American Literature

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AmericanliteratureWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Americanliterature
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
AmericanliteratureistheliteraturewrittenorproducedintheareaoftheUnitedStatesandits
precedingcolonies.Formorespecificdiscussionsofpoetryandtheater,seePoetryoftheUnitedStates
andTheaterintheUnitedStates.Duringitsearlyhistory,AmericawasaseriesofBritishcoloniesonthe
easterncoastofthepresentdayUnitedStates.Therefore,itsliterarytraditionbeginsaslinkedtothe
broadertraditionofEnglishliterature.However,uniqueAmericancharacteristicsandthebreadthofits
productionusuallynowcauseittobeconsideredaseparatepathandtradition.
TheNewEnglandcolonieswerethecenterofearlyAmericanliterature.Therevolutionaryperiod
containedpoliticalwritingsbySamuelAdams,BenjaminFranklinandThomasPaine.Inthepostwar
period,ThomasJefferson'sUnitedStatesDeclarationofIndependencesolidifiedhisstatusasakey
Americanwriter.Itwasinthelate18thandearly19thcenturiesthatthenation'sfirstnovelswere
published.WiththeWarof1812andanincreasingdesiretoproduceuniquelyAmericanliteratureand
culture,anumberofkeynewliteraryfiguresemerged,perhapsmostprominentlyWashingtonIrvingand
EdgarAllanPoe.In1836,RalphWaldoEmerson(18031882)startedamovementknownas
Transcendentalism.HenryDavidThoreau(18171862)wroteWalden,whichurgesresistancetothe
dictatesoforganizedsociety.Thepoliticalconflictsurroundingabolitionisminspiredthewritingsof
WilliamLloydGarrisonandHarrietBeecherStoweinherworldfamousUncleTom'sCabin.These
effortsweresupportedbythecontinuationoftheslavenarrativeautobiography,ofwhichthebestknown
examplefromthisperiodwasFrederickDouglass'sNarrativeoftheLifeofFrederickDouglass,an
AmericanSlave.
NathanielHawthorne(18041864)isnotableforhismasterpiece,TheScarletLetter,anovelabout
adultery.HawthorneinfluencedHermanMelville(18191891)whoisnotableforthebooksMobyDick
andBillyBudd.America'stwogreatest19thcenturypoetswereWaltWhitman(18191892)andEmily
Dickinson(18301886).Americanpoetryreachedapeakintheearlytomid20thcentury,withsuch
notedwritersasWallaceStevens,T.S.Eliot,RobertFrost,EzraPound,andE.E.Cummings.Mark
Twain(thepennameusedbySamuelLanghorneClemens,18351910)wasthefirstmajorAmerican
writertobebornawayfromtheEastCoast.HenryJames(18431916)wasnotablefornovelslikeThe
TurnoftheScrew.Atthebeginningofthe20thcentury,AmericannovelistsincludedEdithWharton
(18621937),StephenCrane(18711900),TheodoreDreiser(18711945),andJackLondon(1876
1916).ExperimentationinstyleandformisseenintheworksofGertrudeStein(18741946).
AmericanwritersexpresseddisillusionmentfollowingWWI.ThestoriesandnovelsofF.Scott
Fitzgerald(18961940)capturethemoodofthe1920s,andJohnDosPassoswroteaboutthewar.Ernest
Hemingway(18991961)becamenotableforTheSunAlsoRisesandAFarewelltoArmsin1954,he
wontheNobelPrizeinLiterature.WilliamFaulkner(18971962)isnotablefornovelslikeTheSound
andtheFury.Americandramaattainedinternationalstatusonlyinthe1920sand1930s,withtheworks
ofEugeneO'Neill,whowonfourPulitzerPrizesandtheNobelPrize.Inthemiddleofthe20thcentury,
AmericandramawasdominatedbytheworkofplaywrightsTennesseeWilliamsandArthurMiller,as
wellasbythematurationoftheAmericanmusical.
DepressionerawritersincludedJohnSteinbeck(19021968),notableforhisnovelTheGrapesof
Wrath.HenryMillerassumedauniqueplaceinAmericanLiteratureinthe1930swhenhissemi
autobiographicalnovelswerebannedfromtheUS.FromtheendofWorldWarIIupuntil,roughly,the
late1960sandearly1970ssawthepublicationofsomeofthemostpopularworksinAmericanhistory
suchasToKillaMockingbirdbyHarperLee.America'sinvolvementinWorldWarIIinfluencedthe
creationofworkssuchasNormanMailer'sTheNakedandtheDead(1948),JosephHeller'sCatch22
(1961)andKurtVonnegutJr.'sSlaughterhouseFive(1969).JohnUpdikewasnotableforhisnovel
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_literature
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Rabbit,Run(1960).PhilipRothexploresJewishidentityinAmericansociety.Fromtheearly1970sto
thepresentdaythemostimportantliterarymovementhasbeenpostmodernismandthefloweringof
literaturebyethnicminoritywriters.
Contents
1 Colonialliterature
1.1 Topicsofearlywriting
1.2 Revolutionaryperiod
2 Postindependence
3 FirstAmericannovels
4 UniqueAmericanstyle
5 EarlyAmericanpoetry
6 Realism,TwainandJames
7 Beginningofthe20thcentury
7.1 1920s
8 TheriseofAmericandrama
9 Depressioneraliterature
10 PostWorldWarII
10.1 Thepostwarnovel
10.2 Shortfictionandpoetry
11 ContemporaryAmericanliterature
12 Minorityliteratures
13 NobelPrizeinLiteraturewinners(Americanauthors)
14 Americanliteraryawards
15 Literarytheoryandcriticism
16 Seealso
16.1 Additionalgenres
16.2 RegionalandminorityfocusesinAmericanliterature
17 Notesandreferences
18 Bibliography
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19 Externallinks
Colonialliterature
OwingtothelargeimmigrationtoBostoninthe1630s,thehigharticulationofPuritanculturalideals,
andtheearlyestablishmentofacollegeandaprintingpressinCambridge,theNewEnglandcolonies
haveoftenbeenregardedasthecenterofearlyAmericanliterature.However,thefirstEuropean
settlementsinNorthAmericahadbeenfoundedelsewheremanyyearsearlier.TownsolderthanBoston
includetheSpanishsettlementsatSaintAugustineandSantaFe,theDutchsettlementsatAlbanyand
NewAmsterdam,aswellastheEnglishcolonyofJamestowninpresentdayVirginia.Duringthe
colonialperiod,theprintingpresswasactiveinmanyareas,fromCambridgeandBostontoNewYork,
Philadelphia,andAnnapolis.
ThedominanceoftheEnglishlanguagewashardlyinevitable.[1]ThefirstitemprintedinPennsylvania
wasinGermanandwasthelargestbookprintedinanyofthecoloniesbeforetheAmerican
Revolution.[1]SpanishandFrenchhadtwoofthestrongestcolonialliterarytraditionsintheareasthat
nowcomprisetheUnitedStates,anddiscussionsofearlyAmericanliteraturecommonlyincludetextsby
lvarNezCabezadeVacaandSamueldeChamplainalongsideEnglishlanguagetextsbyThomas
HarriotandJohnSmith.Moreover,wearenowawareofthewealthoforalliterarytraditionsalready
existingonthecontinentamongthenumerousdifferentNativeAmericangroups.Politicalevents,
however,wouldeventuallymakeEnglishthelinguafrancaforthecoloniesatlargeaswellastheliterary
languageofchoice.Forinstance,whentheEnglishconqueredNewAmsterdamin1664,theyrenamedit
NewYorkandchangedtheadministrativelanguagefromDutchtoEnglish.
From1696to1700,onlyabout250separateitemswereissuedfromthemajorprintingpressesinthe
Americancolonies.ThisisasmallnumbercomparedtotheoutputoftheprintersinLondonatthetime.
LondonprinterspublishedmaterialswrittenbyNewEnglandauthors,sothebodyofAmericanliterature
waslargerthanwhatwaspublishedinNorthAmerica.However,printingwasestablishedinthe
AmericancoloniesbeforeitwasallowedinmostofEngland.InEngland,restrictivelawshadlong
confinedprintingtofourlocations,wherethegovernmentcouldmonitorwhatwaspublished:London,
York,Oxford,andCambridge.Becauseofthis,thecoloniesventuredintothemodernworldearlierthan
theirprovincialEnglishcounterparts.[1]
Backthen,someoftheAmericanliteraturewerepamphletsandwritingsextollingthebenefitsofthe
coloniestobothaEuropeanandcolonistaudience.CaptainJohnSmithcouldbeconsideredthefirst
Americanauthorwithhisworks:ATrueRelationofSuchOccurrencesandAccidentsofNoateasHath
HappenedinVirginia...(1608)andTheGenerallHistorieofVirginia,NewEngland,andtheSummer
Isles(1624).OtherwritersofthismannerincludedDanielDenton,ThomasAsh,WilliamPenn,George
Percy,WilliamStrachey,DanielCoxe,GabrielThomas,andJohnLawson.
