Chapter 6 Memory

Memory
Information processing systems

Active information processing system that

Receives
Organises
Stores
Recovers Information
Memory:
As the processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning.
3 Fundamental processes for memory:
1. Encoding:
Converting information into a useable form. (Sound, visual image).
2. Storage:
Retention After being encoded. (Store it in the brain)
3. Retrieving:
Recovery When we need it. (Birthday)

Encoding:

Information must be converted from RAW sensory state to a form that a brain
can use.

Converted for storage and in a useable form.

Storage:

Must be retained by the information processing system.

Stores information over time.

Retrieval:

Information taken out when needed.

Often rely on cues (prompts) to retrieve the memories.

Models for explaining memory:
1. The Atkinson- Shiffrin multi-store model. (1960)
a. Memory having three components
2. Baddley and Hitch Model of working memory (1974)
a. Roles and functioning of STM
3. Craik and Locharts Level of processing framework. (1972)
a. Importance of depth of information

1. Atkinson Shiffrin multi- store model:

We dont have a memory we have different memory systems. sensory

memory, STM and LTM
Flow of information moves in stages through each memory store.
Three kinds of memory in which information passes in a sequential way:
a. Sensory register Sensory Memory
b. Short Term store - Short Term Memory
c. Long Term store Long Term Memory
*These are separate systems BUT they operate simultaneously and interact with
each other.
Info is received from environment SR
STS
LTS, it may be passed
back between LTS
STS
LTS etc.

Sensory Register:
Entry of new info from external environment.
Stores vast quantities of incoming sensory info for up to several seconds.
Short Term Store:
Temporary working memory, which we manipulate information.
Information that we are consciously thinking about.
Long Term Store:
Relatively permanent. Stores information in an organised manner and has an
unlimited capacity.
Structural Features:
The permanent, built in fixed features of memory that do not vary from one
situation to another. (SM, STM, LTM).
Function (role), capacity (information it can hold) and duration (time) for each
component.
Control processes:
Are selected and used by each individual and may vary across different situations.
Under conscious control of an individual and which control process is used will
vary between people.

Example :
Attention: choose to attend some sensory material whilst ignoring others.
Rehearsal: if information is rehearsed will be retained for longer periods of time.
Retrieval: search strategy used from LTM.
Changes to this theory:
Separate sensory registers for auditory and haptic (touch) information.
Sensory registers Sensory MEMORY.
Short term store Short term memory, short term working memory or working
memory.
STM has many sub systems (Baddley) and different types of rehearsal
(maintenance and elaborative).
Long term store Long term memory.
LTM has many sub systems.

Sensory Memory:

Is the entry area of memory.

The initial part of memory system in which all stimuli that bombard our senses
are retained in their original sensory form, for a very brief time.
Remains in SM just long enough for us to attend to and select the info to be
transferred to STM.
We are not consciously aware of the majority of info that enters the SM.
However once we direct our attention to it in the process of transferring the info
to STM.
Incoming sensory info is stored in subsystems
Sensory Registers

Sensory Registers:

Receives and stores sensory info from SPECIFIC SENSORY RECEPTORS

Iconic Memory: (Image or I = eye)

Visual sensory memory or the memory of visual sensory info.
Visual images in their original sensory form are usually stored for 1/3 of a second.
BUT lasts long enough for identification of the stimulus to begin.
WITHOUT iconic memory world would look like a series of individual pictures.
If iconic memory did not clear quickly multiple images might interfere with
perception and encoding.

EXPERIMENT:
Outline Sperlings experiment.

Participants were shown 12 letters onto a screen for 20 th of a second. Most

participants could recall between 4 5 of the letters.
Participants reported that they had seen all 12 images but couldnt recall them
therefore memory of the letters had faded.

Change to above experiment:

Three tones were added to indicate a series of rows. High tone top row, medium
tone middle row and low tone bottom row.
According to the tone participants had to recall the letters from that particular
tone.
Results:
Perfect accuracy for each of the tones. letters had been stored in Iconic memory.
Then once a delay was added (10th of a second 1 second) images started to fade
out of the iconic memory.

