CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A. Theoretical Description

1. Mastery

According to Hornby (1995:721), mastery refers to “complete knowledge or great

skill”. It means that someone who has good mastery in a particular field has great

knowledge, skill or experience in that field. His or her knowledge or skill on that field is

more than someone else’. Also, he or she has more experiences on that field than others.

Since he or she has mastered one field, he or she has good mastery on that field.

In Beberapa Catatan tentang Mastery Learning (Maman Achdiat and Ngadiono A.

Y, 1980: 1), Carleton Washburne in Winnetka Plan (1922) and Prof. Henry C. Morrison

(1926) developed mastery learning concept. The main aim of mastery learning is to raise

“efficient-students, motivation, and students’ positive attitude” to the materials they learn

with some methods in the class. Both of them had some approaches to mastery learning.

Those approaches were:

a. Mastery learning has relationship to specific education that students

can achieve. According to Washburne, it has cognitive purpose while

according to Morrison, it has cognitive, affective and psychometric

purposes.

b. Teaching is organized into units of particular teaching. In Morrison’s

view, each unit has a unit of systematic teaching materials in order to

achieve teaching learning purposes.

 c. Students are expected to master the complete materials before the

teacher continue to the next materials. In Washburne’s Winnetka Plan,

it is important to arrange the materials starting from the first order to

the next order. Therefore, the first one is required to achieve the next

one.

d. Diagnostic progress test is held after the students finish learning a unit

of materials in order to get feedbacks about the students’ learning

method – that are how their mastery in learning the materials is and

what they need to continue to learn the materials are.

e. In order to fix the materials, it is needed to hold corrective learning

based on feedbacks from diagnostic progress test. In accordance to

Morrison, the time is needed in this corrective learning depends on the

teacher while according to Washburne’s Winnetka Plan, it depends on

the students.

Besides Washburne (1922) and Morrison (1926), Caroll (1963) and Bloom (1968)

worked in mastery learning field. Caroll explained some variables which are determined

mastery learning and Bloom explored mastery learning strategies (Maman and Ngadiono,

1980:5). Caroll (1963) formulated some variables that determine mastery learning. Those

variables are:

a. Aptitude

According to Caroll, aptitude is the amount of time the students need to master

learning materials. He assumed that students can master the materials if we give enough

time for them to learn the materials and find good method to help them in mastering the
materials.

b. Perseverance

Caroll (1963) defined perseverance as the time the students need to learn. It can

be seen that it related to aptitude and motivation. The students will master the materials if

they have enough time to master the materials with motivation they have at that time.

c. Quality of instruction

Caroll (1963) viewed that quality of instruction relies on “the quality of service,

explanation, and assignment management”.

d. Ability to understand instruction

To solve students’ learning problem, teaching learning process can be held in

“study group and tutorial teaching, and using text books, programmed teaching units,

audio-visual method and games”.

e. Time allowed from learning

Division of time is determined by school organization and depends on the

organization of learning. School organization manages the organization of learning then

determines the time the students need to learn each subject.

Bloom (1968) also developed mastery learning strategies. Those strategies consist

of pre-condition identification, operational procedure development and learning result

development.

a. Pre-condition for mastery learning

In mastery learning, pre-condition means students condition at the first time

before they learn. In order to identifying pre-condition, firstly we need to specify

purposes of learning and content of learning contained in teaching learning process.

Secondly, we need to include those specifications on summative evaluation procedure. In

this case, teaching learning process means preparation of learning while evaluation

procedure means an instrument to measure how well the students’ success in preparation

of learning is.

b. Operational procedure

Operational procedure includes: diagnostic or formative test and correcting

mistakes. Diagnostic or formative test is a test which is not aimed to get the students’

level but it is aimed to seek the description of students’ mastery in learning materials.

After knowing students’ mastery, teachers should correct students’ mistakes in order to

increase their mastery. Teachers should motivate the students to correct their mistakes by

giving advices and applying corrective learning.

c. Learning result

There are two aspects of learning result, cognitive result and affective result.

1. Cognitive result

Bloom’s research in 1965 which did not use mastery learning strategies resulted

only 20% students achieved an A in their final exam. While, Bloom's research in 1967

which used mastery learning strategies resulted 80% students achieved an A in final

exam. Whereas, Bloom's research in 1968 which used mastery learning strategies and

formative test resulted 90% students achieved an A in final exam. It shows that mastery

learning strategies with formative test really work in increasing students’ mastery.