Topicsofearlywriting
ThereligiousdisputesthatpromptedsettlementinAmericawerealsotopicsofearlywriting.Ajournal
writtenbyJohnWinthrop,TheHistoryofNewEngland,discussedthereligiousfoundationsofthe
MassachusettsBayColony.EdwardWinslowalsorecordedadiaryofthefirstyearsafterthe
Mayflower'sarrival."AmodellofChristianCharity"byJohnWinthrop,thefirstgovernorof
Massachusetts,wasaSermonpreachedontheArabelain1630.Thisworkoutlinedtheidealsocietyhe
andhisfollowersofseparatistswereabouttobuildinanattempttorealizethe"Puritanutopia".Other
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religiouslyinfluencedwritersincludedIncreaseMatherandWilliamBradford,authorofthejournal
publishedasaHistoryofPlymouthPlantation,162047.OtherslikeRogerWilliamsandNathaniel
Wardmorefiercelyarguedstateandchurchseparation.Andstillothers,likeThomasMorton,caredlittle
forthechurchMorton'sTheNewEnglishCanaanmockedthereligioussettlersanddeclaredthatthe
NativeAmericanswereactuallybetterpeoplethantheBritish.[2]
Puritanpoetrywashighlyreligiousinnature,andoneoftheearliestbooksofpoetrypublishedwasthe
BayPsalmBook,asetoftranslationsofthebiblicalPsalmshowever,thetranslators'intentionwasnot
tocreategreatliteraturebuttocreatehymnsthatcouldbeusedinworship.[2]Amonglyricpoets,the
mostimportantfiguresareAnneBradstreet,whowrotepersonalpoemsaboutherfamilyandhomelife
pastorEdwardTaylor,whosebestpoems,thePreparatoryMeditations,werewrittentohelphimprepare
forleadingworshipandMichaelWigglesworth,whosebestsellingpoem,TheDayofDoom(1660),
describesthetimeofjudgment.ItwaspublishedinthesameyearthatantiPuritanCharlesIIwas
restoredtotheBritishthrone.HefollowedittwoyearslaterwithGod'sControversyWithNewEngland.
NicholasNoyeswasalsoknownforhisdoggerelverse.
OtherlatewritingsdescribedconflictsandinteractionwiththeIndians,asseeninwritingsbyDaniel
Gookin,AlexanderWhitaker,JohnMason,BenjaminChurch,andMaryRowlandson.JohnEliot
translatedtheBibleintotheAlgonquinlanguage.
OfthesecondgenerationofNewEnglandsettlers,CottonMatherstandsoutasatheologianand
historian,whowrotethehistoryofthecolonieswithaviewtoGod'sactivityintheirmidstandto
connectingthePuritanleaderswiththegreatheroesoftheChristianfaith.Hisbestknownworksinclude
theMagnaliaChristiAmericana,theWondersoftheInvisibleWorldandTheBibliaAmericana.
JonathanEdwardsandGeorgeWhitefieldrepresentedtheGreatAwakening,areligiousrevivalinthe
early18thcenturythatassertedstrictCalvinism.OtherPuritanandreligiouswritersincludeThomas
Hooker,ThomasShepard,JohnWise,andSamuelWillard.Lessstrictandseriouswritersincluded
SamuelSewall(whowroteadiaryrevealingthedailylifeofthelate17thcentury),[2]andSarahKemble
Knight.
NewEnglandwasnottheonlyareainthecoloniessouthernliteratureisrepresentedbythediaryof
WilliamByrdofVirginia,aswellasbyTheHistoryoftheDividingLine,whichdetailedtheexpedition
tosurveytheswampbetweenVirginiaandNorthCarolinabutwhichalsocommentsonthedifferent
lifestylesoftheNativeAmericansandthewhitesettlersinthearea.[2]Inasimilarbook,Travelsthrough
NorthandSouthCarolina,Georgia,EastandWest,WilliamBartramdescribedingreatdetailthe
SouthernlandscapeandtheNativeAmericanpeopleswhomheencounteredBartram'sbookwasvery
popularinEurope,beingtranslatedintoGerman,FrenchandDutch.[2]
AsthecoloniesmovedtowardstheirbreakwithEngland,perhapsoneofthemostimportantdiscussions
ofAmericancultureandidentitycamefromtheFrenchimmigrantJ.HectorSt.JohndeCrvecur,
whoseLettersfromanAmericanFarmeraddressesthequestion"WhatisanAmerican?"bymoving
betweenpraisefortheopportunitiesandpeaceofferedinthenewsocietyandrecognitionthatthesolid
lifeofthefarmermustrestuneasilybetweentheoppressiveaspectsoftheurbanlife(withitsluxuries
builtonslavery)andthelawlessaspectsofthefrontier,wherethelackofsocialstructuresleadstothe
lossofcivilizedliving.[2]
ThissameperiodsawthebirthofAfricanAmericanliterature,throughthepoetryofPhillisWheatley
and,shortlyaftertheRevolution,theslavenarrativeofOlaudahEquiano,TheInterestingNarrativeof
theLifeofOlaudahEquiano.ThiseraalsosawthebirthofNativeAmericanliterature,throughthetwo
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publishedworksofSamsonOccom:ASermonPreachedattheExecutionofMosesPaulandapopular
hymnbook,CollectionofHymnsandSpiritualSongs,"thefirstIndianbestseller".[3]
Revolutionaryperiod
Therevolutionaryperiodalsocontainedpoliticalwritings,includingthosebycolonistsSamuelAdams,
JosiahQuincy,JohnDickinson,andJosephGalloway,aloyalisttothecrown.Twokeyfigureswere
BenjaminFranklinandThomasPaine.Franklin'sPoorRichard'sAlmanacandTheAutobiographyof
BenjaminFranklinareesteemedworkswiththeirwitandinfluencetowardtheformationofabudding
Americanidentity.Paine'spamphletCommonSenseandTheAmericanCrisiswritingsareseenas
playingakeyroleininfluencingthepoliticaltoneofthetime.
Duringtherevolutionitself,poemsandsongssuchas"YankeeDoodle"and"NathanHale"were
popular.MajorsatiristsincludedJohnTrumbullandFrancisHopkinson.PhilipMorinFreneaualso
wrotepoemsaboutthewar'scourse.
Duringthe18thcentury,writingshiftedfocusfromthePuritanicalidealsofWinthropandBradfordto
thepowerofthehumanmindandrationalthought.Thebeliefthathumanandnaturaloccurrenceswere
messagesfromGodnolongerfitwiththenewhumancenteredworld.Manyintellectualsbelievedthat
thehumanmindcouldcomprehendtheuniversethroughthelawsofphysicsasdescribedbyIsaac
Newton.OneofthesewasCottonMather.ThefirstbookpublishedinNorthAmericathatpromoted
NewtonandnaturaltheologywasMather'sTheChristianPhilosopher(1721).Theenormousscientific,
economic,social,andphilosophical,changesofthe18thcentury,calledtheEnlightenment,impactedthe
authorityofclergymanandscripture,makingwayfordemocraticprinciples.Theincreaseinpopulation
helpedaccountforthegreaterdiversityofopinioninreligiousandpoliticallifeasseenintheliterature
ofthistime.In1670,thepopulationofthecoloniesnumberedapproximately111,000.Thirtyyearslater
itwasmorethan250,000.By1760,itreached1,600,000.[1]Thegrowthofcommunitiesandtherefore
sociallifeledpeopletobecomemoreinterestedintheprogressofindividualsandtheirshared
experienceonthecolonies.Thesenewidealsareaccountedforinthewidespreadpopularityof
BenjaminFranklin'sAutobiography.
Postindependence
Inthepostwarperiod,ThomasJefferson'sUnitedStatesDeclarationofIndependence,hisinfluenceon
theUnitedStatesConstitution,hisautobiography,theNotesontheStateofVirginia,andhismany
letterssolidifyhisspotasoneofthemosttalentedearlyAmericanwriters.TheFederalistessaysby
AlexanderHamilton,JamesMadison,andJohnJaypresentedasignificanthistoricaldiscussionof
Americangovernmentorganizationandrepublicanvalues.FisherAmes,JamesOtis,andPatrickHenry
arealsovaluedfortheirpoliticalwritingsandorations.
MuchoftheearlyliteratureofthenewnationstruggledtofindauniquelyAmericanvoiceinexisting
literarygenre,andthistendencywasalsoreflectedinnovels.Europeanformsandstyleswereoften
transferredtonewlocalesandcriticsoftensawthemasinferior.
FirstAmericannovels
Itwasinthelate18thandearly19thcenturiesthatthenation'sfirstnovelswerepublished.These
fictionsweretoolengthytobeprintedasmanuscriptorpublicreading.Publisherstookachanceon
theseworksinhopestheywouldbecomesteadysellersandneedtobereprinted.Thiswasagoodbetas
literacyratessoaredinthisperiodamongbothmenandwomen.AmongthefirstAmericannovelsare
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ThomasAttwoodDigges'"AdventuresofAlonso",publishedinLondonin1775andWilliamHill
Brown'sThePowerofSympathypublishedin1791.[1]Brown'snoveldepictsatragiclovestorybetween
siblingswhofellinlovewithoutknowingtheywererelated.Thisepistolarynovelbelongstothe
Sentimentalnoveltradition,asdothetwofollowing.
Inthenextdecadeimportantwomenwritersalsopublishednovels.SusannaRowsonisbestknownfor
hernovel,Charlotte:ATaleofTruth,publishedinLondonin1791.[4]In1794thenovelwasreissuedin
Philadelphiaunderthetitle,CharlotteTemple.CharlotteTempleisaseductiontale,writteninthethird
person,whichwarnsagainstlisteningtothevoiceofloveandcounselsresistance.Inadditiontothisbest
sellingnovel,shewroteninenovels,sixtheatricalworks,twocollectionsofpoetry,sixtextbooks,and
countlesssongs.[4]Reachingmorethanamillionandahalfreadersoveracenturyandahalf,Charlotte
Templewasthebiggestsellerofthe19thcenturybeforeStowe'sUncleTom'sCabin.AlthoughRowson
wasextremelypopularinhertimeandisoftenacknowledgedinaccountsofthedevelopmentofthe
earlyAmericannovel,CharlotteTempleisoftencriticizedasasentimentalnovelofseduction.