Echoic Memory: (Auditory/Hearing)

Auditory sensory memory or the meaning of auditory sensory info.
Sounds linger like a echo.
Storing sounds in their ORIGINAL sensory form.
Store 3 4 seconds.
Example:
Engrossed in a T.V. program and someone asks a question. You notice that they are
talking BUT you dont fully comprehend. You ask WHAT then you answer the
question before they do.
Is necessary to comprehend many sounds, PARTICULARLY
speech.
OUTLINE Experiment.
Echoic (Auditory) Ear
Iconic (Visual) Image

3 4 seconds
0.3 seconds

Eidetic Memory (Photographic Memory):

Exact replica of a visual image which persists over time without distortion.
You would literally see the page of a textbook as you recalled info during as
exam.

Can last up to days even weeks.

Short Term Memory (STM):

With a limited storage capacity in which information is stored for a relatively

short period of time, unless it is renewed in some way.
Holds all the info you are consciously thinking about at any moment of time.
Encoding or representation of sensory stimulus such as a word number.
Retained fairly well in first few seconds, BUT after 12 seconds recall is poor.
18 seconds info disappears if it has not been renewed.
STM serves more purposes than just storing info for brief periods.
Includes interpreting and analysing info
decisions, solve problems and
comprehend written and spoken language.

Duration of STM:
Info can be kept in STM for longer than the usual maximum of 18 20 seconds
by maintenance rehearsal.
If you repeat a phone number over and over (rehearsing it) then it will be retained
in STM, if look number up in book then get distracted likely to forget it.
Distraction prevents rehearsal which results in memory loss, then the capacity of
the STM is reached then pushed information out.
Experiment Margaret and Lloyd Peterson:
Participants were given trigrams to memorise (meaningless groups of three letter
mwt), immediately after the trigram a distracter was given (three digit number)
prevents rehearsal.
Results:
longer the interval of time had passed the less likely the participant would recall the
trigram.
Draw diagram.
Capacity of the STM:
Amount of information that can be held at any one time.
Can hold 7 + or 2 bits of info. (Range of 5 9 items of info.)
When STM is full new items are added by pushing others out.
STM also filled when thinking, and when info. is temporarily brought from LTM
into working memory to be used/updated.
Info from STM mainly lost due to decay (not being used) and displacement (being
pushed out).

Example: DECAY
When you are having a conversation and you are waiting for the other person to finish
talking before you add your point. Your thoughts quickly fade from STM because
listening to the other person prevents you from rehearsing and therefore maintaining in
STM the point you wish to make.
Example: Displacement:
Participants called directory assistance for a long distance telephone number. They
showed poorer recall of the number if the person providing the number said have a nice
day after giving the number versus saying nothing. Friendly message displaced the long
phone number.
You just meet a new person then engage in a conversation with them, this makes a
displacement for you to remember their name.
Capacity of the STM makes it difficult to think about problems involving more than 7 +2 pieces of information. Forget some aspects of the problem because it exceeds the
capacity of the STM.

STM as Working Memory:

Emphasise the active part of memory where information we are consciously
aware of is actively worked on in a variety of ways.
Allows us to manipulate or mentally work with info provided by either sensory
memory or LTM.
Use for a variety of mental processes:
o Interpreting emotions and feelings.
o Language comprehension.
o Daydreaming, creativity.
o Problem solving
o Planning and decision making.
Example:
To multiply 12 by 24 in your head you need to temporarily store the numbers and
instructions to complete this task.

Temporary working space for information currently being used in some conscious
cognitive function.

Chunking information and STM:

The grouping or packing of separate bits of info into a larger single unit or
chunk of information.
Increases the amount of info held in STM at any given time by putting things in
groups.
Can be numbers, images, words, sentences, phrases or abbreviations.
Info must be transferred to LTM for permanent storage, cant rely on chunking.
Info not rehearsed is lost/discarded quickly.

Effects of Rehearsal:
Rehearsal: Actively manipulating info so that it can be retained in memory.
VOCAL: saying something out aloud over and over again.
SUB VOCAL: silently repeating into in your head.
VERBAL: doing something that involves the use of words writing something.
NON VERBAL: maintaining an image of something after it has been seen.

Info longer than 20 seconds

2 types:
1. Maintenance Rehearsal
2. Elaborative Rehearsal

you must rehearse.

1. Maintenance Rehearsal

Involves SIMPLE, rote repetition of info being remembered to retain that info in
STM.
Example:
Hear something for the 1st time and simply go over it so that you dont forget it.
Learning times tables.

