CHARCOAL ASH BRICKS

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE

DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING
JOSE MARIA COLLEGE
DAVAO CITY, PHILIPPINES

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY:
JUANCHO ABDULLAH RYAN D. SEDOMAR
CINDY MAE M. MAESTRE

OCTOBER 2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The researchers acknowledge those different person who are in the way to helped,
assisted and contributed to work on this research.
Deep thanks to our adviser Engr. Nestor V. Obciana of Jose Maria College whose
assist and motivating suggestions led to the completion of this study.
To our loved ones who are our inspirations as we interfere the obstacles in
completing this study.
Above all, to the almighty for providing strength, knowledge, perseverance,
wisdom and most especially for the enlightenment necessary to complete the study.

ABSTRACT

This project assess Charcoal Ash as an admixture in making a decorative wall

bricks. It has been envision and concluded to make use of the charcoal ash instead of
disposing it anywhere, by this it could help lessen the pollution to the environment, and
help those citizen of this state to overcome their problem towards the disposal of the
charcoal ash where it is part of their daily activity, as almost 95% of the population uses
charcoal ash to cook their food, And so the researchers made the charcoal ash as the
subject of the study, for this reason the researcher will performed all of the best possible
solution to overcome the problem, the study will show that there is a possibility that
charcoal ash can made as a decorative brick.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement

......

ii

Abstract

..

iii

CHAPTER

PAGE

INTRODUCTION

..

Background of the Study

..

Statement of the Problem

..

Significance of the Study

..

Scope and Limitation of the Study

..

Review of Related Literature ..

METHODOLOGY

..

RESULTS AND FINDINGS .

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
REFERENCES
APPENDIX

..

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INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study

Charcoal is a light black residue consisting carbon, it is the purest forms of carbon
readily available, and particularly it is made up for heating.
Historically, production of wood charcoal in districts where there is an abundance
of wood date back to a very ancient period. Charcoal has been made by various methods,
way back on the early times they make it as a heating to lower down high cool
temperature, and even cooking charcoal is already useful up to this new generation.
Charcoal could be made up of wood or coconut husk. The properties of the charcoal
produced depend on the material charred.
Every year, there are millions of tons of Charcoal Ash that is being dumped if we
sum up all the ashes that are being used by the consumers. It could propound to our
society an environmental and economic benefit without harmful effects to the publics
health and safety when it will be properly managed. The value of this Charcoal ash
recycling possibly prevents the passage of tougher regulations for the handling and
disposal of said material, instead of disposing it to the landfills we could avoid
environmental degradation. For the benefit of human health and the environment,
recycling and use of waste materials avoid other adverse impacts. A delicate burning
process is required to eliminate some organic components on the materials to be used as a

6
charcoal.
There are benefits to the environment and to the economy from the use of
Charcoal
Ash, such as wallboard, concrete, roofing materials and bricks, where the Ash is
bound into products. Due to its low cost and high activity it has a promising perspective
on sustainable construction. One of the most widely recognized beneficial applications of
Charcoal Ash is the use as a mixture on a Portland cement in the manufacture of concrete.
This study aims to seek the possibility of utilizing charcoal ash as a mixture with
cement in making bricks. Particularly, this study look to assess whether there would be a
significant difference in relation between charcoal ash volume in concrete and what is
usually available in the market in terms of their strength, workability and durability. Also,
the purpose of the study is to extend the use of charcoal ash as an admixture and to give it
an importance to the society and also to gain profit pertains to the said project.

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to determine whether the charcoal ash suits to be mix in a cement
to make a low-cost bricks as a component to beautify a house.
Specifically, this study is intended to answer the following questions:
1. What is the specific strength of the study for a thin piece of bricks using coal ash as a
mixture for cement?
2. Does the bricks durable enough to meet the quality on the market?
3. How much water absorption does the charcoal ash resist to sustain its workability?
4. Does the project less expensive compared to the existing brick that are available in the
market?

Significance of the Study

The researchers believe that this study gives a lot of benefits to the following:
Engineers. This could cultivate the ability of the engineers about the Charcoal Ash as an
admixture in a cement, and as a reinforcement in building a houses.
Contractors. Which will enable them to get more clients because of the affordability and
so as the durability of the project pursuant to the design needs of their clients.
Consumers. This study helps the consumers or the homeowners to beautify their houses
in a low-cost amount of bricks. By this, they could not think so much about money just to
buy something for the beautification of their houses, in that way they are not just helping
or making themselves happy but also they could help lessen those environmental issues
that are happening every now and then.
Approaching Researchers. An advocacy from this study may encourage those
approaching researchers to execute more candid tests and studies involving the Charcoal
Ash Bricks.

Scope and limitation of the Study

This study focused and limited on its strength, durability and workability whether
charcoal ash is qualified to mix with a cement to make a bricks with a different designed
proportions such as, 90%-10% and 50%-50%. This study was also intent to determine if
this study will suite to the market because of its affordability.

10

Review of Related Literature

Ashes to Bricks
Concrete as is well known is a heterogeneous mix of cement, water and
aggregates. The admixtures may be added in concrete in order to enhance some of the
properties desired specially. In its simplest form, concrete is a mixture of paste and
aggregates. Various materials are added such as fly ash, rice husk, and admixture to
obtain concrete of desired property. The character of the concrete is determined by
quality of the paste. The key to achieving a strong, durable concrete rests in the careful
proportioning, mixing and compacting of the ingredients.
Brick is one of the most common masonry units as a building material due to its
properties. Many attempts have been made to incorporate wastes into the production of
bricks, for examples, rubber, limestone dust, wood sawdust, processed waste tea, fly ash,
polystyrene and sludge. Recycling such wastes by incorporating them into building
materials is a practical solution for pollution problem.
Shelter is a basic human need and owning a house becomes a life long struggle as
majority of Indians find housing costs prohibitively expensive. This problem becomes
even more acute when considering the low income families who accounts for about 6070% of Indian population. This brings out the need to reduce the cost of the housing and
make it affordable for the booming population. Burnt clay bricks are being used
extensively and the most important building material in construction industry. In India the
building industry consumes about 20000 bricks and 27% of the total natural energy
consumption for their production. In addition to this, Clay bricks available in certain
region are poor in quality and have lower compressive strength, higher water absorption,
high efflorescence, higher wastage during transportation and handling, uneven surface
etc., which have forced engineers to look for better materials capable of reducing the cost
of construction.
Disposal of rice husk ash is an important issue in these countries which cultivate
large quantities of rice. Rice husk has a very low nutritional value and as they take very
long to decompose are not appropriate for composting or manure. Therefore the 100

11
million tons of rice husk produced globally begins to impact the environment if not
disposed of properly. One effective method used today to rid the planet of rice husk is to
use it to fuel kilns. These kilns help to produce bricks and other clay products that are
used in daily life. Burning the rice husk is an efficient way to dispose of the rice
cultivation by product while producing other useful goods. After the kilns have been fired
using rice husk, the ash still remains. As the production rate of rice husk ash is about 20%
of the dried rice husk, the amount of RHA generated yearly is about 20 million tons
worldwide. The rice husk ash is a highly siliceous material that can be used as an
admixture in concrete if the rice husk is burnt in a specific manner. The characteristics of
the ash are dependent on the components, temperature and time of burning. During the
burning process, the carbon content is burnt off and all that remains is the silica content.
The silica must be kept at a non-crystalline state in order to produce an ash with high
pozzalonic activity. The high pozzalonic behavior is a necessity if you intend to use it as a
substitute or admixture in concrete. It has been tested and found that the ideal
temperature for producing such results is between 600 C and 700 C. The following
graph shows the curve for obtaining reactive cellular rice husk ash with certain burning
temperatures and time fired. If the rice husk is burnt at too high a temperature or for too
long the silica content will become a crystalline structure. If the rice husk is burnt at too
low a temperature or for too short a period of time the rice husk ash will contain too large
an amount of un-burnt carbon.
Our ultimate goal in this Engineers without Borders challenge is to improve the
standard of living of the people in the Devikulam community. Above all, we aim to
achieve this in a sustainable way; that is culturally approved, technically feasible and
economically reasonable. Chiefly, we have chosen to attack the human development
areas of poverty and housing, for two main reasons. First, these problems undermine the
fundamental human rights of villagers to relative wealth and shelter in their lives, and
second, we see these as the first liberating steps to greater humanitarian development.
Our aim is to implement a locally run brick making industry in Devikulam that will
produce at least 500 bricks per day, with the overarching goal of empowering the
community economically. The village will then have the potential to sell the bricks for

12
extra income, or to use them in future community building projects. Our project will
include the preliminary plans for future business, as well as construction projects. We aim
to encourage and foster both of these possibilities through the initial organisation of the
brick business and dialogue on the opportunity for future building development,
especially within the sector of housing improvement.
Thus, we firmly believe in the capacity of our project to increase community
income and to empower the community to be more self-reliant in future humanitarian
development.
The principal innovation of the project is that the villagers will make interlocking bricks,
using rice husk ash waste from local rice farms as the main aggregate. The bricks will not
be cooked, but cured with cement and water. The brick manufacturing process will
involve batch mixing, mould-filling, machine pressing, curing and transportation.
The crux of the project is that at the same time as providing steady employment to many
villagers, the Ashes to Bricks project will become a source of income and building
materials for Devikulam villagers, as well as a small-scale waste management program
too. The main strengths of the project are that it will initially be small scale, dealing
specifically with the Devikulam community and the technical manufacturing process is
simple. In addition, the most significant consideration that we have made regards the
sustainability of the project.
It is sustainable
Economically: Bricks will generate a source of income or provide building materials for
the Devikulam community.
Environmentally: Use of rice husk ash as the primary aggregate will solve many waste
management issues.
Socially: Developing an industry in Devikulam and the source of income will empower
the villagers to improve all facets of their lifestyle, such as housing, water quality,
sanitation and transport.
The project will provide the opportunity to Devikulam residents to undertake stable part
or full time employment, while still ensuring that they are not overworked. The creation
of an industry is the first step in any humanitarian building development. The benefits of

13
which can be taken advantage of in the future to improve Devikulams living standards
and provide villagers with fundamental human needs of relative comfort and shelter. We
have considered many possible risks or unintended consequences of our project on the
community and the environment, and our design and implementation steps clearly reflect
these considerations. However we concede that it will not be possible to foresee every
difficulty that may be encountered and many assumptions had to be made. As detailed in
the Implementation Section, we are committed to making sure the project is endorsed, or
even championed, by the community. Community eagerness and contentment will be the
key factors in making the project sustainable. Success in this community consultation
will be the vital key to success of the entire Ashes to Bricks project. It is with these
considerations in mind that we propose our project, Ashes to Bricks.
The problems we are directly addressing are the abject poverty of villagers in
Devikulam, and on a smaller scale, waste management. In transforming the use of rice
husk ash, which currently damages farmers soils, Ashes to Bricks will create an
income and thus directly alleviate the severe poverty faced by villagers.
In particular, we are addressing these specific problems of waste and poverty because we
believe it is the most practical way to initiate genuine humanitarian development in
Devikulam that is not only sustainable, but which grows and develops after our departure.
This is for four very important reasons:
1. As a source of extra income, Ashes to Bricks has the potential to empower the
community economically, allowing them more freedom to develop in other areas. This is
due as much to the fact that villagers will be self-employed (rather than in inflexible,
uncertain employment on farms), as it is to the income they will generate.
2. Ashes to Bricks will facilitate future building development in Devikulam by
providing a source of cheap, easy-to-use building material. Also, having learnt the skills
and process of making bricks will in itself encourage the villagers to make use of the
bricks.
3. Due to its benefits in waste management, the project has the potential to become large
and widespread as it is likely to be endorsed by the Indian government, NGOs and local
farmers.

14
4. Creating a business for which the villagers will be responsible will instil a sense of
independence in the villagers, as well as increase their self-confidence for future, even
village-run, humanitarian development.
Thus while Ashes to Bricks does not itself directly address the most important
humanitarian issues of sanitation and housing development, successful implementation of
the Ashes to Bricks plan will lead directly to increased wealth, a stock of building
materials and increased village independence and self-confidence. Moreover, it will lead
indirectly to housing development and humanitarian development in other crucial areas.
Most importantly, it is a sustainable way of achieving these goals that is sensitive and
inspiring to the community.
The success and appropriateness of the design will be evaluated by the following criteria,
related to the economic, environmental and social contexts.
Economic
A large proportion of Indias population live below the international poverty line,
and although the definition is lower for the state of Tamil Nadu, there is still a significant
amount of people in the Devikulam community living in poverty, see Appendix A for
more detailed information. Therefore the proposed solution must adhere to the following
criteria:
The solution must create an effective source of income to improve the standard of living
of the Devikulam residents.
It must be economically sustainable, taking into account the upkeep and running costs
of the solution and allowing for unforeseen expenses;
It must realise the poverty of the community and take into consideration the set up costs
and how this would impact upon the community;
The solution must bring in enough capital to cover the costs of labour, in addition to the
above mentioned costs;
The ideal solution in an economical context would build up a stable and thriving
economy within the community that could assist in bringing families above the poverty
line and also provide a secure income for Devikulam residents.