HannahWebsterFoster'sTheCoquette:Or,theHistoryofElizaWhartonwaspublishedin1797and
wasalsoextremelypopular.[5]ToldfromFoster'spointofviewandbasedonthereallifeofEliza
Whitman,thisepistolarynovelisaboutawomanwhoisseducedandabandoned.Elizaisa"coquette"
whoiscourtedbytwoverydifferentmen:aclergymanwhooffersherthecomfortandregularityof
domesticlife,andanotedlibertine.Shefailstochoosebetweenthemandfindsherselfsinglewhenboth
mengetmarried.Sheeventuallyyieldstotheartfullibertineandgivesbirthtoanillegitimatestillborn
childataninn.TheCoquetteispraisedforitsdemonstrationofthisera'scontradictoryidealsof
womanhood.[6]
BothTheCoquetteandCharlotteTemplearenovelsthattreat
therightofwomentoliveasequalsasthenewdemocratic
experiment.ThesenovelsareoftheSentimentalgenre,
characterizedbyoverindulgenceinemotion,aninvitationto
listentothevoiceofreasonagainstmisleadingpassions,as
wellasanoptimisticoveremphasisontheessentialgoodness
ofhumanity.Sentimentalismisoftenthoughttobeareaction
againsttheCalvinisticbeliefinthedepravityofhuman
nature.[7]Whilemanyofthesenovelswerepopular,the
economicinfrastructureofthetimedidnotallowthesewriters
tomakealivingthroughtheirwritingalone.[8]
WashingtonIrvingandhisfriendsat
Sunnyside
CharlesBrockdenBrownistheearliestAmericannovelist
whoseworksarestillcommonlyread.HepublishedWielandin1798,andin1799publishedOrmond,
EdgarHuntly,andArthurMervyn.ThesenovelsareoftheGothicgenre.
Thefirstauthortobeabletosupporthimselfthroughtheincomegeneratedbyhispublicationsalone
wasWashingtonIrving.Hecompletedhisfirstmajorbookin1809entitledAHistoryofNewYorkfrom
theBeginningoftheWorldtotheEndoftheDutchDynasty.[9]
Ofthepicaresquegenre,HughHenryBrackenridgepublishedModernChivalryin17921815Tabitha
GilmanTenneywroteFemaleQuixotism:ExhibitedintheRomanticOpinionsandExtravagant
AdventureofDorcasinaSheldonin1801RoyallTylerwroteTheAlgerineCaptivein1797.[7]
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OthernotableauthorsincludeWilliamGilmoreSimms,whowroteMartinFaberin1833,GuyRiversin
1834,andTheYemasseein1835.LydiaMariaChildwroteHobomokin1824andTheRebelsin1825.
JohnNealwroteLogan,AFamilyHistoryin1822,RachelDyerin1828,andTheDownEatersin1833.
CatherineMariaSedgwickwroteANewEnglandTalein1822,Redwoodin1824,HopeLesliein1827,
andTheLinwoodsin1835.JamesKirkePauldingwroteTheLionoftheWestin1830,TheDutchman's
Firesidein1831,andWestwardHo!in1832.RobertMontgomeryBirdwroteCalavarin1834andNick
oftheWoodsin1837.JamesFenimoreCooperwasalsoanotableauthorbestknownforhisnovel,The
LastoftheMohicanswrittenin1826.[7]
UniqueAmericanstyle
WiththeWarof1812andanincreasingdesiretoproduceuniquely
Americanliteratureandculture,anumberofkeynewliterary
figuresemerged,perhapsmostprominentlyWashingtonIrving,
WilliamCullenBryant,JamesFenimoreCooper,andEdgarAllan
Poe.Irving,oftenconsideredthefirstwritertodevelopaunique
Americanstyle(althoughthishasbeendebated)wrotehumorous
worksinSalmagundiandthesatireAHistoryofNewYork,by
DiedrichKnickerbocker(1809).Bryantwroteearlyromanticand
natureinspiredpoetry,whichevolvedawayfromtheirEuropean
origins.
In1832,Poebeganwritingshortstoriesincluding"TheMasqueof
theRedDeath","ThePitandthePendulum","TheFalloftheHouse
ofUsher",and"TheMurdersintheRueMorgue"thatexplore
previouslyhiddenlevelsofhumanpsychologyandpushthe
EdgarAllanPoetrait.
boundariesoffictiontowardmysteryandfantasy.Cooper's
LeatherstockingTalesaboutNattyBumppo(whichincludesThe
LastoftheMohicans)werepopularbothinthenewcountryandabroad.
HumorouswriterswerealsopopularandincludedSebaSmithandBenjaminP.ShillaberinNew
EnglandandDavyCrockett,AugustusBaldwinLongstreet,JohnsonJ.Hooper,ThomasBangsThorpe,
andGeorgeWashingtonHarriswritingabouttheAmericanfrontier.
TheNewEnglandBrahminswereagroupofwritersconnectedtoHarvardUniversityanditsseatin
Cambridge,Massachusetts.ThecoreincludedJamesRussellLowell,HenryWadsworthLongfellow,
andOliverWendellHolmes,Sr.
In1836,RalphWaldoEmerson(18031882),anexminister,publishedastartlingnonfictionwork
calledNature,inwhichheclaimeditwaspossibletodispensewithorganizedreligionandreachalofty
spiritualstatebystudyingandrespondingtothenaturalworld.Hisworkinfluencednotonlythewriters
whogatheredaroundhim,formingamovementknownasTranscendentalism,butalsothepublic,who
heardhimlecture.
Emerson'smostgiftedfellowthinkerwasperhapsHenryDavidThoreau(18171862),aresolute
nonconformist.Afterlivingmostlybyhimselffortwoyearsinacabinbyawoodedpond,Thoreau
wroteWalden,abooklengthmemoirthaturgesresistancetothemeddlesomedictatesoforganized
society.HisradicalwritingsexpressadeeprootedtendencytowardindividualismintheAmerican
character.OtherwritersinfluencedbyTranscendentalismwereBronsonAlcott,MargaretFuller,George
Ripley,OrestesBrownson,andJonesVery.[10]
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JustasoneofthegreatworksoftheRevolutionaryperiodwaswrittenbyaFrenchman,sotoowasone
ofthegreatworksaboutAmericafromthisgeneration,viz.,AlexisdeTocqueville'stwovolume
DemocracyinAmerica,which(likethecolonialexplorers)describedhistravelsthroughtheyoung
country,makingobservationsabouttherelationsbetweendemocracy,liberty,equality,individualism
andcommunity.
ThepoliticalconflictsurroundingabolitionisminspiredthewritingsofWilliamLloydGarrisonandhis
paperTheLiberator,alongwithpoetJohnGreenleafWhittierandHarrietBeecherStoweinherworld
famousUncleTom'sCabin.Theseeffortsweresupportedbythecontinuationoftheslavenarrative
autobiography,ofwhichthebestknownexamplesfromthisperiodincludeFrederickDouglass's
NarrativeoftheLifeofFrederickDouglass,anAmericanSlave,HarrietJacobs'sIncidentsintheLifeof
aSlaveGirl.
Atthesametime,NativeAmericanautobiographydevelops,most
notablyinWilliamApess'sASonoftheForestandGeorge
Copway'sTheLife,HistoryandTravelsofKahgegagahbowh.
Moreover,minorityauthorswerebeginningtopublishfiction,asin
WilliamWellsBrown'sClotelor,ThePresident'sDaughter,Frank
J.Webb'sTheGariesandTheirFriends,MartinDelany'sBlakeor,
TheHutsofAmericaandHarrietE.Wilson'sOurNigasearly
AfricanAmericannovels,andJohnRollinRidge'sTheLifeand
AdventuresofJoaquinMurieta:TheCelebratedCaliforniaBandit,
whichisconsideredthefirstNativeAmericannovelbutwhichalso
isanearlystoryaboutMexicanAmericanissues.
In1837,theyoungNathanielHawthorne(18041864)collected
someofhisstoriesasTwiceToldTales,avolumerichinsymbolism
andoccultincidents.Hawthornewentontowritefulllength
"romances",quasiallegoricalnovelsthatexploresuchthemesas
guilt,pride,andemotionalrepressioninhisnativeNewEngland.
Hismasterpiece,TheScarletLetter,isthestarkdramaofawoman
castoutofhercommunityforcommittingadultery.
RalphWaldoEmerson.
Hawthorne'sfictionhadaprofoundimpactonhisfriendHerman
Melville(18191891),whofirstmadeanameforhimselfbyturning
materialfromhisseafaringdaysintoexoticandsensationalsea
narrativenovels.InspiredbyHawthorne'sfocusonallegoriesand
darkpsychology,Melvillewentontowriteromancesrepletewith
philosophicalspeculation.InMobyDick,anadventurouswhaling
voyagebecomesthevehicleforexaminingsuchthemesas
obsession,thenatureofevil,andhumanstruggleagainstthe
elements.
Inanotherfinework,theshortnovelBillyBudd,Melville
dramatizestheconflictingclaimsofdutyandcompassiononboarda
shipintimeofwar.Hismoreprofoundbookssoldpoorly,andhe
hadbeenlongforgottenbythetimeofhisdeath.Hewas
rediscoveredintheearlydecadesofthe20thcentury.
NathanielHawthorne.
AntitranscendentalworksfromMelville,Hawthorne,andPoeall
comprisetheDarkRomanticismsubgenreofliteraturepopularduringthistime.