Often sub vocal and verbal, but it can also be visual or spatial.
Most people tend to favour speech either covert or overt for rehearsing the
contents of STM.
Useful technique for coping with limited duration of STM.
Drawbacks:
1. The amount of new information that can enter is restricted because of the limited
storage capacity of STM.
2. effective for retaining information in the STM BUT does not lead to long term
retention.
3. Some complex information cant be rehearsed in this manner.
4. repeating words does NOT guarantee retention.

2. Elaborative Rehearsal

The process of linking new information in a meaningful way with the information
already stored in memory or with other new information, to aid in its storage and
retrieval.
Example:
You are studying the concept of reinforcement. You might think up examples of
reinforcement and of how you have used it in your own life, or you could also note that
the word reinforcement starts with the same letter as reward.

More effective than Maintenance rehearsal as elaborative rehearsal is more likely

to result in info being stored permanently in LTM. It helps to ensures info is
encoded well.
Maintenance rehearsal will keep info in STM, but is unlikely to transfer the info
from STM to LTM.
More active and effortful process for remembering new information because of
the extensive encoding.
Stores new information in a more meaningful manner.

Self Reference Effect:

When we relate new info to personal experiences and personal situations.
Encoding is enhanced and we are more likely to remember it.
Example:
If a word cook appeared you may link the information to the last time you cooked ion a
home economics class.
Elaborate rehearsal involves a deeper level of information processing.
Craik and Lockharts level of processing framework:

That the level (DEPTH) at which we process information during learning will
determine how well it is stored in LTM.
BEST encoded, organised and stored in LTM VIA meaning (Semantically).
Continuum of levels of processing ranging from deep to shallow and stages in
between. Deeper level of processing greater retention.
Elaborative Deep level of processing assigning meaning to the information.

EXAMPLES:
Example One:
look at the following words:
soft

swift

warm sharp witty bright clean beautiful.

Shallow processing: study the words for 5 seconds and circle the words with an i.
Deep processing: study the words for 5 seconds and circle that describes your personality.
10 minutes later who would have the higher recall? Deep WHY? meaning and self
referencing

Example Two:
Process words in three different ways when words flashed on the screen:
1. semantically (adding meaning)
2. acoustically (sound)
3. visually
Sample questions
Stimulus Words
Answer Yes or No
1. Does the word fit in this sentence?
Hat
____ is a type of clothing?
2. Does this word rhyme with top?
HOP
3. Is the word in capital letters?
bin
RESULTS:
1. Almost 90% recall the next day.
2. Almost 60% recall next day.
3. 15 % recall the next day.

How can you process information at a deep level?

Understand new information by restating it in your own words.

Actively question new information.
What are the potential applications or implications of this material.
Make connects between new information and link it to old information.
Make your own personal examples.

Diagram

Baddeley and Hitchs Model of working memory.

Structure and function of working memory as having three components:

o Phonological Loop verbal information
o Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad visual and spatial information
o Central executive manages and controls above.
Components are separate and can function relatively independent but also
interact.
Phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad sub-systems of working
memory.
Central executive attentional controller.

EXAMPLE:
Think of your house, how many doors does it have?

Phonological Loop: (verbal working memory)

Encodes and stores auditory information and is active when you read, listen,
speak or even repeat words.
Stores limited number of sounds, such as words, for short period of time.
Phonological means sounds.
Often uses sub vocal maintenance rehearsal.
Words that are short and easy to pronounce are easier to remember than long
words that are hard to pronounce. Therefore you can miss interpret easily the
longer words as not all the info can be stored.
Storage duration: 2 seconds.
Limited capacity.
Visuo spatial Sketchpad: (also called visual working memory)
Temporarily stores visual and spatial information, (location of objects in an
environment).
Visual: anything that you see or visualise.
Spatial: visual location of objects in space.
Mental work space for storing and manipulate visual and spatial information.
If the phonological loop duration and capacity is full this doesnt impact on the
visuo- spatial sketchpad.
Example: Being able to walk though your lounge room in the dark. You know where
objects are and so you dont run into anything.
Central Executive:
Most important and the most complex.
Controls attention, integrates info from verbal and visual storage systems, as well
as info from LTM, and coordinates the flow between working memory and LTM.
Directs your attention to activities that you are working on.
Filters essential and non essential information.
Combines information from (VSS and PL).
Assists with decision making
Suppressing (holding back) irrelevant info from conscious thinking.
Helps decide what to do next, or what not to do.
Plans and coordinates.
It CANNOT make numerous decisions at the same time.
Depending on what we select for attention, once info reaches STM a number of things
can occur:
1. Information can be discarded.
2. Info can be changed rapidly through encoding.
3. Retained for a while (through rehearsal).