15
Social
There is all throughout India a sense of social discrimination even today, despite
efforts by the Indian government to remove this from society. There is a class distinction
evident in all communities and this is also the case in Devikulam (more detailed
information regarding this is available in Appendix A. Thus, the proposed solution must
also consider the social implications it may have according to the following criteria:
It must have equal benefits for all parts of the community and not provide better or
different benefits between classes. It must not discriminate using social class distinctions
by only allowing certain classes to work on specific areas, as this will only perpetuate the
caste system.
It must provide an equal opportunity for everyone in the community and allow for
community wide involvement.
The solution must maintain the cultural integrity of Devikulam and in no way have any
adverse impacts on it.
The procedure of building the solution must be simple and easy to learn, even by
illiterate villagers.
In this case, the ideal solution is one which would allow all classes of the community to
work together on the project and help to remove this sort of discrimination from the
community.
Environmental
Devikulam has significant environmental issues regarding waste in addition to other
problems such as open defecation as outlined in Appendix A. Environmental impacts of
proposed solutions must be taken into account as any solution that would add to the
existing problems in this area can be considered as an impractical solution. This sets up
the criteria for proposed solutions in this area:
The solution must not add to the existing waste issues of the community and if possible,
reduce the amount of waste in the community;
The design solution must incorporate affordable, locally available materials.

16
The ideal solution in this context would utilise waste that the community has
generated to create a practical and useful material. This would result in constructive
outcomes for the community and the environment.
Throughout history humans have developed various methods of construction and
materials. Before the introduction of cement, soils and mud were the main materials used
in construction. Cement blocks and iron sheets are now signs of the modern era and are
existent even in the most remote, rural communities. The main problem a community like
Devikulam faces is the inability to acquire these materials due to their relatively high
cost. So the locals of Devikulam, like so many others around the world, are in need of a
cost effective material which can be used to build quality houses and structures. To date
there exist a number of alternative solutions to this problem, many of which incorporate
the use of an industrial waste as a main component of the construction material. Here is a
brief list of some of the existing solutions to the problem:
The company Encos Ltd has been able to create a fully sustainable rice husk ash brick
model using 80% rice husk ash and vegetable oil as a binder.
Materials with high silica content have been used as a cement substitute in various
block and brick designs. These are called pozzolanic materials and have been used in the
construction industry for many years. Many industrial wastes have been used as
substitutes such as fly ash and pulverized fuel ash. They are used as cement extenders and
are all made up of calcium silicates.
An entrepreneurial method of mixing rice husk ash with sand, quarry dust and a small
amount of cement exists yet it does not exhibit optimal compressive strength.
In particular, the development of an interlocking stabilised soil brick in rural Ugandan
communities proved to be a beneficial precedent to our solution. The United Nations
Habitat Organisation has produced a document outlining the implementation of a brick
making process in Ugandan communities. This document discussed similar issues to
those we expect to encounter in Devikulam such as limited access to modern construction
materials. From studying this precedent we were able to gain a better understanding of

17
the conditions in a poor rural community and the importance of utilizing locally available
resources. The main aggregate material in these interlocking bricks is locally sourced soil
which is then stabilized with lime and then pressed with an interlocking brick press (UN
Habitat 2009). This project also introduced us to the idea of interlocking bricks and their
numerous advantages such as less mortar use and extra strength. So far this project has
been implemented successfully in several Ugandan communities. We aim to create a
similar process in India using rice husk ash as an aggregate alternative. This will
hopefully encourage the development of similar operations in the future.
We have chosen the solution of establishing a brickmaking industry development
plan that will help generate income for the Devikulam community, while minimising
start-up costs. Our brick design is unique and innovative since it incorporates rice husk
ash as the main aggregate and the bricks will be moulded into easy to use interlocking
bricks. This process does not require energy intensive kilns as the bricks are cured with
the addition of water and the cementation process that takes place. Over the course of this
project it is important to continue trial runs with different mix materials and ratios to find
out the best mixes for strength and costs. After the implementation of this initial process,
there is always potential for improvement in strength and increasing the amount of waste
material contained in the brick.
The cornerstone of the project will involve introducing The Devikulam New
Builders Program. The main aim of the program is to empower the Devikulam residents
and to give them skills and tools to create an extra avenue of income generation. This
section will analyse the key aspects of the program.
Implementation Plan
The Devikulam New Builders Program will be structured in 6 phases: flyers,
seminars, brick making training, business management training and beginning and
continuation of the manufacturing process. The flowchart and procedure below
summarise each stage of implementation. We plan to employ several less conventional
and more engaging techniques of communication such as door knocking, demonstrations
and plays, while strictly avoiding techniques which may be seen as patronising or
insulting methods.

18

Phase 1
1. Community consultation Must be approval by Devikulams elders before any
program can be implemented.
2. Warn the villagers through the village representatives that we will be visiting
households to introduce ourselves over the ensuing days.
3. Publicise the project with the residents of Devikulam: Begin door knocking with a
local translator and disseminate flyers to introduce ourselves, and our project idea, to
each household. Allow translator to clarify any of the basic parts of the project. The dates
of seminars which villagers are invited to attend will be discussed along with the
incentives to do so.
4. Innovative Communication - Our representative will take to each of these meetings a
container of rice husk ash and brick, to make plain the link between the two components,
which they are explaining. This will ensure that the basic purpose of our project is totally
clear to every single villager before the seminars begin. The magic of this acclaimed and
presented transformation of ash to brick may also catch the curiosity of the villagers,
which would encourage attendance at the seminars.
Phase 2
1. Hold the seminars, explaining the project in full over the course of several seminars.
Equivalent seminars will be held to provide flexibility and allow for smaller audience
numbers. This facilitates the question and answer part of the seminar by allowing greater
attention to be paid to each individual. After a brief introduction into the mechanics of the
project, the focus of the first two seminars will be on the potential benefits of the project
to the village in the following aspects:

19
a) More jobs for more wealth - Explaining the business opportunity of brick sales in the
local area and what this means for villagers (i.e. more food, greater independence and
flexibility in that villagers will work for themselves)
Innovative Communication - To explain merely in words the idea of business to locals,
who have perhaps no business sense, could be futile. We plan to present a short and sharp
play of several situations that will earnestly aim to illuminate specific key features of
business, like sales, managing a team and profit and loss. Humour will only be included if
deemed culturally and socially sensitive by thorough consideration of Indian culture and
religion. The play will be held at the beginning of the business seminar.
b) Bricks for building - Brick making is the first step to building development: aside from
being able to make a profit, villagers would have the mechanisms in place to make bricks
cheaply and quickly for building development projects for Devikulam in the future.
Innovative Communication - Demonstrations of making bricks will be included in these
seminars. The purpose of this is not to train villagers, which will come later, but rather to
ensure they have fully understood what is to be explained about the process. It is
expected that this visual aid will be even more enlightening than the explanations
themselves. The visual aid will focus on the basic processes of the project and emphasise
its simplicity.
2. Community leaders or EWB representatives to visit each household again to ask about
any issues the villagers may have with the project as it has been presented in the
seminars.
3. Revision of project in light of community issues: We are prepared to change the project
significantly to match or assuage the concerns of the villagers. We will not undertake the
project unless or until the village endorses it.
4. Community Forum: In presentation form, we respond to the issues raises by
individual villagers, or Step 2. Villagers will be asked to consider carefully our revisions
to the project before coming forward with further concerns. Any further concerns at this
point shall be treated one by one and may result in interviews with certain villagers.

20
Phase 3 and 4
1. Education and training Education and training will be provided for the Devikulam
residents in brick manufacturing and entrepreneurship. The steps leading to making rice
husk ash bricks must be performed carefully to ensure good quality, while the brick
making machine is easy to use. The training for the manufacturing process should take
one to two weeks. Some basic training in entrepreneurship and business concepts must
also be taught to the Devikulam residents who will manage the project when it finally
becomes independent from Engineers without Borders. This may take a few more weeks
of both in-class and on-the-job training, due to the difficulty of the content.
Innovative Communication - This training will be more practical based and there will be
fewer theoretical components due to the general low standard of literacy.
Phase 5
1. Manufacturing and construction The manufacturing of the brick will begin in earnest
immediately after the training, and once more than 1000 bricks are made, the residents
should think about selling the bricks. An NGO member will oversee the brick making for
several months; helping with roistering, organising
start-up wages, supervising the brick making process and helping train new staff who join
late; and will assume less and less responsibility with time.
2. Marketing and business A marketing and business plan will be implemented as
demonstrated in Section 4.1.6 Income Generation. Initially, the bricks will be sold to
nearby towns and villages to assist their construction projects. This can be undertaken in
conjunction with other NGO run humanitarian development.
Phase 6
1. Innovative Communication - As the program progresses, the villagers will be
encouraged to give regular feedback and report results of the program. This will
be achieved through visits to the workplace in order to hear the workers
concerns, to all households again, to gauge the way in which the project is

21
affecting the individuals of the community. In this way, the implementation plan
can be changed if it is required and the project can be sustained, even after it
becomes independent from Engineers without Borders. Also, an experienced
assessor will be making regular inspections of the program to ensure constant
progress and development.
Developing Business
As part of the Devikulam New Builders Program the skills that will be taught to the
Devikulam residents will be used to help develop an industry and create a source of
revenue for the community. The most important aspect of the implementation plan is to
structure and operate the program formally just like a business in a developed country.
The program will only become sustainable and ongoing if it is structured and organised in
an appropriate way.
Some basic training in entrepreneurship and project management must also be
taught to the Devikulam residents who will manage the project when it finally becomes
independent from Engineers without Borders. As part of this course, experienced advisers
will teach them how to structure their industry and strategies that can be used to market
and sell the bricks. This may take up to a month of both in-class and on-the-job training,
due to the 59.4% literacy rate in rural India in 2001. This training will be more practical
based and there will be less theoretical components due to this low literacy rate. This
learning process can continue after the manufacturing process begins, as Engineers
without Borders can give these residents ongoing advice on how to run the project.
Evidently, the program will have to begin small, only manufacturing bricks at a small
scale for neighbouring villages and towns. However, it has the potential expand and
develop into a large company as it earns more revenue. Finally, regular meetings must be
held between the managers of the program and the Engineers without Borders facilitators,
in order to provide regular feedback and to consider strategies for improvement and
development. All decisions made will be after consultation with the Engineering without
Borders advisers, in order to ensure that the program runs efficiently and keeps
progressing.

22
Income Generation
One of the significant goals in the Devikulam New Builders Program is to
create a strategy for income generation for the poor community of Devikulam. Extra
income will also be the main incentive for the villagers, many of whom live below the
poverty line.
The first steps for the implementation plan are to start manufacturing bricks, which will
be sold for building projects in neighbouring towns and villages in the Vilupurram
District. This will begin to provide some income for the villagers which may motivate
them to work harder to develop the project. As the Devikulam residents become
successful with selling bricks to local communities, the appointed project managers will
decide, after consultation with Engineers without Borders, whether to expand and sell to
other places.
A wage of $10 USD per worker per week has been proposed in addition to the money
that will be given to workers who undertake training. Bonuses will also be awarded to
workers who commit to the job for at least a year. The remaining revenue that has been
generated will be allocated to building capital so that the project may expand in the
future.
Marketing and Selling
After manufacturing the bricks, the initial plan is to sell them to neighbouring
communities to assist in their building projects. The customer value proposition of the
bricks (i.e benefits that the customer will receive) will be attractive to customers.
1. The Rice Husk Ash Bricks have a high strength and resistance to water compared to
regular mud bricks. This is cost effective in the long term, as it decreases the need for
regular maintenance of houses. Mud bricks are easily damaged by the monsoon floods
and so must be repaired after the wet season.
2. The manual brick machine is capable of making a variety of shapes, depending on the
mould. The interlocking brick design that has been chosen will make it very easy to use
and does not require a skilled professional to construct buildings.