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Americandramaticliterature,bycontrast,remaineddependentonEuropeanmodels,althoughmany
playwrightsdidattempttoapplytheseformstoAmericantopicsandthemes,suchasimmigrants,
westwardexpansion,temperance,etc.Atthesametime,Americanplaywrightscreatedseverallong
lastingAmericancharactertypes,especiallythe"Yankee",the"Negro"andthe"Indian",exemplifiedby
thecharactersofJonathan,SamboandMetamora.Inaddition,newdramaticformswerecreatedinthe
TomShows,theshowboattheaterandtheminstrelshow.AmongthebestplaysoftheperiodareJames
NelsonBarker'sSuperstitionor,theFanaticFather,AnnaCoraMowatt'sFashionor,LifeinNew
York,NathanielBannister'sPutnam,theIronSonof'76,DionBoucicault'sTheOctoroonor,Lifein
Louisiana,andCorneliusMathews'sWitchcraftor,theMartyrsofSalem.
EarlyAmericanpoetry
TheFiresidePoets(alsoknownastheSchoolroomorHousehold
Poets)weresomeofAmerica'sfirstmajorpoetsdomesticallyand
internationally.Theywereknownfortheirpoemsbeingeasyto
memorizeduetotheirgeneraladherencetopoeticform(standard
forms,regularmeter,andrhymedstanzas)andwereoftenrecitedin
thehome(hencethename)aswellasinschool(suchas"Paul
Revere'sRide"),aswellasworkingwithdistinctlyAmerican
themes,includingsomepoliticalissuessuchasabolition.They
includedHenryWadsworthLongfellow,WilliamCullenBryant,
JohnGreenleafWhittier,JamesRussellLowell,andOliverWendell
Holmes,Sr..Longfellowachievedthehighestlevelofacclaimand
isoftenconsideredthefirstinternationallyacclaimedAmerican
poet,beingthefirstAmericanpoetgivenabustinWestminster
Abbey'sPoets'Corner.[11]
WaltWhitman(18191892)andEmilyDickinson(18301886),two
ofAmerica'sgreatest19thcenturypoetscouldhardlyhavebeen
moredifferentintemperamentandstyle.WaltWhitmanwasa
workingman,atraveler,aselfappointednurseduringtheAmericanCivilWar(18611865),anda
poeticinnovator.HismagnumopuswasLeavesofGrass,inwhichheusesafreeflowingverseand
linesofirregularlengthtodepicttheallinclusivenessofAmericandemocracy.Takingthatmotifone
stepfurther,thepoetequatesthevastrangeofAmericanexperiencewithhimselfwithoutbeing
egotistical.Forexample,inSongofMyself,thelong,centralpoeminLeavesofGrass,Whitmanwrites:
"Thesearereallythethoughtsofallmeninallagesandlands,theyarenotoriginalwithme..."
WaltWhitman,1856.
Whitmanwasalsoapoetofthebody"thebodyelectric,"ashecalledit.InStudiesinClassic
AmericanLiterature,theEnglishnovelistD.H.LawrencewrotethatWhitman"wasthefirsttosmash
theoldmoralconceptionthatthesoulofmanissomething'superior'and'above'theflesh."
EmilyDickinson,ontheotherhand,livedtheshelteredlifeofagenteelunmarriedwomaninsmall
townAmherst,Massachusetts.Withinitsformalstructure,herpoetryisingenious,witty,exquisitely
wrought,andpsychologicallypenetrating.Herworkwasunconventionalforitsday,andlittleofitwas
publishedduringherlifetime.
Manyofherpoemsdwellondeath,oftenwithamischievoustwist.One,"BecauseIcouldnotstopfor
Death",begins,"Hekindlystoppedforme."TheopeningofanotherDickinsonpoemtoyswithher
positionasawomaninamaledominatedsocietyandanunrecognizedpoet:"I'mnobody!Whoareyou?
/Areyounobodytoo?"
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Americanpoetryarguablyreacheditspeakintheearlytomid20thcentury,withsuchnotedwritersas
WallaceStevensandhisHarmonium(1923)andTheAurorasofAutumn(1950),T.S.EliotandhisThe
WasteLand(1922),RobertFrostandhisNorthofBoston(1914)andNewHampshire(1923),Hart
CraneandhisWhiteBuildings(1926)andtheepiccycle,TheBridge(1930),EzraPound,William
CarlosWilliamsandhisepicpoemabouthisNewJerseyhometown,Paterson,MarianneMoore,E.E.
Cummings,EdnaSt.VincentMillayandLangstonHughes,inadditiontomanyothers.
Realism,TwainandJames
MarkTwain(thepennameusedbySamuelLanghorneClemens,
18351910)wasthefirstmajorAmericanwritertobebornaway
fromtheEastCoastintheborderstateofMissouri.His
regionalmasterpieceswerethememoirLifeontheMississippi
andthenovelsAdventuresofTomSawyerandAdventuresof
HuckleberryFinn.Twain'sstyleinfluencedbyjournalism,
weddedtothevernacular,directandunadornedbutalsohighly
evocativeandirreverentlyhumorouschangedtheway
Americanswritetheirlanguage.Hischaractersspeaklikereal
peopleandsounddistinctivelyAmerican,usinglocaldialects,
newlyinventedwords,andregionalaccents.
Otherwritersinterestedinregionaldifferencesanddialectwere
GeorgeW.Cable,ThomasNelsonPage,JoelChandlerHarris,
MaryNoaillesMurfree(CharlesEgbertCraddock),SarahOrne
Jewett,MaryE.WilkinsFreeman,HenryCuylerBunner,and
MarkTwain,1907.
WilliamSydneyPorter(O.Henry).Aversionoflocalcolor
regionalismthatfocusedonminorityexperiencescanbeseenin
theworksofCharlesW.Chesnutt(AfricanAmerican),ofMaraRuizdeBurton,oneoftheearliest
MexicanAmericannoveliststowriteinEnglish,andintheYiddishinflectedworksofAbrahamCahan.
WilliamDeanHowellsalsorepresentedtherealisttraditionthroughhisnovels,includingTheRiseof
SilasLaphamandhisworkaseditoroftheAtlanticMonthly.
HenryJames(18431916)confrontedtheOldWorldNewWorlddilemmabywritingdirectlyaboutit.
AlthoughborninNewYorkCity,hespentmostofhisadultyearsinEngland.Manyofhisnovelscenter
onAmericanswholiveinortraveltoEurope.Withitsintricate,highlyqualifiedsentencesand
dissectionofemotionalandpsychologicalnuance,James'sfictioncanbedaunting.Amonghismore
accessibleworksarethenovellasDaisyMiller,aboutanenchantingAmericangirlinEurope,andThe
TurnoftheScrew,anenigmaticghoststory.
RealismalsoinfluencedAmericandramaoftheperiod,inpartthroughtheworksofHowellsbutalso
throughtheworksofsuchEuropeansasIbsenandZola.Althoughrealismwasmostinfluentialinterms
ofsetdesignandstagingaudienceslovedthespecialeffectsofferedupbythepopularmelodramas
andinthegrowthoflocalcolorplays,italsoshowedupinthemoresubdued,lessromantictonethat
reflectedtheeffectsoftheCivilWarandcontinuedsocialturmoilontheAmericanpsyche.
ThemostambitiousattemptatbringingmodernrealismintothedramawasJamesHerne'sMargaret
Fleming,whichaddressedissuesofsocialdeterminismthroughrealisticdialogue,psychologicalinsight
andsymbolismtheplaywasnotasuccess,ascriticsandaudiencesalikefeltitdwelttoomuchon
unseemlytopicsandincludedimproperscenes,suchasthemaincharacternursingherhusband's
illegitimatechildonstage.
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Beginningofthe20thcentury
Atthebeginningofthe20thcentury,Americannovelistswere
expandingfiction'ssocialspectrumtoencompassbothhighandlow
lifeandsometimesconnectedtothenaturalistschoolofrealism.In
herstoriesandnovels,EdithWharton(18621937)scrutinizedthe
upperclass,Easternseaboardsocietyinwhichshehadgrownup.
Oneofherfinestbooks,TheAgeofInnocence,centersonaman
whochoosestomarryaconventional,sociallyacceptablewoman
ratherthanafascinatingoutsider.
Ataboutthesametime,StephenCrane(18711900),bestknown
forhisCivilWarnovelTheRedBadgeofCourage,depictedthelife
ofNewYorkCityprostitutesinMaggie:AGirloftheStreets.And
inSisterCarrie,TheodoreDreiser(18711945)portrayedacountry
girlwhomovestoChicagoandbecomesakeptwoman.Hamlin
GarlandandFrankNorriswroteabouttheproblemsofAmerican
farmersandothersocialissuesfromanaturalistperspective.
Moredirectlypoliticalwritingsdiscussedsocialissuesandpowerof
corporations.SomelikeEdwardBellamyinLookingBackward
ErnestHemingwayinWorldWar
outlinedotherpossiblepoliticalandsocialframeworks.Upton
Iuniform.
Sinclair,mostfamousforhismuckrakingnovelTheJungle,
advocatedsocialism.Otherpoliticalwritersoftheperiodincluded
EdwinMarkham,WilliamVaughnMoody.Journalisticcritics,includingIdaM.TarbellandLincoln
SteffenswerelabeledTheMuckrakers.HenryBrooksAdams'literateautobiography,TheEducationof
HenryAdamsalsodepictedastingingdescriptionoftheeducationsystemandmodernlife.
Racewasacommonissueaswell,asseenintheworkofPaulineHopkins,anAfricanAmericanwoman
whopublishedfiveinfluentialworksfrom1900to1903discussingracialandsexualinequalities.
Similarly,SuiSinFarwroteaboutChineseAmericanexperiences,MariaCristinaMenawroteabout
MexicanAmericanexperiences,andZitkalaSawroteaboutNativeAmericanexperiences.
