dimensional)

structure subjected to three-dimensional systems of forces and couples
(Fig. 3.1), the conditions of zero resultant force and zero resultant couple
can be expressed in a Cartesian xyz coordinate system as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PFz 0
PMx 0 PMy 0 PMz 0
(3.1)
These six equations are called the equations of equilibrium of space
structures and are the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium.
The first three equations ensure that there is no resultant force acting on
the structure, and the last three equations express the fact that there is
no resultant couple acting on the structure.
For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected to a coplanar
system of forces and couples (Fig. 3.2), the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium can be expressed as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PMz 0 (3.2)
These three equations are referred to as the equations of equilibrium of
plane structures. The first two of the three equilibrium equations express,
respectively, that the algebraic sums of the x components and y components
of all the forces are zero, thereby indicating that the resultant

determine the four unknowns. The additional equation is based on the

condition that an internal hinge cannot transmit moment; that is, the
moments at the ends of the parts of the structure connected to a hinged

joint are zero. Therefore, when an internal hinge is used to connect two
portions of a structure, the algebraic sum of the moments about the
hinge of the loads and reactions acting on each portion of the structure
on either side of the hinge must be zero. Thus, for the structure of Fig.
3.13(b), the presence of the internal hinge at B requires that the algebraic
sum of moments about B of the loads and reactions acting on the
individual members AB and BC must be zero; that is, PMAB
B 0 and PMBC
B 0. Such equations are commonly referred to as the equations
of condition or construction. It is important to realize that these two
equations are not independent. When one of the two equationsfor
example, PMAB
B 0is satisfied along with the moment equilibrium
equation PM 0 for the entire structure, the remaining equation PMBC
B 0 is automatically satisfied. Thus, an internal hinge connecting
two members or portions of a structure provides one independent
equation of condition. (The structures that contain hinged joints connecting
more than two members are considered in subsequent chapters.)
Because all four unknown reactions for the structure of Fig. 3.13(b)
can be determined by solving the three equations of equilibrium plus
one equation of condition (PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0), the structure is
considered to be statically determinate externally.
Occasionally, connections are used in structures that permit not
only relative rotations of the member ends but also relative translations
in certain directions of the ends of the connected members. Such connections
are modeled as internal roller joints for the purposes of analysis.
Figure 3.13(c) shows a structure consisting of two rigid members AB
and BC that are connected by such an internal roller at B. The structure
is internally unstable and requires a minimum of five external support
reactions to be fully constrained against all possible movements under
a general system of coplanar loads. Since an internal roller can transmit
neither moment nor force in the direction parallel to the supporting surface,
it provides two equations of condition;
PF AB
x 0 or PF BC
x 0
and
PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0
These two equations of condition can be used in conjunction with the
three equilibrium equations to determine the five unknown external
reactions. Thus, the structure of Fig. 3.13(c) is statically determinate
externally.
From the foregoing discussion, we can conclude that if there are ec
equations of condition (one equation for each internal hinge and two
equations for each internal roller) for an internally unstable structure,
which is supported by r external reactions, then if

In order for a structure to be in equilibrium, all the forces and couples

(including support reactions) acting on it must balance each other,

and there must neither be a resultant force nor a resultant couple acting
on the structure. Recall from statics that for a space (three-dimensional)
structure subjected to three-dimensional systems of forces and couples
(Fig. 3.1), the conditions of zero resultant force and zero resultant couple
can be expressed in a Cartesian xyz coordinate system as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PFz 0
PMx 0 PMy 0 PMz 0
(3.1)
These six equations are called the equations of equilibrium of space
structures and are the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium.
The first three equations ensure that there is no resultant force acting on
the structure, and the last three equations express the fact that there is
no resultant couple acting on the structure.
For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected to a coplanar
system of forces and couples (Fig. 3.2), the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium can be expressed as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PMz 0 (3.2)
These three equations are referred to as the equations of equilibrium of
plane structures. The first two of the three equilibrium equations express,
respectively, that the algebraic sums of the x components and y components
of all the forces are zero, thereby indicating that the resultant