2. Affective result

The affective result of using mastery strategies are: raising the students’
motivation, creating students’ positive attitude toward teaching learning activity, growing

students’ self-confidence, and students’ increasing mental health.

2. Relative Clause

According to Azar (1989:238), a relative clause, which is also called adjective

clause, is “a dependent clause that modifies a noun”. Azar explains that a dependent

clause is “an incomplete sentence”, while an independent clause is a “a complete

sentence” (Azar, 1989:238). Barli Bram states that a simple sentence minimally consists

of “subject and predicate” and that “a simple sentence is an independent” (Bram,

1995:39). Therefore, a simple sentence which minimally has only subject and predicate is

an independent clause. In addition, Azar also states that dependent clause have to be

connected to an independent clause. It can be concluded that a relative clause needs a

connector to connect to an independent clause. As a result, by connecting a relative

clause to an independent clause, we can construct a sentence, which is called a complex

sentence.

a. Relative Pronouns

Azar explains that a relative clause has five kinds of relative pronouns (Azar,

1989:238-243). Those are using who, that and which as subject pronouns, using who(m),

that and which as object pronouns, using whose as a possesive pronoun, using where to

show a location or place of something, and using when to show a time of something.

1 Using subject pronouns

In order to modify a noun as a subject, relative clauses have three kinds of subject

pronouns:
 a) Who is used for people,

b) Which is used for things,

c) That is used for both people and things.

Those three kinds of subject pronoun have the same fuction. The function is as the

subject of relative clause. It refers to the reffered noun in main clause that become the

subject of relative clause. Therefore, it subtitutes the position of the reffered noun in the

main clause as the subject of relative clause. Examples 1 and 2 describe how subject

pronouns work.

Example 1:

I thanked the woman. She helped me.

ð I thanked the woman who helped me, or

ð I thanked the woman that helped me.

Example 2:

The book is mine. It is on the table.

ð The book which is on the table is mine.

ð The book that is on the table is mine.

Example 1 and 2 explain that subject pronoun who modifies a noun referring to

people as a subject. Then, subject pronoun which modifies a noun referring to thing as a

subject. The last, subject pronoun that modifies a noun referring to both people and

things as a subject. Therefore, subject pronoun is used to modify a noun as a subject.

2) Using object pronouns

In order to modify a noun as an object, relative clauses have three kinds of object

pronouns:
 a) Who(m) is used for people,

b) Which is used for things,

c) That is used for both people and things.

Those three kinds of object pronouns work as two functions. The first fuction is as

the objects of verbs. The second function is as the object of prepostions. Here, the

examples 3 and 4 draw how the object pronouns work as the objects of verbs.

Example 3:

The man was Mr. Jones. I saw him.

ð The man who(m) I saw was Mr. Jones.

ð The man that I saw was Mr. Jones.

ð The man I saw was Mr. Jones

Example 4:

The movie was not very good. We saw it last night.

ð The movie which we saw last night was not very good.

ð The movie that we saw last night was not very good.

ð The Movie we saw last night was not very good.

Examples 3 and 4 explain object pronouns are the objects of verbs. On both

examples, object pronoun that can be used to modify a noun, both people and things, as

an object. Also, the object pronoun whom is usually used in writing, while, in speaking

people usually use who. In relative clauses, object pronouns may be omitted and directly

continued to the clause without any object pronoun as a connector. This relative clause is

called a contact clause. Neuman (1981: 34) states that a contact clause is a defining

relative clause which omits the objective relative pronoun (whom, that, or which).
 Besides as the objects of verb, object pronouns can be used as the objects of

prepositions. Example 5 shows object pronouns work as the objects of prepositions.

Example 5:

She is the woman. I told you about her.

ð She is the woman about whom I told.

ð She is the woman who(m) I told about.

ð She is the woman that I told about.

ð She is the woman I told about.

Example 6:

The music was good. We listened to it last night.

ð The music to which we listened last night was good.

ð The music which we listened to last night was good.

ð The music that we listened to last night was good.

ð The music we listened to last night was good.

Examples 5 and 6 explain object pronouns are the objects of preposition. On

examples 5 and 6, mostly a preposition comes after subject and verb because only very

formal English places preposition in the beginning, before subject and verb in the relative

clause. Then, object pronouns that and who cannot immediately come after preposition

because only object pronouns which and whom who can follow the preposition.