1920s
The1920sBroughtineffervescenceofAmericanliterature,bothinthestatesandinParisandLondon.
ManywritershaddirectexperienceoftheWorldWar,andusedittoframetheirwritings.[12]
Experimentationinstyleandformsoonjoinedthenewfreedominsubjectmatter.In1909,Gertrude
Stein(18741946),bythenanexpatriateinParis,publishedThreeLives,aninnovativeworkoffiction
influencedbyherfamiliaritywithcubism,jazz,andothermovementsincontemporaryartandmusic.
SteinlabeledagroupofAmericanliterarynotableswholivedinParisinthe1920sand1930sasthe
"LostGeneration".
ThepoetEzraPound(18851972)wasborninIdahobutspentmuchofhisadultlifeinEurope.His
workiscomplex,sometimesobscure,withmultiplereferencestootherartformsandtoavastrangeof
literature,bothWesternandEastern.[13]Heinfluencedmanyotherpoets,notablyT.S.Eliot(1888
1965),anotherexpatriate.Eliotwrotespare,cerebralpoetry,carriedbyadensestructureofsymbols.In
TheWasteLand,heembodiedajaundicedvisionofpostWorldWarIsocietyinfragmented,haunted
images.LikePound's,Eliot'spoetrycouldbehighlyallusive,andsomeeditionsofTheWasteLand
comewithfootnotessuppliedbythepoet.In1948,EliotwontheNobelPrizeinLiterature.[14]
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Stein,PoundandEliot,alongwithHenryJamesbeforethem,demonstratethegrowthofaninternational
perspectiveinAmericanliterature,andnotsimplybecausetheyspendlongperiodsoftimeoverseas.
AmericanwritershadlonglookedtoEuropeanmodelsforinspiration,butwhereastheliterary
breakthroughsofthemid19thcenturycamefromfindingdistinctlyAmericanstylesandthemes,writers
fromthisperiodwerefindingwaysofcontributingtoaflourishinginternationalliteraryscene,notas
imitatorsbutasequals.SomethingsimilarwashappeningbackintheStates,asJewishwriters(suchas
AbrahamCahan)usedtheEnglishlanguagetoreachaninternationalJewishaudience.
Americanwritersalsoexpressedthedisillusionmentfollowinguponthewar.Thestoriesandnovelsof
F.ScottFitzgerald(18961940)capturetherestless,pleasurehungry,defiantmoodofthe1920s.
Fitzgerald'scharacteristictheme,expressedpoignantlyinTheGreatGatsby,isthetendencyofyouth's
goldendreamstodissolveinfailureanddisappointment.Fitzgeraldalsoelucidatesthecollapseofsome
keyAmericanIdeals,suchasliberty,socialunity,goodgovernanceandpeace,featureswhichwere
severelythreatenedbythepressuresofmodernearly20thcenturysociety.[15]SinclairLewisand
SherwoodAndersonalsowrotenovelswithcriticaldepictionsofAmericanlife.JohnDosPassoswrote
aboutthewarandalsotheU.S.A.trilogywhichextendedintotheDepression.[16]
ErnestHemingway(18991961)sawviolenceanddeathfirsthand
asanambulancedriverinWorldWarI,andthecarnagepersuaded
himthatabstractlanguagewasmostlyemptyandmisleading.Hecut
outunnecessarywordsfromhiswriting,simplifiedthesentence
structure,andconcentratedonconcreteobjectsandactions.He
adheredtoamoralcodethatemphasizedgraceunderpressure,and
hisprotagonistswerestrong,silentmenwhooftendealtawkwardly
withwomen.TheSunAlsoRisesandAFarewelltoArmsare
generallyconsideredhisbestnovelsin1954,hewontheNobel
PrizeinLiterature.[17]
WilliamFaulkner(18971962)wontheNobelPrizein1949:.
Faulknerencompassedanenormousrangeofhumanityin
YoknapatawphaCounty,aMississippianregionofhisown
invention.Herecordedhischaracters'seeminglyuneditedramblings
inordertorepresenttheirinnerstates,atechniquecalled"streamof
F.ScottFitzgerald,photographed
consciousness".(Infact,thesepassagesarecarefullycrafted,and
byCarlvanVechten,1937.
theirseeminglychaoticstructureconcealsmultiplelayersof
meaning.)Healsojumbledtimesequencestoshowhowthepast
especiallytheslaveholdingeraoftheDeepSouthenduresinthepresent.Amonghisgreatworksare
Absalom,Absalom!,AsILayDying,TheSoundandtheFury,andLightinAugust.[18]
TheriseofAmericandrama
AlthoughtheUnitedStates'theatricaltraditioncanbetracedbacktothearrivalofLewisHallam'stroupe
inthemid18thcenturyandwasveryactiveinthe19thcentury,asseenbythepopularityofminstrel
showsandofadaptationsofUncleTom'sCabin,Americandramaattainedinternationalstatusonlyin
the1920sand1930s,withtheworksofEugeneO'Neill,whowonfourPulitzerPrizesandtheNobel
Prize.
Inthemiddleofthe20thcentury,Americandramawasdominatedbytheworkofplaywrights
TennesseeWilliamsandArthurMiller,aswellasbythematurationoftheAmericanmusical,whichhad
foundawaytointegratescript,musicanddanceinsuchworksasOklahoma!andWestSideStory.Later
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AmericanplaywrightsofimportanceincludeEdwardAlbee,SamShepard,DavidMamet,August
WilsonandTonyKushner.
Depressioneraliterature
Depressioneraliteraturewasbluntanddirectinitssocialcriticism.JohnSteinbeck(19021968)was
borninSalinas,California,wherehesetmanyofhisstories.Hisstylewassimpleandevocative,
winninghimthefavorofthereadersbutnotofthecritics.Steinbeckoftenwroteaboutpoor,working
classpeopleandtheirstruggletoleadadecentandhonestlife.TheGrapesofWrath,consideredhis
masterpiece,isastrong,sociallyorientednovelthattellsthestoryoftheJoads,apoorfamilyfrom
OklahomaandtheirjourneytoCaliforniainsearchofabetterlife.
OtherpopularnovelsincludeTortillaFlat,OfMiceandMen,CanneryRow,andEastofEden.Hewas
awardedtheNobelPrizeinLiteraturein1962.Steinbeck'scontemporary,NathanaelWest'stwomost
famousshortnovels,MissLonelyhearts,whichplumbsthelifeofitseponymousantihero,areluctant
(and,tocomiceffect,male)advicecolumnist,andtheeffectsthetragiclettersexertonit,andTheDay
oftheLocust,whichintroducesacastofHollywoodstereotypesandexplorestheironiesofthemovies,
havecometobeavowedclassicsofAmericanliterature.
Innonfiction,JamesAgee'sLetUsNowPraiseFamousMenobservesanddepictsthelivesofthree
strugglingtenantfarmingfamiliesinAlabamain1936.Combiningfactualreportagewithpassagesof
literarycomplexityandpoeticbeauty,Ageepresentedacompletepicture,anaccurate,minutelydetailed
reportofwhathehadseencoupledwithinsightintohisfeelingsabouttheexperienceandthedifficulties
ofcapturingitforabroadaudience.Indoingso,hecreatedanenduringportraitofanearlyinvisible
segmentoftheAmericanpopulation.
HenryMillerassumedauniqueplaceinAmericanLiteratureinthe1930swhenhissemi
autobiographicalnovels,writtenandpublishedinParis,werebannedfromtheUS.Althoughhismajor
works,includingTropicofCancerandBlackSpring,wouldnotbefreeofthelabelofobscenityuntil
1962,theirthemesandstylisticinnovationshadalreadyexertedamajorinfluenceonsucceeding
generationsofAmericanwriters,andpavedthewayforsexuallyfrank1960snovelsbyJohnUpdike,
PhilipRoth,GoreVidal,JohnRechyandWilliamStyron.
PostWorldWarII
Thepostwarnovel
TheperiodintimefromtheendofWorldWarIIupuntil,roughly,thelate1960sandearly1970ssaw
thepublicationofsomeofthemostpopularworksinAmericanhistorysuchasToKillaMockingbirdby
HarperLee.ThelastfewofthemorerealisticmodernistsalongwiththewildlyRomanticbeatniks
largelydominatedtheperiod,whilethedirectrespondentstoAmerica'sinvolvementinWorldWarII
contributedintheirnotableinfluence.
ThoughborninCanada,ChicagoraisedSaulBellowwouldbecomeoneofthemostinfluentialnovelists
inAmericainthedecadesdirectlyfollowingWorldWarII.InworkslikeTheAdventuresofAugie
MarchandHerzog,BellowpaintedvividportraitsoftheAmericancityandthedistinctivecharacters
thatpeopledit.BellowwentontowintheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1976.
FromJ.D.Salinger'sNineStoriesandTheCatcherintheRyetoSylviaPlath'sTheBellJar,the
perceivedmadnessofthestateofaffairsinAmericawasbroughttotheforefrontofthenation'sliterary
expression.ImmigrantauthorssuchasVladimirNabokov,withLolita,forgedonwiththetheme,and,at
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almostthesametime,thebeatnikstookaconcertedstepawayfromtheirLostGenerationpredecessors,
developingastyleandtoneoftheirownbydrawingonEasterntheologyandexperimentingwith
recreationaldrugs.
Thepoetryandfictionofthe"BeatGeneration",largelybornofacircleofintellectsformedinNew
YorkCityaroundColumbiaUniversityandestablishedmoreofficiallysometimelaterinSanFrancisco,
cameofage.ThetermBeatreferred,allatthesametime,tothecounterculturalrhythmoftheJazz
scene,toasenseofrebellionregardingtheconservativestressofpostwarsociety,andtoaninterestin
newformsofspiritualexperiencethroughdrugs,alcohol,philosophy,andreligion,andspecifically
throughZenBuddhism.