23
3. Interlocking bricks eliminate the need to use mortar, which is very expensive at 250
rupees per 50 kg and the price is increasing. Thus, the builders who use Rice Husk Ash
Bricks will save greatly on costs.
4. The traditional mud brick cannot made uniformly as it is usually made by hand using a
wooden mould. The brick making machine will be able to compress the bricks with
forces of 80-100N, which will create not only strong but uniformly shaped bricks.
Therefore, they will be much better quality than traditional mud bricks.
Human Resources
According to the EWB Industry Development factsheet on Devikulam
(2010), villagers in Devikulam currently work on average 3-5 days per week. This is not
including those of middle castes status who own land. These landowners work 5-6 days
per week on their farms. According to community development organization BLIS
(Buzza Land Information Systems) (2011), paid employment generally occurs on an
irregular basis for Devikulam residents. Thus, a large proportion of the residents of
Devikulam currently work only 3 days per week. However, it is estimated that due to the
irregularity of work arrangements this is not a constant figure. Rather, villagers could
often work only once or twice out of five days. Furthermore, there are up to 19 people
unemployed, or with unknown sources of income. Thus, it is reasonably estimated that
there will be at least 15 villagers able to work on the brick making process. This will be
sufficient to initiate the brick making mechanisms and processes, at least on a small scale.
The Devikulam New Builders Program is an opportunity for these unemployed
and under-employed villagers to take on work for 1-4 days a week, as desired. Given the
commencement of the brick industry, there will be arguably potential for growth in this
industry through the large number of under-employed villagers, who could complement
the core full/part time workers with casual work. Their involvement could bolster the
brick production rate and share the burden of labour intensive work.
If the brick industry is successful, it has potential to empower the whole village in an
economic sense by giving residents an alternative choice of where to work. It is
foreseeable that increased income and more job opportunities for locals would create
employment competition with farm owners employing locals as agricultural labourers,

24
and that land owners would have to increase wages to stay attractive as employers. In
addition, it must be noted that the majority of villagers who will start work on this brickmaking project are currently casual agricultural labourers, shown in the graph below.
Therefore, it is ethical to expect that the Devikulam villagers will be accustomed to
physical labour and will have no problem with the less demanding brick making process.
Insulation and Ventilation
Double layer 'Cavity' brick walls and cavity insulation
While we foresee at least two possible alternatives for the design of the walls of the
sleeping quarters the success of both will be underpinned by cavity insulation.
1. Brick veneer. This consists of a single brick layer backed by an air space. This air
space is enclosed with some sort of masonry layer that is not bricks.
2. Double brick layer. In this case, the airspace behind the single brick layer is enclosed
by another brick layer.
Although further research is needed to justify which one of these wall designs is installed,
it is clear that either could be very effective due to their characteristic air cavities.
According to the ACT Government Home Energy Advice Team (HEAT), insulated cavity
walls are extremely effective insulators that work by limiting the fluctuation of internal
temperature of a house.
Cavity insulation in a brick veneer can prevent on average 85% of heat transfer
through the walls, while in a double brick layer wall it can prevent 63% (HEAT 2010).
This will be an important feature in mitigating the discomfort and disturbance caused by
the heat accrued during a summer's day, when temperatures average 39 degrees.
There are several viable alternatives for the actual insulating material, including
rockwool, fibreglass or polystyrene boards. Crucially, Rockwool is markedly easier to
install relative to other materials (HEAT 2010). It is a composite of rock and glass
furnace slag with a 'woollen' texture, and is manufactured in India. Several insulation
companies, including Rockwool India Ltd, operate in Chennai, which is only
approximately 130km from Devikulam. Thus, it is a feasible proposition to have it
delivered to the community at a reasonable cost. In Australia, Perth insulation company
AIS quoted rockwool to cost $3.4 per square metre. It is estimated that the Indian price
will be equal to or lower than the Australian price due to differences in the respective

25
economies, and thus rockwool seems economically viable. Based on rough estimates for
the dimensions of the sleeping quarters explained in detail further on in the report, 40 of
the sleeping quarters will require at most 50 square metres of insulation material, while
the remaining 47 will require 40 square metres. 3880m2 at $3.4 per m2 gives an
estimated cost for rockwool of $13 200 USD.
Windows
Despite the efficacy of double layer brick walls in resisting the sharp temperature
rise during the day, it is still possible that air inside the sleeping quarters is heated to an
uncomfortable degree during a summer day. This could be aggravated by small errors in
construction which could cause imperfections in the walls. The installation of at least one
window is our safeguard to counter this undesired effect. Its chief function will be to
open in the evening to release hot air from the sleeping quarters that had gathered during
the day. Cooler air from outside then replaces this escaping air via the doorway. It will be
placed as close as possible to the top of the walls, where the heated air will be more
concentrated. Yet it does not undermine the insulating capacity of the structure. During
the day, it can remain closed keep out hot air. The design of the window will consist of a
bamboo structure or skeleton, filled with closely thatched palm leaves. The villagers
already have adequate thatching skills for this window, which does not need to be
watertight in the same way as a roof. Its upper horizontal side is to be fixed to the wall so
that it can rotate. The lower horizontal side is to move outwards from the wall and can be
easily held in place by a bamboo rod.
If deemed necessary and possible by further analysis and community consultation, we
will consider the possibility of a 'window' in the roof, to allow complete escape of heated
air from the roof cavity of the sleeping quarters.
Door
Currently houses in Devikulam have open doorways, allowing the inside
temperature of the house to fluctuate with the outside temperature. The sleeping quarters
will have a door to serve the same purpose as the window. Closed during the day, the
house will remain insulated against the hot outside air. Open at night with the windows, a
draught will speed up the process of cooling.

26
We are considering two different door designs:
Option 1 - A thatch 'blanket' that is to be attached to the top of the doorway and hang
down. To close, the bottom horizontal of the hanging blanket can be attached to the walls
just above the ground. To open, the bottom horizontal can lift outwards from the house
and attach to the underside of the breezeway. While simple to fashion and install, this
door could possibly be tiresome and difficult to operate on a day to day basis.
Option 2 - More similar to the window, the second option is a bamboo structure covered
in thatched leaves,that will operate like a conventional door. This would be easy to
operate. However the vertical rotating axis must be as close as possible to the side of the
door frame to keep the doorway air tight. In order to decide on this issue, more research
is required to ascertain the exact impact of slight imperfections in the walls and doorway
to the insulating capacity of the sleeping quarters.
Breezeway
This crucially allows for the separation of the sleeping area from the existing
house. Although the sleeping quarters will be very well insulated in themselves, the
insulation system could not function correctly were the sleeping quarters adjoined
directly to existing houses, as heat built up in the house could transfer quickly to the
sleeping area. The breezeway counters this effect, allowing heat from the house no access
to the sleeping area, and thus for a clear distinction between the temperature of the house
and that of the sleeping quarters. The insulation and ventilation systems of the sleeping
quarters ensure that the temperature inside the sleeping quarters is indeed markedly lower
than that of the house, which will average 39 degrees during the day, and be not much
lower during the early night. Temperature in the sleeping quarters will actually equal the
temperature outside, which at night in summer averages 28.5 degrees. This will be
especially useful for villagers currently living in concrete houses, where temperatures can
reach 40 degrees Celsius by night and on which modifications are difficult to perform.
Rather than sleep outside in summer as is currently the case, these villagers will be able
to sleep under shelter in relative comfort. This is also important in monsoon season, when
cooking on an open fire is presumably done inside the house. This would greatly heat up
the house and more significantly, could cause smoke inhalation due to lack of ventilation.

27
Therefore, using this alternative solution, villagers can cook without heating their
sleeping area and risking smoke related diseases.
Dimensions
There are 87 households in Devikulam, ranging in size from one to seven people.
Despite this large range of family size, we are offering just two different sizes of sleeping
quarters.
"Regular" will cater for families with up to and including four members, of which there
are currently 49. Based on preliminary designs of interior layout, these will be 3m wide
by 7m long by 2m high (walls) and thus cover a ground area of 21m2.
"Big" will cater for the 38 families of five to seven members, or for four member
families expecting more children. Based on two options for interior layout, we have
considered two possibilities for 'Big" SQ dimensions: Option 1) 3m wide by 12.25m
long, Option 2) 5m wide by 6.5m long.
Our main concern will be to fit these sleeping quarters in the space around and
between houses. Option 1 is perhaps less practical, considering that some houses are
currently within 2 times the length 12.25m, or about 25m, of each other. Option 2 seems
more practical ostensibly, but is flawed in that its interior layout and shape would differ
from that of the "Regular" size. We must determine whether or not this could be a point
of confusion for the builders.
In the rare case that a family of seven grows in size, we propose the solution of
reconfiguring the interior layout to provide extra space. Our dimensions will take this
possibility into account by setting aside extra space for and between each bed than would
be required for basic comfort. Thus for example, it will be feasible to create the space for
an extra bed of width 1.15m by moving current beds together 10cm and reducing bed
width by 10cm. This would not undercut the ultimate goal of the sleeping quarters to
provide relative comfort to the villagers.
Possible Risks
For the case in which there is not enough space to place the sleeping quarters next
to the house (especially in the colony, where houses are already built very close together)

28
we have two possible solutions:
Option 1 - Erecting a completely separated sleeping quarters.
That is, not connected by a breezeway but as close as possible to the house. This would
be effective for most of the year, but limited during monsoon season, when families could
have to walk in the dark through the rain to reach their sleeping quarters. Further
investigation on the how villagers live during the monsoon season will determine if they
are already used to dealing with such a problem, and thus determine the extent of this
limitation.
Option 2 - Remake the roof of the existing house and not build sleeping quarters.
To re-do a more watertight roof, made from the bamboo concrete composite that will
constitute sleeping quarters roofs, would at least solve the waterproofing problem.
Although residents would have to continue sleeping outside during summer, waterproof
houses would mean increased comfort in their home during monsoon season and thus an
increased ability to be productive in the home and at work. In any case, the roofs of
current houses are re-thatched about every three years. The new waterproof replacement
would be more durable and last a lot longer than three years. As part of this project we
were faced with the task of making a physical prototype which would effectively
represent our brick design. The first step of this process was to construct a wooden
mould. Four 10 mm thick strips of pine were measured and cut to create a 230x110x76
mm box. The panels were held together using chipboard nails and the mould was
complete. The mould we created is representative of traditional adobe brick making,
however our real design process incorporates an interlocking brick design which is
achieved with a mechanical press. Because of the limited access to rice husks in suburban
Sydney we used charcoal ash as an aggregate substitute. We combined 1 part ash to 1 part
river sand to fill half of a wheel barrow to achieve our desired mix. Next we poured in
half a bag of cement combined with a coarse gravel mix. The dry mix was stirred around
with a shovel until a homogeneous colour was obtained. A litre of water was added to the
barrow and was shoveled around until a workable mix was achieved. Next some sand
was dusted in the mould to prevent the brick from sticking. A small shovel of the mix was
placed in the mould and it was compacted by shaking. The mix was left to set for a
couple of minutes and then the mould was tipped upside down to release the shaped

29
brick. The process was repeated twice more to produce a total of three bricks. The bricks
were left outside and covered with a black sheet of plastic. For the next 7 days the bricks
were sprinkled with water twice a day and after that the plastic was removed.
Using charcoal ash as an aggregate for the bricks significantly reduced the
compressive strength. The reason for this is due to the low silica content of the ash, which
does not effectively combine and bind to the cement. Conversely, if rice husk ash had
been used, we would have produced a much stronger, stable brick. Also this process
highlighted the importance of compacting the mix when in the mould. Compacting the
mix by hand significantly weakens the brick and results in a much rougher, crumbly
finish.
This suggests the importance of a mechanical brick press, which can create 80100 N of compressive force on the brick, when implementing the brick process in
Devikulam.
Making this prototype was a useful exercise as it notified us of the importance of the high
silica content in the rice husk ash, and the ineffectiveness of hand pressing the moulds. It
was also beneficial as it allowed us to gain a deeper understanding of the actual brick
making process and how we can improve on its efficiency.
Engineering Performance
The performance of rice husk ash cement is important to investigate to be sure
that it can be used in place of a normal batch of cement. All projects must be considered
on a separate basis beforehand, but there are some common characteristics of rice husk
ash cement that may be beneficial to certain locations, situations, or projects.
Structural Integrity
The use of pozzolanas as alternatives for the commonly used Portland cement
have been used in the past few decades either for cost reduction, performance &
durability enhancement, or environmental reasons. Malhorta and Mehta state that
pozzolanas are defined as siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials which in
themselves possess little or no cementing property, but will in a finely dispersed form in
the presence of water chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to
form compounds possessing cementitious properties. When water is added to a mixture