Episodic Buffer:

Sub system of working memory that allows different components of working

memory to interact with LTM.
Limited capacity temporary storage systems that holds about 4 chunks of
information.
Holds information in any form (sounds, visual) and connects these to LTM.
Under the control of the central executive.
Episodic: it can pull together information from separate streams (working
memory and LTM) to form a movie or episode to form memories.
Buffer: provides temporary working space where information can be processed
into episodes and edited, recorded and organised in a meaningful way. Mental
workbench for cognitive activities.

Long Term Memory (LTM):

Autobiographical record
of personal experiences

Info about the

world

Outline of LTM:
- The relative permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of
information for a long period of time.
- Stores info semantically, in terms of meaning.
- Retrieve info using retrieval cues. (Same as using a number to find a book
in the library). Only the specific information relevant to the cue is
retrieved rather them the entire contents of LTM.
- When info retrieved from LTM its held in working memory while being
used. Once no longer required transferred back to LTM for continued
storage.
- Info unable to be retrieved is due to poor organisation of the info during
encoding and storage or the failure to use appropriate retrieval cues.
- What goes into LTM stays there forever. If memories in LTM are
permanent, this means, forgetting occurs because we are unable to retrieve
it for some reason.
Storage Capacity: virtually unlimited.
Storage Duration: indefinite, relatively permanent.
Sub systems of LTM:
1. Procedural memory
2. Declarative memory
- Episodic memory
- Semantic memory

Procedural Memory:
- Memory for actions and skills that have been learned previously.
- No conscious recall.
- Involves knowing how to do something.
- Called implicit memories, as often hard to recall when or how we learned
how to perform the sequence of actions required to do something. (A
florists daughter may know how to correctly arrange flowers in a vase
without ever being taught, she learnt by watching her mother. Therefore
she cannot say specifically when or how she learned how to arrange
flowers).
- Difficult to put into words. (Experienced hockey player, dodges
opponents weaving way towards goals to score. When asked to explain
series of motor behaviours, physical actions, involved in the play you
would have difficulty stating how to perform every movement involved).
Declarative Memory:
- Memory for specific facts or events.
- Conscious recall.
- Can be explicitly stated or declared.
- Called explicit memories.
Example:
Describing the events of a movie you have seen.
-

There are two types of declarative memory, Episodic and Semantic

memory.

Episodic Memory:
- Declarative memory system that holds information about specific events
or personal experiences.
- Often include details of time, place and the physiological and
psychological state of the person when the event occurred.
- Considered to be like a mental diary.
Example:
September 11, 2001 - the terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre.
The birth of a younger brother or sister.

Semantic Memory:
- Declarative memory system that stores the information we have about the
world.
Example:
Specialised knowledge (King can only move one space in chest)
Academic knowledge (humans are mammals)
Rules ( i before e except after c)
Everyday general knowledge (October is in spring).
-

Involves facts that do not depend on a particular place or time, simply

facts.
Can access a fact (Broome is in WA) and have no idea when and where
you learned it.

Episodic and semantic memory often work together to form new memories.
Example:
Episodic memory of having studied last night also contains semantic knowledge
about what you learned.

Different Types of LTM:

Type
Procedural
Memory

Definition

Example

The memory of actions

and skills that have
been learned previously
and involves knowing
'how to do something'.

Using procedural memory includes; how to type,

how to ride a bike and how to log onto the Internet.

Declarative
Memory

The memory of specific

facts or events that can
be brought consciously
to the mind and
explicitly stated or
declared.

Declarative memory in use includes identifying type

of flower, explaining a statistics formula to
someone, describing the events of a movie you
have seen or remembering what you ate for dinner
last night.

Semantic
Memory

Stores the info we have

about the world.
(Part of the declarative
memory system).