AllenGinsbergsetthetoneofthemovementinhispoemHowl,aWhitmanesqueworkthatbegan:"I
sawthebestmindsofmygenerationdestroyedbymadness..."Amongthemostrepresentative
achievementsoftheBeatsinthenovelareJackKerouac'sOnthe
Road(1957),thechronicleofasoulsearchingtravelthroughthe
continent,andWilliamS.Burroughs'sNakedLunch(1959),amore
experimentalworkstructuredasaseriesofvignettesrelating,
amongotherthings,thenarrator'stravelsandexperimentswithhard
drugs.
Regardingthewarnovelspecifically,therewasaliteraryexplosion
inAmericaduringthepostWorldWarIIera.Someofthebest
knownoftheworksproducedincludedNormanMailer'sTheNaked
andtheDead(1948),JosephHeller'sCatch22(1961)andKurt
VonnegutJr.'sSlaughterhouseFive(1969).TheMoviegoer(1962),
bySouthernauthorWalkerPercy,winneroftheNationalBook
Award,washisattemptatexploring"thedislocationofmaninthe
modernage."[19]
Incontrast,JohnUpdikeapproachedAmericanlifefromamore
NormanMailer,photographedby
reflectivebutnolesssubversiveperspective.His1960novelRabbit,
CarlVanVechten,1948.
Run,thefirstoffourchroniclingtherisingandfallingfortunesof
Harry"Rabbit"Angstromoverthecourseoffourdecadesagainst
thebackdropofthemajoreventsofthesecondhalfofthe20th
century,brokenewgroundonitsreleaseinitscharacterization
anddetailoftheAmericanmiddleclassandfrankdiscussionof
tabootopicssuchasadultery.NotableamongUpdike's
characteristicinnovationswashisuseofpresenttensenarration,
hisrich,stylizedlanguage,andhisattentiontosensualdetail.His
workisalsodeeplyimbuedwithChristianthemes.Thetwofinal
installmentsoftheRabbitseries,RabbitisRich(1981)and
RabbitatRest(1990),werebothawardedthePulitzerPrizefor
Fiction.OthernotableworksincludetheHenryBechnovels
(197098),TheWitchesofEastwick(1984),Roger'sVersion
(1986)andIntheBeautyoftheLilies(1996),whichliterarycritic
MichikoKakutanicalled"arguablyhisfinest."[20]
JohnUpdike
FrequentlylinkedwithUpdikeisthenovelistPhilipRoth.Roth
vigorouslyexploresJewishidentityinAmericansociety,especiallyinthepostwareraandtheearly21st
century.FrequentlysetinNewark,NewJersey,Roth'sworkisknowntobehighlyautobiographical,and
manyofRoth'smaincharacters,mostfamouslytheJewishnovelistNathanZuckerman,arethoughtto
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bealteregosofRoth.Withthesetechniques,andarmedwithhisarticulateandfastpacedstyle,Roth
exploresthedistinctionbetweenrealityandfictioninliteraturewhileprovocativelyexaminingAmerican
culture.HismostfamousworkincludestheZuckermannovels,thecontroversialPortnoy'sComplaint
(1969),andGoodbye,Columbus(1959).AmongthemostdecoratedAmericanwritersofhisgeneration,
hehaswoneverymajorAmericanliteraryaward,includingthePulitzerPrizeforhismajornovel
AmericanPastoral(1997).
IntherealmofAfricanAmericanliterature,RalphEllison's1952novelInvisibleManwasinstantly
recognizedasamongthemostpowerfulandimportantworksoftheimmediatepostwaryears.Thestory
ofablackUndergroundManintheurbannorth,thenovellaidbaretheoftenrepressedracialtension
thatstillprevailedwhilealsosucceedingasanexistentialcharacterstudy.RichardWrightwas
catapultedtofamebythepublicationinsubsequentyearsofhisnowwidelystudiedshortstory,"The
ManWhoWasAlmostaMan"(1939),andhiscontroversialsecondnovel,NativeSon(1940),andhis
legacywascementedbythe1945publicationofBlackBoy,aworkinwhichWrightdrewonhis
childhoodandmostlyautodidacticeducationinthesegregatedSouth,fictionalizingandexaggerating
someelementsashesawfit.BecauseofitspolemicalthemesandWright'sinvolvementwiththe
CommunistParty,thenovel'sfinalpart,"AmericanHunger,"wasnotpublisheduntil1977.
PerhapsthemostambitiousandchallengingpostwarAmericannovelistwasWilliamGaddis,whose
uncompromising,satiric,andgargantuannovels,suchasTheRecognitions(1955)andJR(1975)are
presentedlargelyintermsofunattributeddialogthatrequiresalmostunexampledreaderparticipation.
Gaddis'sprimarythemesincludeforgery,capitalism,religiouszealotry,andthelegalsystem,
constitutingasustainedpolyphoniccritiqueofthechaosandchicaneryofmodernAmericanlife.
Gaddis'swork,thoughlargelyignoredforyears,anticipatedandinfluencedthedevelopmentofsuch
ambitious"postmodern"fictionwritersasThomasPynchon,JosephMcElroy,andDonDeLillo.Another
neglectedandchallengingpostwarAmericannovelist,albeitonewhowrotemuchshorterworks,was
JohnHawkes,whoseoftensurreal,visionaryfictionaddressesthemesofviolenceanderoticismand
experimentsaudaciouslywithnarrativevoiceandstyle.Amonghismostimportantworksistheshort
nightmarishnovelTheLimeTwig(1961).
Shortfictionandpoetry
Inthepostwarperiod,theartoftheshortstoryagainflourished.Amongitsmostrespectedpractitioners
wasFlanneryO'Connor(b.March25,1925inGeorgiad.August3,1964inGeorgia),whorenewed
thefascinationofsuchgiantsasFaulknerandTwainwiththeAmericansouth,developingadistinctive
Southerngothicestheticwhereincharactersactedatonelevelaspeopleandatanotherassymbols.A
devoutCatholic,O'Connoroftenimbuedherstories,amongthemthewidelystudied"AGoodManis
HardtoFind"and"EverythingThatRisesMustConverge",andtwonovels,WiseBlood(1952)The
ViolentBearItAway(1960),withdeeplyreligiousthemes,focusingparticularlyonthesearchfortruth
andreligiousskepticismagainstthebackdropofthenuclearage.Otherimportantpractitionersofthe
formincludeKatherineAnnePorter,EudoraWelty,JohnCheever,RaymondCarver,TobiasWolff,and
themoreexperimentalDonaldBarthelme.
AmongthemostrespectedofthepostwarAmericanpoetsareJohnAshbery,thekeyfigureofthe
surrealisticNewYorkSchoolofpoetry,andhiscelebratedSelfportraitinaConvexMirror(Pulitzer
PrizeforPoetry,1976)ElizabethBishopandherNorth&South(PulitzerPrizeforPoetry,1956)and
"GeographyIII"(NationalBookAward,1970)RichardWilburandhisThingsofThisWorld,winnerof
boththePulitzerPrizeandtheNationalBookAwardforPoetryin1957JohnBerrymanandhisThe
DreamSongs,(PulitzerPrizeforPoetry,1964,NationalBookAward,1968)A.R.Ammons,whose
CollectedPoems19511971wonaNationalBookAwardin1973andwhoselongpoemGarbage
earnedhimanotherin1993TheodoreRoethkeandhisTheWaking(PulitzerPrizeforPoetry,1954)
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JamesMerrillandhisepicpoemofcommunicationwiththedead,TheChangingLightatSandover
(PulitzerPrizeforPoetry,1977)LouiseGlckforherTheWildIris(PulitzerPrizeforPoetry,1993)
W.S.MerwinforhisTheCarrierofLadders(PulitzerPrizeforPoetry,1971)andTheShadowofSirius
(PulitzerPrizeforPoetry,2009)MarkStrandforBlizzardofOne(PulitzerPrizeforPoetry,1999)
RobertHassforhisTimeandMaterials,whichwonboththePulitzerPrizeandNationalBookAward
forPoetryin2008and2007respectivelyandRitaDoveforherThomasandBeulah(PulitzerPrizefor
Poetry,1987).
Inaddition,inthissameperiodtheconfessional,whoseoriginisoftentracedtothepublicationin1959
ofRobertLowell'sLifeStudies,[21]andbeatschoolsofpoetryenjoyedpopularandacademicsuccess,
producingsuchwidelyanthologizedvoicesasAllenGinsberg,CharlesBukowski,GarySnyder,Anne
Sexton,andSylviaPlath,amongmanyothers.
ContemporaryAmericanliterature
Thoughitsexactparametersremaindebatable,fromtheearly1970stothepresentdaythemostsalient
literarymovementhasbeenpostmodernism.ThomasPynchon,aseminalpractitioneroftheform,drew
inhisworkonmodernistfixturessuchastemporaldistortion,unreliablenarrators,andinternal
monologueandcoupledthemwithdistinctlypostmoderntechniquessuchasmetafiction,ideogrammatic
characterization,unrealisticnames(OedipaMaas,BennyProfane,etc.),absurdistplotelementsand
hyperbolichumor,deliberateuseofanachronismsandarchaisms,astrongfocusonpostcolonialthemes,
andasubversivecomminglingofhighandlowculture.In1973,hepublishedGravity'sRainbow,a
leadingworkinthisgenre,whichwontheNationalBookAwardandwasunanimouslynominatedfor
thePulitzerPrizeforFictionthatyear.Hisothermajorworksincludehisdebut,V.(1963),TheCryingof
Lot49(1966),Mason&Dixon(1997),andAgainsttheDay(2006).