3) Using whose and of which

In order to show possesion, a relative clause uses whose and of which to subtitute

possessive pronouns as a relative pronouns. There two relative pronouns that subtitute the

possessive pronouns; whose used for people and animal characters in the story, and of
which used for things and animals in general (Neuman, 1981: 32). However, relative

pronoun of which is written after the noun modified and usually used in non-defining

relative clause. Here, examples 7 and 8 draw the use of relative pronouns whose and of

which as the possesive pronouns.

Example 7:

I know the man. His bicycle was stolen.

ð I know the man whose bicycle was stolen.

Example 8:

The student writes well. I read her composition.

ð The student whose composition I read writes well.

Example 9:

The table is so high. Its foot is almost broken.

ð The table, a foot of which is almost broken, is so high.

Examples 7 and 8 show that whose is the same as his, her, its, and their. In

relative clauses, whose cannot be omitted and comes before relative clause. Also, whose

usually modifies people, but sometimes it can modify animal characters in a story.

Example 9, while, shows a possession of things. It is only used for things and animal in

general. It is the same as its in general.

4) Using where

In order to modify a noun referring a place, a relative clause uses where as a

relative pronoun. Example 10 shows the use of relative pronoun where

Example 10:

The building is very old. He lives there (in the building).

ð The building where he lives is very old.

ð The building in which he lives is very old.

ð The building which he lives in is very old.

ð The building that he lives in is very old.

ð The building he lives in is very old.

Example 10 explains that relative pronoun where has the same meaning as in

which. Preposition in cannot be used with where. If where is used, it cannot use in in

relative clause. Consequently, relative pronoun where replaces in which. In other words,

relative pronoun where means relative pronoun which as the object of preposition in.

5) Using when

In order to modify a noun referring a time (day, month, year, etc), a relative

clause uses when as a relative pronoun. Example 11 describes the use of relative pronoun

when.

Example 11:

I will never forget the day. I met you then (on that day).

ð I will never forget the day when I met you.

ð I will never forget the day on which I met you.

ð I will never forget the day that I met you.

ð I will never forget the day I met you.

Example 11 explains that relative pronoun when is similar to on which that

modifies a noun is referring a time. Preposition on cannot be used when. Therefore on

which is a couple that has the same meaning as where.

b. Defining and Non–Defining Relative Clauses

 There are two kinds of relative clauses. These are defining relative clauses and

non-defining relative clauses.

1) Defining relative clauses

A defining relative clause is a relative clause to modify a noun by giving some

crucial information about the noun modified. Neuman (1981: 34) states that a defining

relative clause explains the person or thing referred. It means that the relative clause give

the crucial information to make the meaning within the sentence clear. The information

adds some clues to create the clear meaning. For example (12), the man who is standing

at the door wants to speak to you personally. It means that there are some men there and

there is only one man who is standing at the door. This man wants to speak personally.

Therefore, a defining relative clause gives the information that makes the meaning clear,

even if it will be confusing. Another example (13), the bungalow we rented last summer

was not as well equipped as the one we had the year before. It has two defining relative

clauses. The first relative clause is we rented last summer. It is a contact clause because it

omits the objective relative pronoun. If not, it should be that/ which we rented last

summer.

2) Non-defining relative clauses

Non-defining relative clause is a relative clause which modifies a noun with the

additional information about the noun modified. Neuman (1981: 35) defines that relative

clauses give additional information to modify the referred noun. A non-defining relative

clause is written between commas. It does not influence the meaning within the sentence.

The meaning has been clear without the relative clause. Therefore, a relative clause is the

additional information. It is not really needed. Its existence or inexistence does not
change the meaning within the sentence. For example (14) Mr. James, the English

teacher, came late yesterday. It means that there is only one Mr. James in the school. He

is an English teacher in that school. He came late yesterday. Consequently, relative clause

the English teacher is a non-defining relative clause that gives the additional information

that does not really influence toward the meaning within the main sentence.

3. Errors

In teaching learning process, there are always errors happen during the process.