30
with pozzolanic material it acts as cement, in some instances providing a stronger bond
than cement alone. The cost reduction is especially important for the areas of Africa,
South America, and South-East Asia where the poverty level and wealth of the areas are
low. This can allow for cheap building material without the loss of performance, which is
crucial for any developing nation to continue to grow.
Corrosion Performance
The addition of rice husk ash to a concrete mixture has been proven to increase
corrosion resistance. It has a higher early strength than concrete without rice husk ash.
The rice husk ash forms a calcium silicate hydrate gel around the cement particles which
is highly dense and less porous. This will prevent the cracking of the concrete and protect
it from corrosion by not allowing any leeching agents to break down the material. The
study done by Song and Saraswathy found that the incorporation of RHA up to 30%
replacement level reduces the chloride penetration, decreases permeability, and improves
strength and corrosion resistance properties.
Effect of Humidity
The effects of humidity can result in a drastic change in the final behavior of the
concrete. The comparative tests performed and documented by Jauberthie between
specimens stored in dry and wet conditions have shown that at high humidity
conservation the mortar gains strength by virtue of the well-developed pozzolanic
reaction. This added strength is only under compression forces, specimens are more
brittle under a smaller flexural load than specimens stored at 50% relative humidity. The
following table explains the figures that were found from the experiment. As for climates
of South-East and East Asia, the high humidity levels indicate that there will be a higher
compressive strength, but more brittleness in the concrete produced. That is unless it is
stored in a facility with regulated humidity levels. For the use of concrete with rice husk
ash mixtures, it would be recommended to use it for columns or structural walls which
tend to support compressive forces.
Casting

31
To complete an analysis of our own, we produced four batches of concrete with
varying amounts of rice husk ash substituted for Ordinary Portland Cement. There was a
control group with no rice husk ash, one with 15% substitution, 30% substitution, and
40% substitution. We mixed the samples and did the testing at the center for Vocational
Building Technology (CVBT) in Nong Khai, Thailand. This is important because it fits
the conditions of more rural and developing countries, where cement is expensive and
rice cultivation is widespread. The technique and procedure used was replicated of that
used by the villagers at the same building factory. This gives us more accurate results
compared to the products used in these areas. We used the CVBTs standard mix
proportions they use for paving slabs without dye. For each batch 6kg of standard OPC,
16.1 kg of sand, 17.42 kg of 3/8 aggregate, 53 mL of super plasticizer, and 2.7 L of
water was mixed together. The super plasticizer added was equal to 1% of the weight of
cement in the mix. To find the amount of water necessary, first the moisture content of the
sand was calculated. For the third and fourth batch, the concrete was not workable so
more water was added to the mix. 500 mL of extra water was added in each batch in
order to achieve a constant slump throughout the experiment. The following figure from
Ganesans article shows the percentage of cement replacement level versus standard
consistency. It indicates that the water required for standard consistency linearly increases
with an increase in RHA content. As ashes are hygroscopic in nature and the specific
surface area of RHA is much higher than cement, it needs more water. For this reason,
extra water was added to the 30% RHA and 40% RHA batches.
Infused with the water was a super plasticizer, known as F2 at this specific site.
This ingredient is used to reduce the amount of water needed to produce a sufficiently
low viscosity, by producing charged ions that repel each other in the mix. The repulsion
of the charged ions helps the particles in the concrete mix slide past one another
respectively on a microscopic level. The molds were set on a vibrating table once the
concrete was placed in them. The vibrating causes the concrete to better fill the molds
and allows the air to escape producing a form without voids. The lack of air voids
increases the strength of the product.
For each of the four batches two cubes and three slabs were produced. The cubes
were tested for failure by compression tests. They were constructed in standard size for

32
Thailands test procedures (15cm x15cm x 15cm). The cubes were tested at seven days
and fourteen days. Only two cubes were made for each batch because there was a limited
supply of molds. The paving slab testing is more pertinent towards the CVBT because
slabs are their most successful product. Because of this, it was agreed that bending tests
on the paving slabs would be the most pertinent assessment. Three slabs were constructed
for each batch in order to get a more accurate analysis than the compression cubes. The
slabs were tested after seven, fourteen, and twenty eight days of curing. The curing
process used was one little nugget of appropriate technology known solar-thermal high
humidity curing. The specimens were placed outside under a clear plastic sheet. The high
heat in the region was of concern because the drying process is sped up tremendously. In
order to achieve normal curing process water was added under the plastic daily, which
caused moisture to accumulate inside the curing chamber. Overall the process was
faster, but low input, and produced acceptable results.
Testing
Compression Test
The compression tests for the concrete cubes were done at the Nong Khai
Technical College. Thai standard test procedures were used. All specimens were weighed
at the time of each respective test.The testing machine applies a constant uniform
pressure to the cubes until failure occurs. Failure was observed when the cube no longer
could resist the force applied to it without breaking apart.
Bending Test
The bending tests for the concrete paving slabs were performed at the CVBT at
seven, fourteen, and twenty eight days after the casting. A triple point bending test was
done. This involves two metal rods with a diameter of 31mm placed symmetrically under
the slab separated by 15.3 cm. One rod the same size was placed on top in the middle of
the slab to apply a force. A hydraulic jack was placed on top to provide the force in order
to break the slabs. A constant force was applied slowly until failure when the slabs were
completely severed.

33

Analysis
For the bending tests there is a direct correlation between the weights of the mix
at the time of testing to the percentage of rice husk ash substituted for Ordinary Portland
Cement. The more rice husk ash that is used in the mix, the lighter the finished concrete
becomes. There is one outlier for the 30% RHA substitution that seems lighter than it
should be. This could be because the slab may not have been vibrated enough to fill the
voids. These air voids can decrease the weight of the concrete. Also there is always
human error that will account for outliers because it is not possible to make multiple
batches the same each time. The mix proportions were kept at a constant except for the
percentage of rice husk ash, but the time to prepare and cast varied slightly. More batches
and more specimens to test would have been ideal and would have provided a more
accurate indication of the correlation. The following graph shows that the correlation still
is strong even with the small sample size.
In this chapter, a brief review of the findings of earlier investigations on the
important properties / parameters of fly ashes; the available literature on the mechanisms
of lime-fly ash and cement-fly ash hydration processes; influence of fly ash addition on
the properties of concrete, namely, workability and compressive strength , have been
presented. A comprehensive review of the work of earlier investigators on blended
cements; studies on the activation of low-calcium and high-calcium fly ashes and natural
pozzolans, have also been presented. An attempt has also been made to critically evaluate
the status of activation studies on fly ash. Apart from the above, literature relevant to the
work carried out in this study, namely, on mix proportioning methods; effect of elevated
temperature; influence of various aggressive environments on blended 1 fly ash
concretes, have been briefly reviewed and presented.
Source
Fly ash is a by-product of the combustion of pulverized coal in thermal power
plants. Bree different processes, namely, high-temperature combustion (1 500 - 1700"
C); dry combustion (1 100 - 1400" C) and fluidized-bed combustion (<900 C) are

34
employed for the combustion of pulverized coal. Ashes obtained from fluidized-bed
combustion (FBC), are not genuine fly ashes, and are of little interest for building
material applications (Wesche, 1991). The dust-collection system (mechanical /
electrostatic precipitator - ESP) removes the fly ash, as a fine particulate system from the
combustion gases, before they are discharged into the atmosphere. The term 'fly ash' is
not applied to the residue extracted from the bottom of boilers.
Classification
Until recently. 'Fly ash' was regarded as a pozzolan. However, as a high calcium
fly ashes which do not require an external source of lime to produce cementitious
properties' came to be more widely used, than before, they are not strictly pozzolans.
Man and others (1982) have suggested that high-calcium fly ashes (the so-called
Class C ashes) are best distinguished from the low-calcium (Class F) ashes by their
cementing properties. Thus, a general term 'mineral admixtures' has been suggested to
describe all classes of slags, ashes, pozzolans and other cement supplements, with a
further distinction being drawn on the basis of their self-cementing capabilities. The
above form of classification has been proposed as being preferable to the current division
of fly ashes into two classes i.e. according to the rank of coal from of classification has
been proposed as being preferable to the current division of fly ashes into two classes i.e.
according to the rank of coal from which they originate, which is the current practice for
Canadian and US standards. The term 'mineral admixture (MA) has been criticized in the
past, as it gives a misleading picture regarding the quantity actually used in concretes.
Hence, in Canada, the term supplementary cementing materials' (SCM) has been adopted
in specifications, which describe precisely the role of these materials in most concretes.
Hawever, the terminology, 'high-calcium' and 'lowcalcium' have been used in this study,
in general, and Class C and Class F, while referring / reporting the type of fly ashes actual
used by various researchers, in their investigations.
Pozzolan
Fly ashes exhibit 'pozzolanic activity. The American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM, 1975) defines a pozzolan as a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous

35
material which in itself possesses little or no cementitious value but, which will, in a
divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide
[Ca(OH)2] at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious
properties.
Physical Characteristic of Fly Ash
Over the years, researchers have tried to characterize fly ash based on its physical
nature, by defining properties, such as, specific gravity. Fineness and grain size
distribution and have attempted to relate these properties and parameters to its reactivity.
All these properties are generally influenced by the efficiency and type of coal grinding
processes adopted at the power plant.
Grain Size Distribution
The effect of various grain size distributions on the reactivity of fly ash or on the
strength characteristics of fly ash cement concretes, have been investigated prominently
on low-calcium fly ashes. It is, as such, generally believed that the particles below 45
are responsible for the pozzolanic effect. But the enhancement in compressive strength
appears to be related more to particle size below 10 to 20.
Fineness
Puri (1975) has stated that fineness is one of the principal parameters to be
considered for fly ash to be added to cement, as it influences the rate of development of
mechanical strength and relative values to be attained. However, there is an optimal
fineness above which the increase in strength becomes less significant, due to the
increase in the specific surface. Monzo and others (1995); Watt and Thorne (1966); Davis
(1949) and Abdun Nur (1961) have also stated that finer the fly ash, the higher is the
pozzolanic activity. Thorne and Watt (1965) found that the specific surface area relates
well with the pozzolanic activity measured by chemical methods. Ravina (1980) showed
that a linear relation was found to exist between the specific surface of pulverized fuel
ash and its pozzolanic activity index. Sharnla (1990) based on his study of India fly
ashes, has reported a positive correlation between lime reactivity strength and fineness.

36
Ullopra (1979) grouped. Indian fly ashes into two categories based on Blaine's fineness,
however, no such classification was found to be possible, based on the residues of OOpm
sieve.
From the review of literature, it is seen that researchers who tried to relate fineness alone
with the strength 1 reactivity, could not come to an agreement, as the contribution of
fineness of fly ash being purely physical in nature. On the other hand, most researchers
agree about the influence of Blaine's fineness on reactivity and strength development at
early ages. The fact that it also gives a good indication on the presence of finer particles
makes it preferable for specifying characteristics of fly ash.
Specific Gravity
Studies by Weinheimer (1944) and Minnick (1959) indicate that specific gravity
varies significantly for particles of different shape, colour and chemical composition.
Compositional fluctuations, especially of iron and carbon contents seem to cause
difference in density (Helmuth, 1987). Investigations carried out by Carette and Malhotra
(1986) and Jarriage (1971) have revealed wide-ranging variations in the specific gravity
i.e. from a low- value of 1.90 for sub-bituminous ash to about 2.98 corresponding to ironrich ash.
Minnick and others (1971) performed statistical analysis of data reported in five major
experimental studies and used the combined data to obtain relationship for the specific:
gravity in terms of the percentage of Fe2O3 and sieve 110.325 as: Specific gravity = 2.23
+ 0.016X - 0.0061Y where, X - iron oxide (%); Y -- residue in 45 m sieve.
Sharma (1990) based on his study of 25 Indian fly ashes, has reported that specific
gravity seems to have no direct influence on reactivity of fly ash, within the range of
specific gravity values of ashes (2.01-2.44) investigated by him . In general, it appears
that specific gravity seems to have no direct influence on the reactivity of the ash, but,
definitely helps in defining the ash quality in terms of the presence of carbon and iron
contents, which are considered to be deleterious to concrete.
Sandcrete blocks are composite material made up of cement, sand and water,
moulded into different sizes. It is widely used in Nigeria and other countries like Ghana,