determine the four unknowns. The additional equation is based on the

condition that an internal hinge cannot transmit moment; that is, the

moments at the ends of the parts of the structure connected to a hinged

joint are zero. Therefore, when an internal hinge is used to connect two
portions of a structure, the algebraic sum of the moments about the
hinge of the loads and reactions acting on each portion of the structure
on either side of the hinge must be zero. Thus, for the structure of Fig.
3.13(b), the presence of the internal hinge at B requires that the algebraic
sum of moments about B of the loads and reactions acting on the
individual members AB and BC must be zero; that is, PMAB
B 0 and PMBC
B 0. Such equations are commonly referred to as the equations
of condition or construction. It is important to realize that these two
equations are not independent. When one of the two equationsfor
example, PMAB
B 0is satisfied along with the moment equilibrium
equation PM 0 for the entire structure, the remaining equation PMBC
B 0 is automatically satisfied. Thus, an internal hinge connecting
two members or portions of a structure provides one independent
equation of condition. (The structures that contain hinged joints connecting
more than two members are considered in subsequent chapters.)
Because all four unknown reactions for the structure of Fig. 3.13(b)
can be determined by solving the three equations of equilibrium plus
one equation of condition (PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0), the structure is
considered to be statically determinate externally.
Occasionally, connections are used in structures that permit not
only relative rotations of the member ends but also relative translations
in certain directions of the ends of the connected members. Such connections
are modeled as internal roller joints for the purposes of analysis.
Figure 3.13(c) shows a structure consisting of two rigid members AB
and BC that are connected by such an internal roller at B. The structure
is internally unstable and requires a minimum of five external support
reactions to be fully constrained against all possible movements under
a general system of coplanar loads. Since an internal roller can transmit
neither moment nor force in the direction parallel to the supporting surface,
it provides two equations of condition;
PF AB
x 0 or PF BC
x 0
and
PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0
These two equations of condition can be used in conjunction with the
three equilibrium equations to determine the five unknown external
reactions. Thus, the structure of Fig. 3.13(c) is statically determinate
externally.
From the foregoing discussion, we can conclude that if there are ec
equations of condition (one equation for each internal hinge and two
equations for each internal roller) for an internally unstable structure,
which is supported by r external reactions, then if
In order for a structure to be in equilibrium, all the forces and couples
(including support reactions) acting on it must balance each other,
and there must neither be a resultant force nor a resultant couple acting

on the structure. Recall from statics that for a space (three-dimensional)

structure subjected to three-dimensional systems of forces and couples
(Fig. 3.1), the conditions of zero resultant force and zero resultant couple
can be expressed in a Cartesian xyz coordinate system as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PFz 0
PMx 0 PMy 0 PMz 0
(3.1)
These six equations are called the equations of equilibrium of space
structures and are the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium.
The first three equations ensure that there is no resultant force acting on
the structure, and the last three equations express the fact that there is
no resultant couple acting on the structure.
For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected to a coplanar
system of forces and couples (Fig. 3.2), the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium can be expressed as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PMz 0 (3.2)
These three equations are referred to as the equations of equilibrium of
plane structures. The first two of the three equilibrium equations express,
respectively, that the algebraic sums of the x components and y components
of all the forces are zero, thereby indicating that the resultant

determine the four unknowns. The additional equation is based on the

condition that an internal hinge cannot transmit moment; that is, the
moments at the ends of the parts of the structure connected to a hinged