Error is different from mistake. According to Ellis (1997:139) errors are “deviation in

usage which results from gaps in learner’s knowledge of the target language” and

mistakes are “deviation in usage that reflects learner’s inability to used what they actually

know the target language” (Ellis, 1997:141). It means that errors happened because the

learner does not really understand the material and mistakes are made by carelessness

that actually the learner understands the material. However, in this research, the

researcher only discuss errors in order to search the students’ errors in defining and non-

defining relative clauses. In order to discuss errors in depth, here are the definition and

classification of error.

a. Definition of errors

According Ellis and Barkhuizen (2005: 56), errors are defined based on two

views, grammaticality and acceptability. Based on grammaticality, Ellis and Barkhuizen

define that an error is “a breach of the rule of the code” (Corder, 1971). They state that it

depends on the view that “what particular variety of the target language is chosen as the

code” (Ellis and Barkhuizen, 2005: 56). It means that errors breaks the rules of a variety
of a target language as a code. On the other side, based on the acceptability, Ellis and

Barkhuizen define that an error is “more dependent on the subjective evaluation of the

researcher ...” and also “involves attempting to identify a situational context ...” (Ellis and

Barkhuizen, 2005: 56). It can be said that errors are dependable and based on the context

used.

Because of those uncertainty of the distinction of grammaticality and

acceptability, those theories were blurred. Then, Ellis and Barkhuizen reflect to

Lennon’s definition of errors. According to Lennon (1991: 182), errors refer to “a

linguistic form or a combination of forms which, in the same context and under similar

conditions of production, would, in all likelihood, not be produced by speakers’ native

speaker counterparts” (Ellis and Barkhuizen, 2005: 56). It is clearly that errors happen in

the same context and condition of production and are unlike what native speaker

counterparts produce. In this research, the researcher searched the students’ linguistic

forms which are produce unlikely as the native speaker counterparts produce in the

production of defining and non-defining relative clauses.

b. Classifications of errors

Ellis and Barkhuizen (2005: 60-62) classify errors based on the

B. Theoretical Framework

1. Mastery
 In this study, the researcher uses Washburne’s Winnetka Plan and Morrison’s

mastery learning concept. They have a purpose to raise “efficient-students, motivation,

and students’ positive attitude” ((Maman Achdiat and Ngadiono A. Y, 1980:1). Their

approach are:

a. Mastery learning has relationship with specific education purposes.

b. Teaching is organized into units of teaching.

c. Learners should grasp the material completely.

d. Having diagnostic progress test after finishing learning a unit of materials.

e. Having correctives learning to improve the quality of learning.

2. Sentence

In this study, the researcher choose simple sentence as the topic of the research.

The researcher uses declarative sentence and interrogative sentence as the representative

of simple sentence. Here, those sentences will be explained one by one.

a. Simple sentence

Simple sentence is a sentence which minimally consists of a subject and a finite

verb (Bram, 1995).

b. Declarative sentence

Declarative sentence is a sentence which is started by subject and followed by

predicator, indirect object (if present) and direct object (if present) (Aarts, 1997).

c. Interrogative sentence

Interrogative sentence is a sentence to express a question. There are two types of

interrogative sentence, yes/no interrogative sentence and Wh-interrogative sentence/open

interrogative sentence (Aarts,1997). Yes/no interrogative sentence is special to get yes/no

answers and Wh-interrogative sentence is special to the question with Wh-word as the

initial.

3. Syntax

In this study, the researcher discuss about word categories, XP rule and

transformation.

a. Word categories

O’Grady (1997) and Aarts (1997) have different division of word categories. In

O’Grady’s division (1997), word categories is called lexical categories. This division

contains Noun (N), Verb (V), Adjective (A), Preposition (P) and Adverb (Adv) as lexical

categories, and Determiner (det), Degre word (deg), Qualifier (qual), Auxiliary (aux) and

Conjunction (con) as non – lexical categories. While Aarts (1997) has different division.

His division consists of Nouns, Determiners, Adjectives, Verbs, Prepositions, Adverbs,

Conjunctions, and Interjections.

b. XP rule

O’Grady (1997) has XP rule as the following figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: XP ule

(Taken from Comtemporary Linguistics: An Introduction by W. O’Grady, M.

Dobrovolsky & F. Katamba. Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1997)

XP

Specifier Head Complement

XP (specifier)X(complement)
 NP (det)N(PP)...

VP (qual)V(NP)...

AP (deg)A(PP)...

PP (deg)P(NP)...

c. Transformation

Transformation is a movement caused by changes from decalrative sentnce inti

interrogative sentence.There are two transformations which happen in interrogative

sentence. Those transformations are inversion and Wh- movement. Inversion is a

movement of the auxiliary verb (inflection/infl) from the the right of subject (NP) to the

left of subject. Wh- movement is a movement of wh-question move to the begining of the

sentence to replace the disappear complement of the sentence (O’Grady, 1997).