37
Ireland as walling unit. The quality of blocks produced however, differs from each
industry due to the different methods employed in the production and the properties of
the constituent materials. The importance of the blocks as part of local building materials
cannot be over emphasized in building and construction industry. Sandcrete blocks have
been widely used for building construction in Nigeria. However it is observed that clay
suitable for making high strength bricks are not available in every place in Nigeria and
the clay bricks produced and presently used in construction are not uniform in quality.
The rapid changes in the use of brick to block in Nigeria have encouraged the
investigations into the use of sandcrete blocks to be more elaborate. It was also realised
that some places in Ondo and Ekiti States in Nigeria were occupied by rivers, which
make it easier to obtain river sand rather than clay for making blocks. Also in Minna
communities, sand is easily obtained from borrow pits and riverbeds situated in the
environment which enhance the use of sand for block making (Abdullahi, 2005). Oyekan
(2008) carried out work on the use of sawdust and sugar as admixtures in sandcrete
blocks production. He discovered that sawdust as an air entraining agents has no
appreciable effect on the compressive strength of blocks. The result on the use of sugar
showed that sugar had a significant effect on the compressive strength of the blocks
increasing it by 17% at 28 days. Nimityongskul and Daladar (1995) conducted an
experiment to develop new kinds of pozzolana from other agricultural wastes apart from
rice husk and rice straw. The study investigated the use of coconut husk, corn cob and
peanut shell ash as cement replacement materials. A series of tests were performed to
determine the chemical composition of coconut husk ash, corn cob ash and peanut shell
ash which are referred to as CHA, CCA and PSA respectively.
The mechanical properties of paste and mortar containing different percentages of
ash replacement were investigated. Experimental results revealed that coconut husk ash
and corn cob ash cannot be utilized as pozzolana while peanut shell ash is classified as
Class C pozzolana according to ASTM Standards. Oyekan (2007) investigated the
strength characteristics of sandcrete blocks in which crushed waste glass is partially
replaced with cement in sandcrete block production. Crushed waste glass was discovered
to have significant effect on the compressive strength of sandcrete blocks. At a mix

38
proportion of 1:6 the compressive strength of the 450mm x 150mm x 225mm blocks (at
28 days) increased by 39% over the control value and by nearly 74% over the control
value for the 450mm x 225mm x 225mm blocks.
Materials used and Manufacture of Sandcrete Blocks
Materials:
Sand
The Sand used was clean, sharp river sand that was free from clay. The sand had a
specific gravity of 2.60.
Cement
The cement used was ordinary Portland cement from the West African cement
company, Ewekoro in Ogun State, Nigeria with properties conforming to BS 12(1971).
The properties of the cement.
Water
The water used was potable, fresh, colourless, odourless and tasteless water that is
free from organic matter of any type.
Coconut Husk Ash (CHA)
The coconut husk for this research was collected from Badagry in Lagos State. 75
bags were collected for burning. The burning was done in the gas kiln of Federal Institute
Industrial Research Oshodi (FIIRO) in Oshodi, Lagos Nigeria. The 75 bags were loaded
into the gas kiln gradually for 3 days. Chemical analysis of CHA was carried out in the
laboratory of Chemistry Department of University of Lagos, Nigeria.
Manufacture of Sandcrete Blocks
In this study, the hollow blocks were manufactured with the use of the fabricating
machine. One mix proportion of 1:8 was used in the production of 450mm x 225mm x
225mm sandcrete block. One hundred and forty of 450mmx150mmx225mm hollow

39
sandcrete blocks were produced. The quantities of materials obtained from the mix design
were measured in each case by volume. The percentage of CHA content was varied in
steps of 5% to a maximum of 30%. For the experiment, hand mixing was employed, and
the materials were turned over a number of times until an even colour and consistency
was attained. Water was then added as required through a fire hose, and the materials
were further turned over to secure adhesion. It was then rammed into the machine mould,
compacted and smoothened off with a steel face tool.
After removal from the machine moulds, the blocks were left on pallets under
cover and kept wet by watering through a fine watering hose. Testing for crushing
strength was then carried out at 7, 14, 21 and 28 days.
Effect of Coconut Husk Ash on Compressive Strength
The compressive strength values show that the inclusion of CHA in the cement
matrix does not appreciably enhance the compressive strength of the sandcrete blocks. At
5% replacement of CHA the compressive strength is 2.16N/mm2, which is 15% less than
the control value. Revealed that there is decrease in compressive strength as the
proportion of coconut husk ash increases in the mix. The reduction in compressive
strength for the replacement is due to low percentage of Calcium Oxide and Silicate
Oxide in coconut husk ash. These two silicates are the main constituent of cement and are
mainly responsible for the strength development. So as the cement content is gradually
replaced by the coconut husk ash, the quantity of cement for hydration is reduced thereby
the strength of the sandcrete blocks is reduced.
The Nigeria National Building Code recommended that average strength of 6
sandcrete block shall be 2.00N/mm2 and lowest strength for individual block shall be
1.75N/mm2 sandcrete block. For the 5% replacement of CHA in the cement matrix, the
least value for the 28th day compressive strength is 2.03N/mm2, higher than
recommendation by the code.
Effect of CHA on Dry Density. There is inconsistency in the dry density of the

40
mix for the ages, but the maximum dry density for all the ages occurred at 15% CHA
replacement. The maximum value of 1945.90 Kg/m3 was recorded at 7 day test.
The main conclusions derived from this investigation are as follows:
1. Agriculture wastes such as coconut husk ash does not show good pozzolanic property
in the production of sandcrete blocks.
2. The maximum compressive strength of 2.16 N/mm2 was obtained for the sandcrete
block specimens at a percentage CHA content of 5%.
3. Coconut husk ash addition should not exceed 5% of the weight of cement for best
results.
4. The maximum compressive strength achieved at 5% is more than recommendation of
2.00N/mm2 recommended by Nigeria National Building Code (2006), for non-load
bearing wall.
5. As the percentage of CHA content in the mix increase the compressive strength
decreased appreciably to a value of 0.06N/mm2at 30% CHA content.
6. There is no noticeable relationship between CHA content and dry density in the mix.
This paper examines Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and Bambara Groundnut
Shell Ash (BGSA) concrete. The ash contained 10.91% CaO, 2.16% Fe2O3, 4.72%
MgO, 33.36% SiO2, 1.75% Al2O3, 16.18% K2O, 9.30% Na2O, 6.40% SO3, 6.02% CO3
and 9.20% HCO3. 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% 50% and 0% ash was used in the mix to replace
cement. The strength of cement/ash concrete increased with curing period but decreased
with increasing ash percentage. The highest strength was 31.24N/mm 2 and 20.68N/mm2
at 28 days for 0% and 10% ash respectively. Substitution of cement with ash in concrete
formation was relatively possible not exceeding 10%.
The construction industry relies heavily on cement for its operations in the
development of shelter and other infrastructural facilities. It then becomes extremely
difficult for majority of the people to own their own houses or many collapse structures
in attempt to reduce cost. A way out is either by reducing the energy costs in the burning
of clinker or by increasing the production of the composite cement. The later involves

41
replacing a proportion of the clinker-high calorie consuming portion by other products
that are suitable and do not require further heat treatment.
Various research workers in the recent past had look into the utilization of
agricultural wastes that are known to be pozollanas to partially substitute cement that is
the major component of concrete. The use of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and Rice
Husk Ash (RHA) concrete in minimizing thermally induced expansion cracks has been
identified. This is because the OPC/RHA paste hydrates slowly and therefore evolved low
heat making their suitable for use in concrete in the tropics. Okpala recommended the use
of 40% partial replacement of the OPC with RHA 4. Mbachu and Kolawole examined the
influence of coarse aggregate on the drying shrinkage and elastic moduli of concrete with
OPC partially replaced with RHA . Results showed that OPC/RHA concrete cast with
quarry granite as coarse aggregate exhibited the least drying shrinkage over time and also
gave the highest values of elastic moduli when compared with river gravel. In a related
work on Groundnut Shell Ash, Yusuf reported that 30% partial replacement of cement
with Groundnut ash gave better results in the strength of the composite concrete when
compared with the control.
The partial replacement of OPC with BGSA in concrete production is a welcome
development especially is Nigeria. The cost of BGSA when compared with OPC is very
low due to the availability of Bambara Groundnut shell in large quantities as agricultural
farm wastes in Northern parts of Nigeria such as Sokoto, Kebbi, Zaria, Borno and Yobe
States.
The utilization of Bambara Groundnut shell will promote waste management at
little cost, reduce pollution by these waste and increase the economic base of the farmer
when such waste are sold thereby encourages more production. Also, BGSA production
required less energy demand compared with cement production and safe the needed
foreign exchange spent on importation of cement or its constituents. The main objective
of this study is to investigate the suitability of BGSA as partial replacement for cement in
concrete.

42

From the results of the tests and analysis carried out in this study, the following
conclusion can be drawn.
1. There exists a high possibility for partial replacement of cement with Bambara
Groundnut shell ash in concrete.
2. Partial replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement with about 10% Bambara
Groundnut Shell ash in concrete is acceptable.
3. Though the strength of OPC/BGSA concrete was lower than that of 100% cement, it
can be used for light load bearing elements.
With the ever increasing population in most developing countries and the
corresponding increase in demands and need for infrastructural development, there is an
urgent need to focus attention on low-cost alternative construction mate- rials. This work
presents the results of laboratory tests car- ried out using Coconut Fibre Ash (CFA) as a
partial re- placement for cement in concrete production. Concrete cubes were cast and
tested at curing ages of 7, 14, 21, 28 and 60 days using 0, 10, 15, 20, and 25 percent
replacement le- vels. The slump test result shows that the workability of the concrete
decreased as the CFA content increased. Results showed that the compressive strength of
CFA concrete in- creased with curing age but decreased with increasing per- centage of
coconut fibre ash. The percentage strength gained at 28 days for 5% and 10% to the
control of 0% are 95.5% and 95.1% respectively. The optimum compressive strength of
31.88N/mm2 was obtained at 10% replacement at 60 days of age. The percentage
strength at this optimum point to the control is 99.3%.
Concrete is a major construction material which is usually made by mixing
cement, water, fine and coarse aggregates and sometimes admixtures in their right
proportions. Com- munities around the world rely on concrete as a safe, durable and
simple building material. Ours is the age of concrete. Concrete technology, which is a
major branch of civil engi- neering, is becoming the backbone of infrastructural development of every country.
Portland cement is a major constituent used in production of concrete. There is an
increasing rise in the cost of cement and this affects the production cost of concrete and
conse- quently has slowed down infrastructural development in developing countries.
Cement production produces green house of effect, which is a major contributor to
environmental hazards. The gases emitted pollute the air and this poses as a threat to

43
human health.
Coconut fibre, which is an agricultural waste, is obtained from the fibrous husk
(mesocarp) of the coconut (cocos nu- cifera), from the coconut palm which belongs to the
palm family (palmae). Large quantities of this waste, if not prop- erly disposed, can lead
to social and environmental prob- lems. There is need to channel this waste product to a
more profitable venture like concrete technology.
The need to reduce the cost of cement in order to provide low-cost-housing for the
increasing populace in many Nigerian communities has led researchers to intensify
efforts at sourcing local materials that could be used as partial replacement for Ordinary
Portland Cement (OPC) in civil engineering and building works especially within the last
decade. Bakar, Putrajaya, and Abdulaziz (2010) assert thatsupplementary cementitious
materials prove to be effective to meet most of the requirements of durable concrete and
that blended cements are now used in many parts of the world. During hydration of
Portland cement, lime or calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] is obtained as one of the
hydration products. When a pozzolanic material is blended with Portland cement it reacts
with the lime to produce additional calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H), which is the main
cementing component. Thus the pozzolanic material reduces the quantity of the
deleterious Ca(OH)2 and increases the quantity of the beneficial C-S-H. Therefore, the
cementing quality is enhanced if a good pozzolanic material is blended in suitable
quantity with OPC (Dwivedia et al., 2006). At temperatures around 40C and in the
presence of water, the amorphous silica contained in pozzolans such as rice husk ash
(RHA) reacts with Ca(OH)2 to form more C-S-H gel (Poon, Kou, and Lam, 2006).
Many researchers have reported their findings on binary blended systems whereby
OPC is blended with different percentages of a pozzolan in making cement composites
(Adewuyi and Ola, 2005; Elinwa and Awari, 2001; De Sensale, 2006; Saraswathy and
Song, 2007). Attempts have already been made to produce and use pozzolanic RHA
commercially in several countries (Cisse and Laquerbe, 2000). Manyinvestigations of the
effect of ground RHA with finer particle size than OPC on concrete properties show that
higher substitution amounts results in lower water absorption values and the addition of
RHA causes an increment in the compressive strength (Malhotra and Mehta, 2004). Sakr
(2006) investigated the effects of silica fume and rice husk ash on the properties of heavy
weight concrete and found that these pozzolans gave higher concrete strengths than OPC