joint are zero. Therefore, when an internal hinge is used to connect two
portions of a structure, the algebraic sum of the moments about the
hinge of the loads and reactions acting on each portion of the structure
on either side of the hinge must be zero. Thus, for the structure of Fig.
3.13(b), the presence of the internal hinge at B requires that the algebraic
sum of moments about B of the loads and reactions acting on the
individual members AB and BC must be zero; that is, PMAB
B 0 and PMBC
B 0. Such equations are commonly referred to as the equations
of condition or construction. It is important to realize that these two
equations are not independent. When one of the two equationsfor
example, PMAB
B 0is satisfied along with the moment equilibrium
equation PM 0 for the entire structure, the remaining equation PMBC
B 0 is automatically satisfied. Thus, an internal hinge connecting
two members or portions of a structure provides one independent
equation of condition. (The structures that contain hinged joints connecting
more than two members are considered in subsequent chapters.)
Because all four unknown reactions for the structure of Fig. 3.13(b)
can be determined by solving the three equations of equilibrium plus
one equation of condition (PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0), the structure is
considered to be statically determinate externally.
Occasionally, connections are used in structures that permit not
only relative rotations of the member ends but also relative translations
in certain directions of the ends of the connected members. Such connections
are modeled as internal roller joints for the purposes of analysis.
Figure 3.13(c) shows a structure consisting of two rigid members AB
and BC that are connected by such an internal roller at B. The structure
is internally unstable and requires a minimum of five external support
reactions to be fully constrained against all possible movements under
a general system of coplanar loads. Since an internal roller can transmit
neither moment nor force in the direction parallel to the supporting surface,
it provides two equations of condition;
PF AB
x 0 or PF BC
x 0
and
PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0
These two equations of condition can be used in conjunction with the
three equilibrium equations to determine the five unknown external
reactions. Thus, the structure of Fig. 3.13(c) is statically determinate
externally.
From the foregoing discussion, we can conclude that if there are ec
equations of condition (one equation for each internal hinge and two
equations for each internal roller) for an internally unstable structure,
which is supported by r external reactions, then if
In order for a structure to be in equilibrium, all the forces and couples
(including support reactions) acting on it must balance each other,
and there must neither be a resultant force nor a resultant couple acting
on the structure. Recall from statics that for a space (three-dimensional)

structure subjected to three-dimensional systems of forces and couples

(Fig. 3.1), the conditions of zero resultant force and zero resultant couple
can be expressed in a Cartesian xyz coordinate system as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PFz 0
PMx 0 PMy 0 PMz 0
(3.1)
These six equations are called the equations of equilibrium of space
structures and are the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium.
The first three equations ensure that there is no resultant force acting on
the structure, and the last three equations express the fact that there is
no resultant couple acting on the structure.
For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected to a coplanar
system of forces and couples (Fig. 3.2), the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium can be expressed as
PFx 0 PFy 0 PMz 0 (3.2)
These three equations are referred to as the equations of equilibrium of
plane structures. The first two of the three equilibrium equations express,
respectively, that the algebraic sums of the x components and y components
of all the forces are zero, thereby indicating that the resultant

determine the four unknowns. The additional equation is based on the

condition that an internal hinge cannot transmit moment; that is, the
moments at the ends of the parts of the structure connected to a hinged
joint are zero. Therefore, when an internal hinge is used to connect two

portions of a structure, the algebraic sum of the moments about the

hinge of the loads and reactions acting on each portion of the structure
on either side of the hinge must be zero. Thus, for the structure of Fig.
3.13(b), the presence of the internal hinge at B requires that the algebraic
sum of moments about B of the loads and reactions acting on the
individual members AB and BC must be zero; that is, PMAB
B 0 and PMBC
B 0. Such equations are commonly referred to as the equations
of condition or construction. It is important to realize that these two
equations are not independent. When one of the two equationsfor
example, PMAB
B 0is satisfied along with the moment equilibrium
equation PM 0 for the entire structure, the remaining equation PMBC
B 0 is automatically satisfied. Thus, an internal hinge connecting
two members or portions of a structure provides one independent
equation of condition. (The structures that contain hinged joints connecting
more than two members are considered in subsequent chapters.)
Because all four unknown reactions for the structure of Fig. 3.13(b)
can be determined by solving the three equations of equilibrium plus
one equation of condition (PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0), the structure is
considered to be statically determinate externally.
Occasionally, connections are used in structures that permit not
only relative rotations of the member ends but also relative translations
in certain directions of the ends of the connected members. Such connections
are modeled as internal roller joints for the purposes of analysis.
Figure 3.13(c) shows a structure consisting of two rigid members AB
and BC that are connected by such an internal roller at B. The structure
is internally unstable and requires a minimum of five external support
reactions to be fully constrained against all possible movements under
a general system of coplanar loads. Since an internal roller can transmit
neither moment nor force in the direction parallel to the supporting surface,
it provides two equations of condition;
PF AB
x 0 or PF BC
x 0
and
PMAB
B 0 or PMBC
B 0
These two equations of condition can be used in conjunction with the
three equilibrium equations to determine the five unknown external
reactions. Thus, the structure of Fig. 3.13(c) is statically determinate
externally.
From the foregoing discussion, we can conclude that if there are ec
equations of condition (one equation for each internal hinge and two
equations for each internal roller) for an internally unstable structure,
which is supported by r external reactions, then if