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Q.1. Explain the different types of research.

Answer:
Research may be classified crudely according to its major instant or the
methods. According to the intent, research may be classified as:
1. Pure Research:
It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in
practice, e.g. Einstein’s theory of relativity, Newton’s contributions, Galileo’s
contribution, etc. It is also know as basic or fundamental research. It is
undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It is not necessarily
problem-oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge. It may lead to either
discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. It lays
foundation for applied research. It offers solutions to many practical
problems. It helps to find the critical factors in a practical problem. It
develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the best
solution.
2. Applied Research
It is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or
policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action directed. It seeks an
immediate and practical result, e.g., marketing research carried on for
developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase experience of
customers. Through the immediate purpose of an applied research is to find
solutions to a practical problem, it may incidentally contribute to the
development of theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovery of new
facts or testing of theory or conceptual clarity. It may integrate previously
existing theories.
3. Exploratory Research
It is also know as formularize research. It is preliminary study of an
unfamiliar problem about which the research has little or no knowledge. It is
ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives. It usually

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takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this research may be to
generate new ideas, or to increase the researcher’s familiarity with the
problem or to make a precise formulation of the problem or to gather
information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to
attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies. “At
the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the situations; at
the second, the discovery of relationship between variables.
4. Descriptive Study
It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the
simplest types of research. It is more specific than an exploratory research. It
aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community or institution
or problem under study and also aims at a classification of the range of
elements comprising the subject matter of study. It contributes to the
development of a young science and useful in verifying focal concepts
through empirical observation. It can highlight important methodological
aspects of data collection and interpretation. The information obtained may
be useful for prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of
the research. They are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social
action program.
5. Diagnostic Study
It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed
towards discovering what is happening, why it is happening and what can be
done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible
solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering and testing
whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior
knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of
the given population, adequate methods for collecting accurate information,
precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and test of
significance.
6. Evaluation Studies

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It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of

social or economic programmers implemented or for assessing the impact of
development projects on the development of the project area. It is thus
directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and its
performance, and to specify its success. It is concerned with causal
relationship and is more actively guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also
with change over time.
7. Active Research
It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an
action programmed lunched for solving a problem for improving an exiting
situation. It includes six major steps: diagnosis, sharing of diagnostic
information, planning, developing change programmed, initiation of
organizational change, implementation of participation and communication
process, and post experimental evaluation.

2. Discuss the criteria of good research problem.

Answer:
Horton and hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research
1. Verifiable evidence:
That is factual observation with other observers can see and check.
2. Accuracy:
That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a
statement or describing things exactly as they are and avoiding jumping
to unwarranted conclusions either by exaggeration or fantasizing.
3. Precision:
That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or
measurement. This avoids colorful literature and vague meanings.
4. Systematization:

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That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or collecting data in a

systematic and organized way so that the conclusions drawn the reliable.
Data based on casual recollections are generally incomplete and give
unreliable judgment and conclusions.
5. Objectivity:
That is free being from all biases and vested interests. It means
observation is unaffected by the observer’s values, beliefs and
preferences to the extent possible and he is able to see and accept facts
as they are, not as he might wish them to be.
6. Recording:
That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Since human
memory is fallible, all data collected are recorded.
7. Controlling conditions:
That is controlling all variables except one and then attempting to
examine what that happens when that variable is varied. This is the basic
technique in all scientific experimentation – allowing one variable to vary
while holding all other variables constant.
8. Training investigators:
That is imparting necessary knowledge to investigators to make them
understand what to look for, how to interpret in and avoid inaccurate data
collection.

Q.3. Describe the procedure used to test the hypothesis.

Answer:
To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data researcher has
collected) whether or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis
testing the main question is; whether the null hypothesis or not to accept the
null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to all those steps
that we undertake for making a choice between the two actions i.e., rejection

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and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in

hypothesis testing are stated below:
1. Making a formal Statement:
The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho
). This means that hypothesis should clearly state, considering the nature
of the research problem. For instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering
Department wants to test the load bearing capacity of an old bridge which
must be more than 10 toms, in that case he can state his hypothesis as
under:
Null hypothesis Ho : u= 10 tons
Alternative hypothesis Ha : u > 10 tons
The formulation of hypothesis is an important step which must ne
accomplished with due care in accordance with the object and nature of
the problem under consideration. It also indicates whether we should use
a tailed test or a two tailed test. If Ha is of the type greater than, we use
along tailed test, but when Ha is of the type “whether greater or smaller”
then we use a two-tailed test.
2. Selecting a significant level:
The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and
such the same should have specified. Generally, in practice, either 5%
level or 1% level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the
level of significance are:
• The magnitude of the differences between sample:
• The size of the sample
• The variability of measurements within sample
• Whether the hypothesis is directional or non – directional (A directional
hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the difference
between , say, means). In brief, the level of significance must be
adequate in the context of the purpose and nature of enquiry.
1. Deciding the Distribution to use:

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After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis

testing is to determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The
chaise generally remains between distributions are similar to those
which we have stated earlier in the context to estimation.
2. Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate
Value:
Another step is to select a random sample(S) and compute an
appropriate value from the sample data concerning the test statistic
utilizing the relevant distribution. In other words, draw a sample to
furnish empirical data.
3. Calculation of the Probability:
One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would
diverge as widely as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis
were in fact true.
4. Comparing the probability:
Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated
with the specified value for α , the significance level. If the calculated
probability is equal to smaller then α value in case of one tailed test
( and α/2 in case of two-tailed test), then reject null hypothesis (i.e.
accept the alternative hypothesis), but if the probability is greater then
accept then accept the null hypothesis. In case we reject Ho we run a
risk of (at most level of significance) committing an error of type I, but
if we accept Ho , then we run some risk of committing error type II.