44
concrete at curing ages of 28 days and above.
Mehta and Pirtz (2000) investigated the use of rice husk ash to reduce temperature
in high strength mass concrete and got result showing that RHA is very effective in
reducing the temperature of mass concrete compared to OPC concrete. Agbede and Obam
(2008) investigated the strength properties of OPC-RHA blended sandcrete blocks. They
replaced various percentages of OPC with RHA and found that up to 17.5% of OPC can
be replaced with RHA to produce good quality sandcrete blocks. Wada et al. (2000)
demonstrated that RHA mortar and concrete exhibited higher compressive strength than
the control mortar and concrete. Cordeiro, Filho, and Fairbairn (2009) carried elaborate
studies of Brazilian RHA and rice straw ash (RSA) and demonstrated that grinding
increases the pozzolanicity of RHA and that high strength of RHA, RSA concrete makes
production of blocks with good bearing strength in a rural setting possible. Their study
showed that combination of RHA or RSA with lime produces a weak cementitious
material which could however be used to stabilize laterite and improve the bearing
strength of the material.
Habeeb and Fayyadh (2009) investigated the influence of RHA average particle
size on the properties of concrete and found that at early ages the strength was
comparable, while at the age of 28 days, finer RHA exhibited higher strength than the
sample with coarser RHA. Cordeiro, Filho, and Fairbairn (2009) further investigated the
influence of different grinding times on the particle size distribution and pozzolanic
activity of RHA obtained by uncontrolled combustion in order to improve the
performance of the RHA. It was expected that the reduction of RHA particle size could
improve the pozzolanic reactivity by reducing the adverse effect of the high-carbon
content in the ash and increasing the homogeneity of the material. The study revealed the
possibility of using ultrafine residual RHA containing high-carbon content in highperformance concrete. Rukzon, Chindaprasirt, and Mahachai (2009) also studied the
effect of grinding on the chemical and physical properties of rice husk ash and the effects
of RHA fineness on properties of mortar and found that pozzolans with finer particles had
greater pozzolanicreaction.A number of researchers have also worked on sawdust ash and
found good prospects in using binary blended cements made with sawdust ash (Elinwa,
Ejeh, and Mamuda, 2008; Elinwa and Abdulkadir, 2011).
A few researchers have also investigated the possibility of ternary blended

45
systems in order to further reduce the quantity of OPC in blended cements. Elinwa, Ejeh,
and Akpabio (2005) investigated the use of sawdust ash in combination with metakaolin
as a ternary blend with 3% added to act as an admixture in concrete. Fras et al. (2005)
studied the influence of calcining temperature as well as clay content in the pozzolanic
activity of sugar cane straw-clay ashes-lime systems. All calcined samples showed very
high pozzolanic activity and the fixation rate of lime (pozzolanic reaction) varied with
calcining temperature and clay content. Rukzon and Chindaprasirt (2006) investigated the
strength development of mortars made with ternary blends of OPC, ground RHA, and
classified fly ash (FA). The results of the strength at the age of 28 and 90 days of the
binary blended cement mortar containing 10 and 20% RHA were slightly higher than
those of the control, but less than those of FA. Ternary blended cement mixes with 70%
OPC and 30% of combined FA and RHA produced strengths similar to that of the control.
The researchers concluded that 30% of OPC could be replaced with the combined FA and
RHA pozzolan without significantly lowering the strength of the mixes. Fadzil et al.
(2008) also studied the properties of ternary blended cementitious (TBC) systems
containing OPC, ground Malaysian RHA, and FA. They found that compressive strength
of concrete containing TBC gave low strength at early ages, even lower than that of OPC,
but higher than binary blended cementitious (BBC) concrete containing FA. At long-term
period, the compressive strength of TBC concrete was comparable to the control mixes
even at OPC replacement of up to 40% with the pozzolanic materials. Their results
generally showed that the TBC systems could potentially be used in the concrete
construction industry and could be particularly useful in reducing the volume of OPC
used.
The above works on ternary blended cements were based on the ternary blending
of OPC with an industrial by-product pozzolan (i.e. FA) and an agricultural by-product
pozzolan (i.e. RHA). Being majorly agrarian, many communities in South Eastern
Nigeria have continued to generate tons of agricultural and plant wastes such as cassava
waste (the peelings from cassava tubers) and coconut husk as efforts are intensified
toward food production and local economic ventures. Not much work has been done in
considering the prospects of binary blending of these materials with OPC and nothing has
been reported with regard to ternary blending of Nigerian agricultural by-products with
OPC. Thus, this work provides a pioneer investigation of the suitability of using two
Nigerian agricultural by-products in ternary blend with OPC for concrete making. The
compressive strength of ternary blended cement concrete containing cassava waste ash

46
and coconut husk ash was specifically investigated. The successful utilization of cassava
waste ash and coconut husk ashin ternary combination with OPC for making concrete
would further add value to these wastes and reduce the volume of OPC currently required
for civil engineering and building works.
Ternary blended cement concrete produced from blending OPC with equal
proportions of CWA and CHA have compressive strength values in between those of
binary blended OPC-CWA and OPC-CHA cement concretes for all percentage
replacements and curing ages. Also, the variation of strength for OPC-CWA-CHA ternary
blended cement concrete is similar to those of OPC-CWA and OPC-CHA binary blended
cement concretes for all percentage replacements and curing ages. More importantly, the
90 day strengths of OPC-CWA and OPC-CHA binary blended cement concretes as well
as that of OPC-CWA-CHA ternary blended cement concrete are all higher than the
control values for 5-15% replacement of OPC with pozzolans and close to the control
values for 20-25% replacement. The implication of this is that very high values of OPCCWA-CHA ternary blended cement concrete strengths could be obtained if high target
strength is intentionally designed for and good quality control is applied such as the
quality control measures used in producing 100% OPC (control) concrete with strength
values of about 40N/mm2. Thus, OPC-CWA and OPC-CHA binary blended cement
concretes as well as OPC-CWA-CHA ternary blended cement concrete could be used for
various civil engineering and building works, especially where early strength is not a
major requirement.
Concrete is a man-made material, prepared by using locally available materials.
Basically it consists of aggregates (fine and coarse) bonded together by binding material.
The binder is formed from a mixture of hydraulic cement and water. An ordinary
concrete consists mainly Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), river sand, crushed stone
aggregate and water. The advantage of this material is it can be cast into any shape, size
and at any place, and its property can be tailored to suite the desired needs. It is
economical, fire resistant, anti-corrosive and termite-proof when compared to wood and
steel.
OPC is manufactured from naturally occurring materials like limestone and clay.
The aggregates which are inert are classified as Fine Aggregate (FA) and Coarse
Aggregate (CA), FA is usually dredged from river while CA is obtained by crushing

47
rocks. Water used can be from any source which is found fit for drinking.
This paper addresses issues and options related to environmental concerns, durability and
sustainability, alternative materials to binders and aggregates.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN
To pursue a holistic approach for sustainable industrial development, one must
start practicing industrial ecology. Simply stated, the practice of industrial ecology
implies that waste products of one industry are recycled as substitutes for virgin raw
materials of other industries, thereby reducing the environmental impact of both.
Coal is used as a fuel in manufacturing process of cement. CO2 released during
calcination of limestone and also while burning coal, totaling an equal amount by weight
of cement clinker.
The two best strategies to obtain a major reduction in carbon dioxide emission associated
with cement production are to lower the clinker factor (clinker per ton of cement) of the
final product as much as possible by maximizing the proportion of mineral additions in
cement, and to increase the use of blended cements in general construction.
The cement industry is already recycling hazardous organic wastes as fuel for
clinker burning, thus recovering the energy value and conserving virgin fuel resources.
Reportedly, portland-cement clinker is also a safe sink for a variety of toxic elements
present in these hazardous wastes. Therefore, portland-cement concrete is able to safely
incorporate millions of tons of fly ash, slag, and other industrial by-products that contain
toxic metals. It was found that fly ash, slag, silica fume and rice husk ashes, which are
industrial waste products, were possessing cementitious properties due to presence of
siliceous materials, which required minor treatment before put to use. They are also
called as latent hydraulic binders, supplementary cementitious materials (SCM),
pozzolans or cement replacement materials (CRM). They are blended with OPC with
respective percentages (20 to 70 percent by weight of total cementitious material) based
on their effectiveness of pozzolanic activity. They are called as mineral admixtures when
incorporated in concrete. All types of SCMs when mixed with cement (OPC) react with
the hydration products of OPC mainly Ca(OH)2 in presence of water and at normal
curing temperature to form CSH gel. (CSH: Calcium Silicate Hydrate, which is the main
cement hydration product) Pozzolans are found to be reactive (hydrate) only when their
particle size is less than 45m. Although particle size characteristics, composition of

48
glass, and the glass content are primary factors determining the reactivity of fly ash and
slags, it may be noted that the reactivity of the glass itself varies with the thermal history
of the material. The glass, chilled from a higher temperature and at a faster rate, will have
a more disordered structure and will therefore be more reactive. Pozzolans when blended
with cement are found to perform better than OPC.
The Ca(OH)2 which easily dissolves and leaches out when concrete comes into
contact with water, thereby allowing ingress of harmful chemicals and gases into concrete
from where the deterioration starts. In fact, the pozzolans consumes Ca(OH)2 and makes
concrete dense and less impermeable while cement alone releases Ca(OH)2. The
engineering benefits likely to be derived from the use of mineral admixtures in concrete
include improved resistance to thermal cracking due to low heat of hydration,
enhancement of ultimate strength and impermeability due to pore refinement, strong
interfacial transition zone, and very high durability to sulfate attack and alkali-aggregate
expansion. Recently, a total replacement of OPC by inorganic polymer is found out, and
named as geopolymer, which uses SCM and alkalies as binder.
There is a scarcity of river sand and also some of the states have banned quarrying
sand from rivers for ecological reasons. Hence manufacture of crushed stone sand is
gaining momentum. Recently Crushed rock fines which are a byproduct of stone
crushing unit (also sometimes called as Quarry Dust) has found an entry into construction
field, i. e., by blending with sand. It is free from deleterious materials and salt content
but has more fines content. Ash from various sources are also finding potential in
partially replacing sand. Energy is consumed while quarrying and crushing of coarse
aggregates. Lots of industrial and domestic solid wastes like ceramics, glass,
construction and demolition wastes (CDW) and slag which are inorganic in nature and
coconut shell chips, rubber from tyres, polymers, plastics, and sewage sludge which are
organic in nature can replace natural aggregates partially or fully. Most waste waters and
undrinkable natural waters can be substituted for municipal water for mixing concrete
unless proven harmful by testing.
Similarly various substitutes for fibres have been identified, like recycled plastics, natural
fibres from banana tree, sugarcane bagasse, bamboo, etc.
CONCRETE DURABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY
The practice of industrial ecology, as described earlier, provides only a short term

49
solution towards sustainable development in concrete industry. In the long run,
sustainable development will happen only if one makes dramatic improvements in our
resource productivity.
Large savings in materials can result in the future if one begins to make products that
would last much longer. For example, the resource productivity of concrete industry can
leap by a factor of five if most of the structures built today would endure for 250 years
instead of the conventional 50.
Todays humanitys eco footprint is 40% larger than what the planet can generate. That
means the earth takes 1-1/2 years to grow, what human beings use in 1 year, clearly this is
unsustainable.
ALTERNATE MATERIALS TO BINDERS
Alkaline Cements as an Alternative in the Transition the first use of alkalis as a
component of cementitious materials dates back to 1930, when Kuhl studied the setting
behaviour of mixtures of slag ground to a powder and a KOH solution. Since that time
many studies have been conducted on the role that alkalis may play in potential
cementitious systems. One early milestone was reached in 1940, when Purdon conducted
the first extensive laboratory study on clinkerless cements consisting of slag and NaOH.
In 1967 Glukhovsky made a significant breakthrough in the understanding and
development of binders from low calcium or calcium-free alumino silicate (clay) and
alkaline metal solutions. He called these binders soil cements and the respective
concretes soil silicates. Glukhovsky classified binders into two groups, depending on
the composition of the starting materials: alkaline binding systems Me2OAl2O3 SiO2
H2O and alkalialkaline-earth binding systems Me2OMOAl2O3SiO2H2O (where
Me=Na, K and M=Ca, Mg).
This set off extensive research on and developments in alkali activated cement and
concrete, although both the intensity and direction of this type of research were
haphazard and subject to contemporary scientific and technological needs.
Initially, most alkali activation effort focused on the materials classified by
Glukhovsky in group 2 (alkalialkaline-earth binding systems Me2OMOAl2O3SiO2
H2O); Scandinavian F-cements and alkali-activated blended cements are good examples
of research in this regard.