ToniMorrison,themostrecentAmericanrecipientoftheNobelPrizeforLiterature,writingina
distinctivelyricalprosestyle,publishedhercontroversialdebutnovel,TheBluestEye,towidespread
criticalacclaimin1970.ComingontheheelsofthesigningoftheCivilRightsActof1965,thenovel,
widelystudiedinAmericanschools,includesanelaboratedescriptionofincestuousrapeandexplores
theconventionsofbeautyestablishedbyahistoricallyracistsociety,paintingaportraitofaself
immolatingblackfamilyinsearchofbeautyinwhiteness.Sincethen,Morrisonhasexperimentedwith
lyricfantasy,asinhertwobestknownlaterworks,SongofSolomon(1977)andBeloved(1987),for
whichshewasawardedthePulitzerPrizeforFictionalongtheselines,criticHaroldBloomhasdrawn
favorablecomparisonstoVirginiaWoolf,[22]andtheNobelcommitteeto"FaulknerandtotheLatin
Americantradition[ofmagicalrealism]."[23]Belovedwaschosenina2006surveyconductedbythe
NewYorkTimesasthemostimportantworkoffictionofthelast25years.[24]
Writinginalyrical,flowingstylethateschewsexcessiveuseofthecommaandsemicolon,recalling
WilliamFaulknerandErnestHemingwayinequalmeasure,CormacMcCarthy'sbodyofworkseizeson
theliterarytraditionsofseveralregionsoftheUnitedStatesandspansmultiplegenres.Hewritesinthe
SouthernGothicaestheticinhisdistinctlyFaulknerian1965debut,TheOrchardKeeper,andSuttree
(1979)intheEpicWesterntradition,withgrotesquelydrawncharactersandsymbolicnarrativeturns
reminiscentofMelville,inBloodMeridian(1985),whichHaroldBloomstyled"thegreatestsinglebook
sinceFaulkner'sAsILayDying,"callingthecharacterofJudgeHolden"shortofMobyDick,themost
monstrousapparitioninallofAmericanliterature"[25]inamuchmorepastoraltoneinhiscelebrated
BorderTrilogy(199298)ofbildungsromans,includingAllthePrettyHorses(1992),winnerofthe
NationalBookAwardandinthepostapocalypticgenreinthePulitzerPrizewinningTheRoad(2007).
Hisnovelsarenotedforachievingbothcommercialandcriticalsuccess,severalofhisworkshaving
beenadaptedtofilm.
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DonDeLillo,whorosetoliteraryprominencewiththepublicationofhis1985novel,WhiteNoise,a
workbroachingthesubjectsofdeathandconsumerismanddoublingasapieceofcomicsocialcriticism,
beganhiswritingcareerin1971withAmericana.HeislistedbyHaroldBloomasbeingamongthe
preeminentcontemporaryAmericanwriters,inthecompanyofsuchfiguresasPhilipRoth,Cormac
McCarthy,andThomasPynchon.[26]His1997novelUnderworld,agargantuanworkchronicling
AmericanlifethroughandimmediatelyaftertheColdWarandexaminingwithequaldepthsubjectsas
variousasbaseballandnuclearweapons,isgenerallyagreedupontobehismasterpieceandwasthe
runnerupinasurveyaskingwriterstoidentifythemostimportantworkoffictionofthelast25
years.[24]AmonghisotherimportantnovelsareLibra(1988),MaoII(1991)andFallingMan(2007).
Seizingonthedistinctlypostmoderntechniquesofdigression,narrative
fragmentationandelaboratesymbolism,andstronglyinfluencedbythe
worksofThomasPynchon,DavidFosterWallacebeganhiswriting
careerwithTheBroomoftheSystem,publishedtomoderateacclaimin
1987.Hissecondnovel,InfiniteJest(1997),afuturisticportraitof
Americaandaplayfulcritiqueofthemediasaturatednatureof
Americanlife,hasbeenconsistentlyrankedamongthemostimportant
worksofthe20thcentury,[27]andhisfinalnovel,unfinishedatthetime
ofhisdeath,ThePaleKing(2011),hasgarneredmuchpraiseand
attention.Inadditiontohisnovels,healsoauthoredthreeacclaimed
shortstorycollections:GirlwithCuriousHair(1989),BriefInterviews
withHideousMen(1999)andOblivion:Stories(2004).
JonathanFranzenatthe2008
JonathanFranzen,Wallace'sfriendandcontemporary,roseto
BrooklynBookFestival.
prominenceafterthe2001publicationofhisNationalBookAward
winningthirdnovel,TheCorrections.Hebeganhiswritingcareerin
1988withthewellreceivedTheTwentySeventhCity,anovelcenteringonhisnativeSt.Louis,butdid
notgainnationalattentionuntilthepublicationofhisessay,"PerchancetoDream,"inHarper's
Magazine,discussingtheculturalroleofthewriterinthenewmillenniumthroughtheprismofhisown
frustrations.TheCorrections,atragicomedyaboutthedisintegratingLambertfamily,hasbeencalled
"theliteraryphenomenonof[its]decade"[28]andwasrankedasoneofthegreatestnovelsofthepast
century.[27]In2010,hepublishedFreedomtogreatcriticalacclaim.[28][29][30]
OthernotablewritersattheturnofthecenturyincludeMichaelChabon,whosePulitzerPrizewinning
TheAmazingAdventuresofKavalier&Clay(2000)tellsthestoryoftwofriends,JoeKavalierandSam
Clay,astheyrisethroughtheranksofthecomicsindustryinitsheydayDenisJohnson,whose2007
novelTreeofSmokeaboutfalsifiedintelligenceduringVietnambothwontheNationalBookAwardand
wasafinalistforthePulitzerPrizeforFictionandwascalledbycriticMichikoKakutani"oneofthe
classicworksofliteratureproducedby[theVietnamWar]"[31]andLouiseErdrich,whose2008novel
ThePlagueofDoves,adistinctlyFaulknerian,polyphonicexaminationofthetribalexperienceset
againstthebackdropofmurderinthefictionaltownofPluto,NorthDakota,wasnominatedforthe
PulitzerPrize,andher2012novelTheRoundHouse,whichbuildsonthesamethemes,wasawardedthe
2012NationalBookAward.[32]
Minorityliteratures
Oneofthekeydevelopmentsinlate20thcenturyAmericanliteraturewastherisetoprominenceof
literaturewrittenbyandaboutethnicminoritiesbeyondAfricanAmericansandJewishAmericans,who
hadalreadyestablishedtheirliteraryinheritances.Thisdevelopmentcamealongsidethegrowthofthe
CivilRightsmovementsanditscorollary,theEthnicPridemovement,whichledtothecreationof
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EthnicStudiesprogramsinmostmajoruniversities.Theseprogramshelpedestablishthenewethnic
literatureasworthyobjectsofacademicstudy,alongsidesuchothernewareasofliterarystudyas
women'sliterature,gayandlesbianliterature,workingclassliterature,postcolonialliterature,andthe
riseofliterarytheoryasakeycomponentofacademicliterarystudy.
Afterbeingrelegatedtocookbooksandautobiographiesformostofthe20thcentury,AsianAmerican
literatureachievedwidespreadnoticethroughMaxineHongKingston'sfictionalmemoir,TheWoman
Warrior(1976),andhernovelsChinaMen(1980)andTripmasterMonkey:HisFakeBook.Chinese
AmericanauthorHaJinin1999wontheNationalBookAwardforhissecondnovel,Waiting,abouta
ChinesesoldierintheRevolutionaryArmywhohastowait18yearstodivorcehiswifeforanother
woman,allthewhilehavingtoworryaboutpersecutionforhisprotractedaffair,andtwicewonthe
PEN/FaulknerAward,in2000forWaitingandin2005forWarTrash.
IndianAmericanauthorJhumpaLahiriwonthePulitzerPrizeforFictionforherdebutcollectionof
shortstories,InterpreterofMaladies(1999),andwentontowriteawellreceivednovel,TheNamesake
(2003),whichwasshortlyadaptedtofilmin2007.Inhersecondcollectionofstories,Unaccustomed
Earth,releasedtowidespreadcommercialandcriticalsuccess,Lahirishiftsfocusandtreatsthe
experiencesofthesecondandthirdgeneration.
OthernotableAsianAmerican(butnotimmigrant)novelistsincludeAmyTan,bestknownforher
novel,TheJoyLuckClub(1989),tracingthelivesoffourimmigrantfamiliesbroughttogetherbythe
gameofMahjong,andKoreanAmericannovelistChangRaeLee,whohaspublishedNativeSpeaker,A
GestureLife,andAloft.SuchpoetsasMarilynChinandLiYoungLee,KimikoHahnandJanice
Mirikitanihavealsoachievedprominence,ashasplaywrightDavidHenryHwang.Equallyimportant
hasbeentheefforttorecoverearlierAsianAmericanauthors,startedbyFrankChinandhiscolleagues
thisefforthasbroughtSuiSinFar,ToshioMori,CarlosBulosan,JohnOkada,HisayeYamamotoand
otherstoprominence.
Latina/oliteraturealsobecameimportantduringthisperiod,startingwithacclaimednovelsbyToms
Rivera(...ynoselotraglatierra)andRudolfoAnaya(BlessMe,Ultima),andtheemergenceof
ChicanotheaterwithLuisValdezandTeatroCampesino.Latinawritingbecameimportantthanksto
authorssuchasSandraCisneros,aniconofanemergingChicanoliteraturewhose1984bildungsroman
TheHouseonMangoStreetistaughtinschoolsacrosstheUnitedStates,DeniseChavez'sTheLastof
theMenuGirlsandGloriaAnzalda'sBorderlands/LaFrontera:TheNewMestiza.