Flow Diagram for Testing Hypothesis

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Committing type II
Error

Q.4. Write a note on experimental design.

Answer:
Experimental Design:
1. The principle of replication:
The experiment should be reaped more than once. Thus, each treatment is
applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the
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statistical accuracy of the experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the
statistical accuracy of the experimental is increased. For example, suppose
we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we
may divide the filed into two parts and grows one variety in one part and the
other variety in the other part. We can compare the yield of the two parts
and draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of
replication to this experiment, then we first divide the filed into several parts,
grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining
parts. We can collect the data yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion
by comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle of
replication. The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for
better results. Consequently replication dose not present any difficulty, but
computationally it dose. However, it should be remembered that replication
is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to
increase the accuracy with which the main effects and interactions can be
estimated.
2. The principle of randomization:
It provides protection, which we conduct, an experiment, against the effect
of extraneous factors by randomization. In order words, this principle
indicates that we should design or plan the ‘experiment in the way that the
variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the
general heading of “chance”’. For instance if we grow one verity of rice say
in the first half of the parts of a filed and the other verity is grown in the
other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the
first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our result would not be
realistic. I such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in
different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling technique
i.e., we may apply randomization principle and protect ourselves against the
effects of randomization, we can have a better estimate of the experimental
error.

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3. Principle of local control:

It is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the
extraneous factors, the known source of variability, is made to vary
deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in
such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence
eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan the
experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance
in which the total variability of the data is divided into three components
attributed to treatments, the extraneous factor and experimental error. In
other words, according to the principle of local control, we first divide the
filed into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each such
block is divided into parts equal to the number of treatments. Then the
treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of block. In general, blocks
are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factors fixed, so that we can
measure its contribution to the variability of the data by means of a two-way
analysis of variance. In brief, through the principle of local control we can
eliminate the variability due to extraneous factors from the experimental
error.

Q.5. Elaborate the ways of making a case study effective.

Answer:
John Dollard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as
follows.
I. The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is
the case drawn out from its total context for the purpose do study
must be considered a member of the particular cultural group or
community. The scrutiny of the life histories of persons must be done
with a view to identify thee community values, standards and their
shared way of life.

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II. The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is , the
action of the individual cases must be viewed as a series of actions to
social stimuli or situation. In other, words the social meaning of
behavior must be taken into consideration.
III. The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must
be recognized. That is, in case of an individual being the member of a
family, the role of family in shaping his behavior must never be
overlooked.
IV. The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social
behavior must be clearly shown. That is case histories that portray in
detail how basically a biological organism, the man, gradually
blossoms forth into a social person, are especially fruitful.
V. The continuous related charter of experience for childhood through
adulthood must be stressed. In other words, the life history must be a
configuration depicting the inter- relationships between three person’s
various experiences.
VI. Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a
factor. One of the important criteria for the life history is that a
person’s life must be shown as unfolding itself in the context of and
party owing to specific social sitatutions.
VII.The life history material itself must be organized according to some
conceptual framework; this in turn would facilitate generalizations at a
higher level.

Q.6.What is non probability sampling? Explain its types with

examples.

Answer:
Probability sampling is based on the theory of probability. It is also known as
random sampling. it provides a known nonzero chance of selection for each
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population element. It is used when generalization is the objective of study ,

and a greater degree of accuracy of estimation of population parameters is
required. The cost and time required is high hence the benefit derived from it
should justify the costs.
The following are the types of probability sampling:
i. Simple Random sampling: This sampling technique gives each
element an equal and independent chance of being selected. An
equal chance means equal probability of selection. An independent
chance means that the draw of one element will not affect the
chances of other elements being selected. The procedure of
drawing a simple random sample consists of enumeration of all
elements in the population.
1. Preparation of List of all elements, giving them numbers in serial
order 1.2, B, and so on, and
2. Drawing sample numbers by using (a) lottery method, (b) a table of
random numbers or (c)a computer.
Suitability: This type of sampling is suited for a small homogeneous
population.
Advantages: The advantage of this is that is one of the easiest
methods, all the elements in the population have an equal chance
of being selected, simple to understand, does not require prior
knowledge of the true composition of the population.
Disadvantages: It is often impractical because of non- availability of
population, does not ensure proportionate representation and it
may be expensive in time and money. The amount of sampling
error associated with any sample drawn can easily be computed.
But it is greater than that in other probability samples of the same
size, because it is less precise than other methods.
i. Stratified Random Sampling: This is an improved type of random or
probability sampling. In this method, the population is sub- divided

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into homogenous groups or strata, and from each stratum, random

sample is drawn. E.g university students may be divided on the
basis of displine, and each displine group may again be divided into
juniors and seniors. Stratification is necessary for increasing a
sample’s statistical efficiency, providing different methods to
different strata. The stratified random sampling is appropriate for a
large heterogeneous population. Stratification process involves
three major decisions. They are stratification base or bases, number
of strata and strata sample sizes.
-End of Assignment-

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