50
The last ten years, however, have seen exponential growth in research related to
Glukhovsky's first group of materials (alkaline binding systems: Me2OAl2O3SiO2
H2O). And although in 1982 Davidovits produced binders by mixing alkalis with a burnt
mix of kaolinite, limestone and dolomite (calling the binders geopolymers while also
generating a number of trademarks such as Pyrament, Geopolycem and Geopolymite),
these cements have only recently began to acquire true technological significance. At the
same time the gradually growing knowledge base on alkali activated cements and
concretes has cast light not only on their benefits in terms of low energy costs and
environmental impact, but also their good mechanical performance and long durability.
Classification and characteristics of alkali-activated cements Alkali-activated cements
usually consist of two components: a cementitious component and alkaline activators.
Caustic alkalis or alkaline salts are normally used as alkaline activators in alkali activated
cements and concretes. A variety of industrial by-products and waste as well as a number
of alumino-silicate raw materials has been used as the cementitious components in alkaliactivated cements and concretes. These materials include granulated blast furnace slag,
granulated phosphorus slag, steel slag, coal fly ash, volcanic glass, zeolite, metakaolin,
silica fume and non- ferrous slag.
Using the composition of the cementitious component(s) as a criterion, alkaliactivated cements can be classified into five categories:
1. Alkali-activated slag-based cements
2. Alkali-activated pozzolan cements
3. Alkali-activated lime-pozzolan/slag cements
4. Alkali-activated calcium aluminate blended cements
5. Alkali-activated portland blended cements (hybrid cements)
Alkaline activation as a model for transition to the design of new alternative
cements. Future research One significant example of the scientific and technical gap in
alkali activation procedures is the lack of a systematic and orderly study of the
mechanisms governing the effect of the known alkali activators (sodium and potassium
hydroxides, silicates, carbonates and sulfates) on silico aluminous materials. The
relationship between reaction mechanisms, the chemistry of alkaline activating solutions
and end product properties needs to be explored, along with the decisive effect of
calcium (with enormous technological implications) on such mechanisms. While alkaline
silicate solutions have likewise been widely used in alkaline activation, essential aspects

51
of the reactive process are still poorly understood, such as the effect of the various
chemical species present in the solution on reaction kinetics or the composition of the end
product. Finally, working with solid activators instead of alkaline solutions would afford
an enormous technological advantage, for the former would emulate one of the most
estimable properties of portland cement: its conversion from a dehydrated solid state into
an effective binder by mere mixing with water. In pursuit of such activators, some authors
have proposed using cementitious formulas (with silico aluminous materials) that contain
sodium and/or potassium carbonates or even sodium and/or potassium sulfates.
Work is needed on hybrids with a low portland clinker content and high
proportion of alumino silicates, especially on their behaviour in alkaline environments.
Setting, rheology, mechanical strength development and durability in this type of hybrids
must also be studied.
ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS TO AGGREGATES
Crushed Stone Sand and Quarry Dust Crushed Stone Sand (CSS) and Quarry Dust
(QD) are finding place in replacing natural sand since huge demand on one side and
depletion of natural source on the other side. The Indian Standards (IS 383-1970)
recognize the use of CSS in making concrete. The Clause 2.1 identifies three types of
Fine Aggregates, namely Natural Sand, Crushed Stone Sand and Crushed Gravel Sand.
CSS is referred by various other names such as Manufactured Sand, Crushed Rock Sand,
while
QD as Crushed Rock Fines (CRF). The grading requirements as per IS 383-1970, the
allowable percentage of materials passing through 150 microns are higher (20%) for CSS
compared to natural river sand. CSS, due to its angular shape, rough texture and sharp
edges compared to rounded shape and smooth surface of natural sand, reduce workability
of concrete which in turn consume plasticizer to compensate it. As the river sand gets
finer near the mouth of river, it possesses finer particles and hence a coarser CSS can be
blended to it.
QD is a waste product generated during crushing of stones in aggregate
manufacturing industry, containing majority of particle size less than or equal to that
specified in Zone IV. Even though CSS and QD are Fine Aggregates (based on the
particle size), it possesses most of the properties of Coarse Aggregates. QD is used as fine

52
aggregate either on its own or blended with river sand (RS). In cases where the river
sand is coarse with very low percentage of particles below 600 microns, it affects the
cohesiveness of the concrete, and hence can be blended with QD. As the river sand is
coarser along its origin, it can be blended with QD to supplement its deficiency of finer
particles.
The pump-ability of concrete also relies on the percentage of particles passing 300
microns, and more the fines content better is the pumping. To design cohesive mixes,
whether it is transported manually or by pump, it would be extremely difficult to do so
using only natural sand. Therefore, in these circumstances, the ideal way to improve the
properties of Fine Aggregates is to blend Natural River Sand with QD accordingly to
meet the Zoning Criteria. The strength of concrete in addition to water cement ratio
depends on the degree of compaction. Concrete which is not cohesive will not be able to
achieve full compaction. Therefore, the use of QD in fact helps to produce dense
cohesive concrete, thereby improving the strength. Both CSS and QD are free from clay
and silt content, which improves bonding of cement paste with aggregates and hence no
loss of strength. They are also free from chloride content, which does not initiate
corrosion of reinforcement and hence make RCC structures more durable. It is free from
deleterious materials like wooden pieces, shells, mica, and pebbles. It is economical and
available wherever there is production of crushed aggregates and one can get consistent
quality throughout the year. As they are engineered materials, the quality can be assured
and there is no wastage due to sieving which in turn saves labour, time and energy. Since
it is a byproduct of aggregate industry, no extra energy consumed in production, and
hence a greener product. Construction and Demolition Waste / Recycled Aggregates
Large quantities of construction and demolition wastes are obtained either during
construction as debris and when the structure is demolished. They are usually in the form
of brick bats, mortars, aggregates, concrete, glass, ceramic tiles, metals and plastics.
They are to be mechanically sorted according to size and quality and later crushed to
desired size as per needs. A disadvantage of demolished concrete waste is its low
density, and as a result its high porosity. Hence, more water is required to ensure full
saturation of RA during concrete mixing and it may also require more intensive
compaction. The inferior quality of DC can lower the quality of their RA and RAC. It is
important to measure the characteristics of DC to provide a pre-requisite consideration
for their RA and RAC applications. This can save time and cost for the production of
inferior quality RA and ensure that high quality RA is produced for higher-grade concrete

53
applications. RAC design requirements can also be developed at the initial concrete
demolition stage. Recycled demolished concrete (DC) as recycled aggregate (RA) and
recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) is generally suitable for most construction
applications. (Low-grade applications, including sub-base and roadwork).
Waste Polymers a polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of
repeating structural units. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a
polymer used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A
substantial growth in the consumption of plastic is observed all over the world in recent
years, which has led to huge quantities of plastic-related waste. Recycling of plastic
waste to produce new materials like concrete or mortar appears as one of the best solution
for disposing of plastic waste, due to its economic and ecological advantages. Several
works have been performed or are under way to evaluate the properties of cementcomposites containing various types of plastic waste as aggregate, filler or fibre. Plastic,
one of the most significant innovations of 20th century, is a ubiquitous material. A
substantial growth in the consumption of plastic is observed all over the world in recent
years, which also increases the production of plastic-related waste. The plastic waste is
now a serious environmental threat to modern civilization. Plastic is composed of several
toxic chemicals, and therefore plastic pollutes soil, air and water. Since plastic is a nonbiodegradable material, land-filling using plastic would mean preserving the harmful
material forever. The majority of the plastics contain toxic organic and inorganic
chemical constituents such as lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury, bromine, tin,
antimony, bisphenol A, and chloro-ethane monomer, and therefore the leaching of these
toxic constituents from plastic waste-based concrete is another key aspect to be addressed
when evaluating the possible degree of pollution.
Recycling plastics is a possible option. As plastic is an organic hydrocarbon-based
material, its high calorific value can be used for incineration or in other high temperature
processes. But, burning of plastics releases a variety of poisonous chemicals into the air,
including dioxins, one of the most toxic substances. Plastic waste can also be used to
produce new plastic based products after processing. However it is not an economical
process as the recycled plastic degrades in quality and necessitates new plastic to make
the original product. Although these alternatives are feasible except for land-filling,
recycling of plastic waste to produce new materials, such as cement composites, appears
as one of the best solution for disposing of plastic waste, due to its economic and
ecological advantages. A vast work has already been done on the use of plastic waste
such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle, poly vinyl chloride (PVC) pipe, high

54
density polyethylene (HDPE), thermosetting plastics, expanded polystyrene foam (EPS),
glass reinforced plastic (GRP), polycarbonate (PC), polyurethane foam (PUR),
polypropylene fibre as an aggregate, a filler or a fibre in the preparation of concrete. The
introduction of plastic aggregates as partial replacement to natural aggregates will reduce
the strengths whereas the fibres arrest the plastic cracks and also improve the toughness.
However, the amount of plastic addition can be increased substantially if particles are
further processed to improve the bond with matrix and stress transfer capacity of the
particles.
Waste Tyre Rubber Polymeric wastes namely tyre rubber and PET represents a
major environmental problem of increasing relevance. An estimated 1000 million tyres
reach the end of their useful lives every year. At present enormous quantities of tyres are
already stockpiled (whole tyre) or landfilled (shredded tyre), 3000 million inside EU and
1000 million in the US. By the year 2030 the number of tyres from motor vehicles is
expect to reach 1200 million representing almost 5000 million tyres to be discarded in a
regular basis. Tyre landfilling is responsible for a serious ecological threat. Mainly
waste tyres disposal areas contribute to the reduction of biodiversity also the tyres hold
toxic and soluble components. Secondly although waste tyres are difficult to ignite this
risk is always present. Once tyres start to burn down due to accidental causes high
temperature take place and toxic fumes are generated besides the high temperature causes
tyres to melt, thus producing an oil that will contaminate soil and water. In Wales a tyre
dump with 10 million tyres has been burning continuously for 9 years. The
implementation of the Landfill Directive 1999/31/ EC and the End of Life Vehicle
Directive 2000/53/EC banned the landfill disposal of waste tyres creating the driving
force behind the recycling of these wastes. Still millions of tyres are just being buried all
over the world. Tyre rubber wastes are already used for paving purposes; however, it can
only recycle a part of these wastes. Another alternative are artificial reef formation but
some investigation have already questioned the validity of this option. Tyre waste can
also be used in cement kilns for energetic purposes and to produce carbon black by tyre
pyrolysis, a thermal decomposition of these wastes in the absence of oxygen in order to
produce by-products that have low economic viability. Some research has already been
conducted on the use of waste tyre as aggregate replacement in concrete showing that a
concrete with enhanced toughness and sound insulation properties can be achieved.
Rubber aggregates are obtained from waste tyres using two different technologies:
mechanical grinding at ambient temperature or cryogenic grinding at a temperature below

55
the glass transition temperature. The first method generates chipped rubber to replace
coarse aggregates. As for the second method it usually produce crumb rubber to replace
fine aggregates. Since the cement market demand is expected to have a twofold increase
this means that concrete volume is expect to increase in a similar pattern representing an
excellent way to reuse wastes like tyre rubber.
Recent research shows that there are two specific areas where the specification of
plain rubberized concrete (PRC) and self- compacting rubberized concrete (SCRC), as
opposed to conventional mix designs, can offer significant advantages in the plastic and
hardened state over the properties of conventional concrete:
1. Firstly, where rubber aggregates create low unit weight mixes with a higher degree of
air entrainment that can be easily pumped at higher flow rates, and provide improved
levels of thermal and/or acoustic insulation. Additional applications could include
roadway central reservations that offer combined protection and traffic noise reduction,
improved thermal and acoustic insulation for small machinery housing structures, and
also improved thermal insulation for flooring in buildings.
2. Secondly, rubberized concrete can provide significantly improved dynamic loading
behaviour and impact/vibration absorption characteristics. Future research into
applications that take advantage of these properties could focus on damped flooring for
mounting machinery, highway and rail crash barriers, and personal shelters/bunkers for
defence and counter terrorism measures, rocket launching platforms and sea wall
defences.
The current weaknesses and limitations of rubberized concrete are well
documented, i.e. reduced strength and stiffness and limited to non-structural or modest
loading applications. It appears that the key to better understanding and overcoming this
behaviour is in the interfacial transition zone (ITZ). SCRC could provide an attractive
solution for shrinkage cracking and strain failure as a result of incorporating the waste
rubber particles which leads to more deformability under pre-failure loads, as well as
increased toughness, impact resistance and ductility compared with standard SCC.