Humans are mammals, October is in spring and

that assist means to help.

Episodic
Memory

Holds info about

specific events or
personal experiences.
(Part of the declarative
memory system).

The birth of a younger brother or sister, going to

the dentist a week ago, or what you ate for
breakfast this morning.

Organisation of Information in LTM:

LTM stores vast amounts of info. Therefore, there is a need for some form of
organisation of info to assist the storage and retrieval process.
Info in LTM is organised in meaningful clusters of related categories.
Example:
- Animals, vegetables, names, occupations.

Info is also linked or associated with other information stored in LTM.

Example:
- When you think of the word red other words you may think of include blue, colour,
apple, green, rose, blood, wine, embarrassment.
Recall from LTM is better when we further organise the information stored there.
Example:
- When trying to memorise a group of words participant recall was better when the
words were organised into some kind of story, rather than just memorised word for word.
Semantic Network Theory:
Information in LTM is organised systematically in the form of overlapping
networks (or grids) of concepts (called nodes) that are interconnected and
interrelated by meaningful links.
A node is linked with a number of other nodes.
When retrieving info, the activation of one node causes other related nodes to be
activated also.
Retrieval of info from LTM begins with someone searching a particular region of
memory, and then tracing associations for links among concepts in that region,
rather than randomly searching the vast information stored in LTM.
Specific retrieval cues activate relevant nodes (stored memories), which in turn
activate other nodes (related memories) to which they are linked.
Short link

stronger association between nodes

Long link

weak association between nodes

less time to activate related concepts.

(Retrieve info. further away)
takes longer to activate related concepts.
(Retrieve info further our way)

Activation of one node stimulates activation of other linking nodes across the
network.
More nodes activated quicker retrieval of info from LTM.

Serial Position Effect:

Recall of items tends to be BEST for items at the END, than the beginning, and
worst for items around the middle.
When plotted on a graph
Results in a U shaped curve.

Primacy Effect:
Superior Recall

Items at the BEGINNING of a list.

Recency Effect:
Superior Recall

Items at the END of a list.

* Together with relatively low recall of items in the middle Primary Effect and Recency
Effect become the Serial Position Effect.

Last items on (recency) the list are remembered best because STM.
First few items (primacy) are remembered well because
rehearsal and you
give them more attention
LTM.
Items in the middle are presented too late to be adequately rehearsed but too early
to be held in STM (usually forgotten).

Research into the Serial Position Effect (experiment):

Conducted by Glanzer and Cunitz. (distinguishing between LTM and STM)
What did they do?
Asked participants to memorise list of 15 items.
Participants were then to recall the list immediately after learning it.
Participants then asked to recall list after a 30sec delay (beyond the limits of
STM).
Results:

Found that when recalling list immediately after learning it the serial position
effect occurred. Recall was better for items at the beginning and the end of the
list.
When asked to recall the list after a 30sec delay the serial position effect wasnt
entirely observed. Recall was better at the beginning of the list, probably because
those items were rehearsed more and were more likely to be stored in LTM.
Words at the end of the list were not recalled well, no recency effect was evident,
probably because participants couldnt hold the last items in STM long enough.

Summary of Memory:
Sensory Memory Short-term
SM
Memory STM

Long-term
Memory LTM

Type of Info

Incoming sensory
info.

All info you are

consciously thinking
about at any moment of
time. STM also
includes interpreting
and analysing info to
help you make
decisions, solve
problems and
comprehend written
and spoken language.

Vast amounts of info

(Encoded in STM,
committed to
memory).

Duration

Several seconds.
(Brief)

18 - 20 seconds
(Unless conscious
effort is made to keep it
there longer.)

Long period of time

(life time)

Capacity

All sensory info.

7+ or - 2 bits of info.

Virtually unlimited.

Storage

Stores vast quantities

of incoming sensory
info.

Info is only stored for

brief period of time.
(Recall after 12
seconds in poor).

Stores info
semantically, in terms
of meaning.

Organisation

If info in SM is
attended to it moves
into STM, if not it is
lost.

Further encodes info for

LTM, if not encoded
info is lost.

Info is retrieved using

retrieval cues; if
unable to be retrieved
it's due to poor
organisation of info
during encoding and
storage or the failure
to use appropriate
retrieval cues.