Agricultural Wastes is the majority of wastes generated from agricultural sources

are sugarcane bagasse, straw and husk of wheat and paddy, vegetable wastes, food

56
products, oil production, shells of coconuts and groundnuts, jute fibre, saw dust, cotton
stalk. They can be used in concrete as a fibres, aggregates or fillers. The ash obtained by
burning any one of the above is found to have a potential in concrete making as a SCM.
The applications of agricultural wastes as aggregate or cement replacement
material in concrete have engineering potential and economic advantage. Each type of
agricultural waste has physical and chemical properties, which are suitable in proper
application in concrete. In low-cost lightweight structures, solid agricultural waste as
coarse aggregate together with cement matrix can meet design specifications.
Agricultural wastes can also be used in non-load bearing concrete where compressive
strength is not important. Agricultural fibres can be used in concrete to produce particle
boards, roofing sheets, and partition panels. Rice husk ash and palm-oil-fuel-ash can be
used as cement replacement materials. Pre-treatment is necessary for oil palm shell (OPS)
aggregate before using in concrete because it contains dust and oil coating. Various pretreatment processes are (i) partial oxidation of organic aggregate, (ii) waterproofing, (iii)
neutralisation with alkali or precipitation of tannates, or sulphate treatment, (iv) mixing
with lime or calcium chloride for better performance of concrete as an accelerator, (v)
micro-organism treatment of aggregate by boiled water with ferrous sulphate, and (vi)
removing oil coating with detergent and water.
Waste Ash The ash is a waste product as a result of burning the solid fuel or solid
wastes collected at the bottom of furnace or from the chimneys. The municipal solid
waste (MSW) is usually disposed by land filling or incinerated (It is a waste treatment
process that involves the combustion of organic substances contained in waste materials.
Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue gas, and heat). Refusederived fuel (RDF) and the mass-burning processes are the two most widely used
processes of incinerating MSW. The refuse-derived fuel process consists of first
separating metals and glass from the MSW, and then it is shredded and incinerated, and
the generated heat is recovered to produce electricity. The mass-burning process consists
of burning the MSW as it is received in the plant without waste separation or shredding.
The by-product of the incineration process is ash. Depending upon the nature of the
incineration plant, ash is typically 130% by wet weight and 515% by volume of the
wet MSW. Incineration of MSW produces two types of the ashes; bottom ash and fly
ash. Bottom ash residues are large and heavy particles which are removed from the bed
of the incinerator whereas fly ash residues are very fine particles entrained in exhaust
gases. Bottom ash constitutes 7580% of the total combined ash stream.

57

Majority (approximately 90%) of the bottom ash consists of grate ash, which is
the ash fraction that remains on the stoker or grate at the completion of the combustion
cycle. It is similar in appearance to porous, greyish, silty sand with gravel, and contains
small amounts of unburnt organic material and chunks of metal. The grate ash stream
consists primarily of glass, ceramics, ferrous and nonferrous metals, and minerals.
One of the challenges for the construction industry in the future will be to reuse
waste materials with new technologies, produced at reasonable cost and with the lowest
possible environmental impact. The infrastructure shall be designed using sustainable
principles (lower environmental impact, judicious use of resources i.e., energy
conservation and use of by products and high performance product) in order to reduce its
demand on the environment and existing infrastructure. A radical change in the future of
binders for construction is only possible if all the stakeholders involved in this broad area
of work (scientific community, industry, and users) are fully committed to the endeavor.
The manufacture of CSS can be tailored and QD can be blended with sand in improving
cohesiveness and pump ability of concrete making a denser concrete. They do not contain
deleterious materials as those found in natural sand. Aggregates from construction
demolition, plastics, waste tyre rubber, agricultural wastes and MSW bottom ash requires
an effort of pretreatment either physically or chemically before they are to be used for
works like low grade and light weight concrete. Use of alternative ingredients in
construction material and simultaneously solves the environmental problem of reducing
waste.

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METHODOLOGY

We have chosen the solution on the development of charcoal ash

bricks, our bricks design is unique and innovative since it incorporates
charcoal ash as the main admixture for the aggregate and the bricks
will be moulded into a market based design of bricks. This process
does not require energy intensive skills as the bricks are cured with the
addition of water and the cementation process that takes place. Over
the course of this project it is important to continue trial runs with
different mix materials and ratios to find out the best mixes for
strength and costs. After the implementation of this initial process,
there is always potential for improvement in strength and increasing
the amount of charcoal ash material contained in the brick. There are
three basic materials required for the manufacture of Charcoal Ash
Bricks: the aggregate, consisting of charcoal ash, the cement binder
and water. Aggregate is the sand and charcoal ash used to compact
down and bind together with the cement. Charcoal Ash is a good
aggregate as it is high in carbon due to its high flexural, which is the
material that actively binds together with the cement and displays
cementation properties itself, clay and other organic material so once
the brick is formed no further decomposition will occur a well-graded
material, so the aggregate can be shaken.
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is used as the binder for our
aggregate mix. Cement is the most costly material in this process but
using it eliminates the need to fire the bricks in a kiln. By using the

59
cement curing method instead of firing the bricks, so that it will reduce
the risk of working with temperatures over 900 degrees. The amount of
cement required is actually much less because the charcoal ash
exhibits cementations properties. Charcoal ash in the early stages of
this process cement is an essential material, however over the course
of this project we aim to continually reduce the amount of cement used
in the bricks. This can be done by introducing other types of waste
aggregates such as fly ash and experimenting with different mixes to
minimize cement content and decrease the cost of production without
compromising strength. The cement should always be stored in dry
place, off the floor and should be used within the months of the date of
manufacture. It is estimated that about 40 kilogram of Portland cement
will be required for every 1,465 pieces of bricks manufactured, the
costs of cement will be elaborated.
Only clean clear water should be used in the manufacture of the
bricks. Any organic material in the water will prevent the cement from
setting. Chemicals and impurities will also affect the strength of the
end product. This may be a significant challenge to overcome due to
limited access to potable water. However over the course of this
process we aim to minimize water consumption by using materials with
higher silica content. There are a number of types of aggregates that
can be used for brick making. These aggregates may need to be
blended or mixed with various proportions of rice husk ash to suit the
quality of the final product. Aggregates with clay, organic matter or
excessive salts in it should never be used. There are many different
types of sand (see Fig.1.1). Some types are more suitable than others
for use in brick. Some types of sand may need to be blended with
other aggregates to get the correct consistency and suitability. Some
possible aggregate sands include river sand and crusher sand as they
have an appropriate mix of particle size which can be compacted and

60
bound with cement. Stone ranging from 1mm to 2mm can be used to
blend in with finer aggregates (see Figure 1.2). Stone used on its own
will not work however as the particles are too large to effectively
combine with the cement. Adding stone will add strength to the cured
product but could make the surface of the bricks more rough and
porous. Ash (see Figure 1.3) and slag by-products from power stations,
metal works and other industries can be used in brick production.
These materials are also usually obtainable for very low costs. It is
important to test the ash for its suitability for use with cement and
other aggregates. Ash may also contain high quantities of unsuitable
chemicals. But in this project we intend to use a charcoal ash. The first
step of the process involves placing the measured quantities of sand,
charcoal ash, and cement onto the bricks moulder. We will start the
mix with 90% part cement to 10% parts aggregate. Initially the
aggregate will be a mix of 50% part charcoal ash to 50% part river
sand. This translates to 24.56 grams of cement to 2.73 grams of
aggregate. Higher quality bricks will be produced with a pan mixer (see
Figure 1.4), in the short term the mix will be combined, unfortunately
because of funding incapability we have create a pre-fabricated brick
moulder having a dimensions of 2 x 6 x inch. Or this converts into
5.02 x 1.0 x 15.02 cm. After production starts a series of trials will be
run with different mix proportions. By evaluating these results we can
adapt the mix to be more cost effective. (See Figure 1.6)
Half of the aggregate is placed into the pan mixer and then the
cement is added followed by the remaining aggregate. The cement,
charcoal ash, and aggregate is allowed to mix until a consistent even
color is produced. Then water is added slowly until a workable mix is
reached. (See Figure 1.4) A manual brick moulding (see Fig. 1.5) will be
used in order to create uniform and well-compressed bricks. A manual
brick making machine is able to apply 1-2 N of compressive force on

61
each brick, which will cause the bricks to be stronger and more uniform
than regular mud bricks or burnt clay bricks. 2 people working 2 hours
can produce 100 blocks using this brick moulder. Furthermore, the
brick moulder has the option to moulds with refers to its thickness.
Once the required mix of ash, sand, cement and water is achieved a
shovel is used to place a small portion of the mix into the cavity of the
moulder. A scraper is used to wipe off any excess and then a small
force is applied using specified mass is use to press the moulding with
a charcoal ash, sand and cement mixtures that has a capacity of
approximately 0.15 - 1.5 N. Curing is one of the most essential parts of
the brick production. Correct curing has a big effect on the quality of
the end product and also the cost of the end product. With good curing
the cement content of the bricks can be reduced drastically. The
freshly made bricks should be covered immediately with a black plastic
sheet and cured by keeping the plastic over the bricks for a minimum
of 7 days. The plastic needs to be removed briefly to sprinkle the bricks
with water once a day starting from the day after production. A record
should be kept of when the curing blocks were produced so the plastic
can be removed on the morning of the eighth day after production.
Within 7 days curing the bricks reach approximately 75% of their final
compressive strength. To obtain maximum compressive strength the
bricks need to be left uncovered in the sun for another 7 days, which
makes the curing process absolute. (See Figure 1.7 a and b)

RESULTS AND FINDINGS

This research aims to provide whether the Charcoal Ash Bricks can provide a

62
good type of decorative brick with a certain proportion of cement mixture. This project
was set with a specific ratio, the 50-50% and 90-10%. Also, this research was conducted
to aim a different criterion such as its quality and compressive strength. Through this
facts, it could help the future study to develop a new building design with a low cost
product.
The sample 1 has a ratio of 50% Charcoal Ash; 25% cement; and 25% aggregates
with a compressive strength of 10.74 MPa. On sample 2 it has a ratio of 90% cement; 5%
Charcoal Ash; and 5% aggregates with a compressive strength of 13.62 MPa.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

63
Conclusion:
Based on the data gathered from the experiments and researches made on the
related studies.
The researchers concluded that the charcoal ash can only be a good source of
decorative bricks with a certain proportion of cement mixture and aggregates,
furthermore with regards to the mix proportion shown in this studies it is typically an
unsatisfying result due to lack of further research, the research were given as follows, the
13.62 MPa compressive strength consisting a ratio of 90% cement; 5% charcoal ash; and
5% aggregates, this mixed proportion of charcoal ash and aggregates has achieved the
13.0 MPa minimum capacity compressive strength of a certain decorative brick, thus the
mix proportion beyond this will no longer be able to achieved the minimum compressive
strength such as the mix proportion that the researcher did the sample 1 with a result of
10.74 MPa compressive strength with a certain proportion of 50% charcoal ash; 25%
cement; and 25% aggregates. The result shows that it has a small amount of charcoal ash
were used in achieving the minimum compressive strength of the decorative brick, with
regards to the 50% charcoal ash content it has a total failure due to the plasticity
incapability and failure of compressive strength capability such that the researchers
concluded that the sample 1 is failed but however the sample 2 was a success with an
unsatisfactory due to the small amount of charcoal ash used.
Recommendation:
After thorough analysis of the data, the researchers do hereby recommend that the
study needs further research to enhance the its capability of achieving higher compressive
strength with a large amount of charcoal ash content into the mixture ratio, furthermore
with regards to the compressive strength admixture may do the work pertains to the
workability, strength and durability of the said decorative brick.

REFERENCES

64

http://www.bvmengineering.ac.in/docs/published%20papers/civilstruct/Civil/101004.pdf
http://www.ipublishing.co.in/jcandsevol1no12010/EIJCSE2065.pdf
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1215/10/10_chapter%202.pdf