DominicanAmericanauthorJunotDaz,receivedthePulitzerPrizeforFictionforhis2007novelThe
BriefWondrousLifeofOscarWao,whichtellsthestoryofanoverweightDominicanboygrowingupas
asocialoutcastinPaterson,NewJersey.AnotherDominicanauthor,JuliaAlvarez,iswellknownfor
HowtheGarcaGirlsLostTheirAccentsandIntheTimeoftheButterflies.CubanAmericanauthor
OscarHijueloswonaPulitzerforTheMamboKingsPlaySongsofLove,andCristinaGarcareceived
acclaimforDreaminginCuban.
CelebratedPuertoRicannovelistswhowriteinEnglishandSpanishincludeGianninaBraschi,authorof
theSpanglishclassicYoYoBoing!andRosarioFerr,bestknownfor"EccentricNeighborhoods"[33][34]
PuertoRicohasalsoproducedimportantplaywrightssuchasRenMarqus,LuisRafaelSnchez,and
JosRiveraandNewYorkbasedpoetssuchasJuliadeBurgos,GianninaBraschiandPedroPietri,as
wellasvariousmembersoftheNuyoricanPoetsCaf.[34]
SpurredbythesuccessofN.ScottMomaday'sPulitzerPrizewinningHouseMadeofDawn,Native
Americanliteratureshowedexplosivegrowthduringthisperiod,knownastheNativeAmerican
Renaissance,throughsuchnovelistsasLeslieMarmonSilko(e.g.,Ceremony),GeraldVizenor(e.g.,
Bearheart:TheHeirshipChroniclesandnumerousessaysonNativeAmericanliterature),Louise
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Erdrich(LoveMedicineandseveralothernovelsthatusearecurringsetofcharactersandlocationsin
themannerofWilliamFaulkner),JamesWelch(e.g.,WinterintheBlood),ShermanAlexie(e.g.,The
LoneRangerandTontoFistfightinHeaven),andpoetsSimonOrtizandJoyHarjo.Thesuccessofthese
authorshasbroughtrenewedattentiontoearliergenerations,includingZitkalaSa,JohnJoseph
Mathews,D'ArcyMcNickleandMourningDove.
Morerecently,ArabAmericanliterature,largelyunnoticedsincetheNewYorkPenLeagueofthe
1920s,hasbecomemoreprominentthroughtheworkofDianaAbuJaber,whosenovelsinclude
ArabianJazzandCrescentandthememoirTheLanguageofBaklava.Otherimportantauthorsinclude
EtelAdnan,RabihAlameddineandpoetNaomiShihabNye.
NobelPrizeinLiteraturewinners(Americanauthors)
1930:SinclairLewis(novelist)
1936:EugeneO'Neill(playwright)
1938:PearlS.Buck(biographerandnovelist)
1948:T.S.Eliot(poetandplaywright)
1949:WilliamFaulkner(novelist)
1954:ErnestHemingway(novelist)
1962:JohnSteinbeck(novelist)
1976:SaulBellow(novelist)
1978:IsaacBashevisSinger(novelist,wroteinYiddish)
1987:JosephBrodsky(poetandessayist,wroteinEnglishandRussian)
1993:ToniMorrison(novelist)
Americanliteraryawards
AmericanAcademyofArtsandLetters
PulitzerPrize(Fiction,DramaandPoetry,aswellasvariousnonfictionandjournalistcategories)
NationalBookAward(Fiction,NonFiction,PoetryandYoungAdultFiction)
AmericanBookAwards
PENliteraryawards(multipleawards)
UnitedStatesPoetLaureate
BollingenPrize
PushcartPrize
O.HenryAward
Literarytheoryandcriticism
EdgarAllanPoe:DarkRomanticism,ShortStoryTheory
T.S.Eliot:Modernism
HaroldBloom:Aestheticism
SusanSontag:AgainstInterpretation,OnPhotography
JohnUpdike:Literaryrealism/modernismandaestheticistcritic
M.H.Abrams:TheMirrorandtheLamp(studyofRomanticism)
F.O.Mathiessen:originatedtheconcept"AmericanRenaissance"
PerryMiller:Puritanstudies
HenryNashSmith:founderofthe"MythandSymbolSchool"ofAmericancriticism
LeoMarx:TheMachineintheGarden(studyoftechnologyandculture)
LeslieFiedler:LoveandDeathintheAmericanNovel
StanleyFish:Pragmatism
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HenryLouisGates:AfricanAmericanliterarytheory
GeraldVizenor:NativeAmericanliterarytheory
WilliamDeanHowells:Literaryrealism
StephenGreenblatt:NewHistoricism
GeoffreyHartman:Yaleschoolofdeconstruction
JohnCroweRansom:NewCriticism
CleanthBrooks:NewCriticism
KennethBurke:Rhetoricstudies
ElaineShowalter:Feministcriticism
SandraM.Gilbert:Feministcriticism
SusanGubar:Feministcriticism
J.HillisMiller:Deconstruction
EdwardSaid:Postcolonialcriticism
JonathanCuller:Criticaltheory,deconstruction
JudithButler:Poststructuralistfeminism
GloriaE.Anzalda:Latinaliterarytheory
EveKosofskySedgwick:Queertheory
FredricJameson:Marxistcriticism
Seealso
AmericanLiterature(academicdiscipline)
Shortstory
Benet'sReader'sEncyclopediaofAmericanLiterature
Highlighter
Additionalgenres
Detectivefiction
Horrorfiction
Naturewriting
Romancenovel
Sciencefictionandfantasy
Westernfiction
RegionalandminorityfocusesinAmericanliterature
LiteratureofNewEngland
Chicagoliterature
Southernliterature
LiteratureinHawaii
Texasliterature
NewOrleansinfiction
Bostoninfiction
LGBTliterature
DeafAmericanliterature
AmericanCatholicliterature
AmericanliteratureinSpanish
Ethnicminorityliterature
articlesandlists
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ArmenianAmericanliterature
AfricanAmericanliterature
ListofAfricanAmericanwriters
JewishAmericanliterature
ListofJewishAmericanwriters
ListofArabAmericanwriters
ListofwritersfrompeoplesindigenoustotheAmericas
NativeAmericanRenaissance
AsianAmericanliterature
ChineseAmericanliterature
KoreanAmericanwriters
ListofAsianAmericanwriters
HispanicAmericanwriters
Chicanoliterature
Chicanopoetry
PuertoRicanliterature
ListofPuertoRicanwriters
ListofCubanAmericanwriters
ListofMexicanAmericanwriters
Notesandreferences
1. Baym,Nina,ed.TheNortonAnthologyofAmericanLiterature.NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,2007.
Print.
2. Skipp,FrancisE.AmericanLiterature,Barron'sEducational,1992.
3. Gray,Richard.AHistoryofAmericanLiterature.Blackwell,2004.
4. Parker,PatriciaL."CharlotteTemplebySusannaRowson."TheEnglishJournal.65.1:(1976)5960.
JSTOR.Web.1March2010.
5. Schweitzer,Ivy."Review."EarlyAmericanLiterature.23.2:(1988)221225.JSTOR.Web.1March2010.
6. Hamilton,Kristie."AnAssaultontheWill:RepublicanVirtueandtheCityinHannahWebsterFoster's'The
Coquette'."EarlyAmericanLiterature.24.2:(1989)135151.JSTOR.Web.1March2010
7. Campbell,DonnaM."TheEarlyAmericanNovel:IntroductoryNotes."LiteraryMovements.14July2008.1
March2010.http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/earamnov.htm
8. Rutherford,Mildred.AmericanAuthors.Atlanta:TheFranklinPrintingandPublishingCo.,1902.
9. Reynolds,Guy."TheWinningoftheWest:WashingtonIrving's'ATouronthePrairies'."TheYearbookof
EnglishStudies.34:(2004)8899.JSTOR.Web.1March2010.
10. Gura,PhilipF.AmericanTranscendentalism:AHistory.NewYork:HillandWang,2007:78.ISBN9780
809034772
11. "ABriefGuidetotheFiresidePoets"(http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/5654)atPoets.org
(http://www.Poets.org).Accessed10072015
12. HazelHutchison,TheWarThatUsedUpWords:AmericanWritersandtheFirstWorldWar(Yale
UniversityPress,2015)
13. NoelStock,TheLifeofEzraPound(1970)
14. HughKenner,Theinvisiblepoet:TSEliot(1965).
15. JeffreyMeyers,ScottFitzgerald:ABiography(HarperCollins,1994).
16. MaxwellGeismar,Americanmoderns,fromrebelliontoconformity(1958)
17. KeithFerrell,ErnestHemingway:TheSearchforCourage(Rowman&Littlefield,2014)
18. JohnT.Matthews,WilliamFaulkner:seeingthroughtheSouth(Wiley,2011).
19. Kimball,RogerExistentialism,SemioticsandIcedTea,ReviewofConversationswithWalkerPercy
(http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F07E5D81238F937A3575BC0A963948260)NewYork
Times,August4,1985,AccessedSeptember24,2006
20. Kakutani,Michiko(January12,1996)."SeekingSalvationOntheSilverScreen".TheNewYorkTimes
Books.RetrievedDecember3,2009.
21. GroundbreakingBook:LifeStudiesbyRobertLowell(1959)
(http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/5960)AccessedMay5,2010
21/23
4/18/2016
22. Bloom,Harold:HowtoReadandWhy,page269.TouchstonePress,2000.
23. "NobelPrizeNobelPrizeAwardCeremonySpeech".Nobelprize.org.19Aug2010[1]
(http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1993/presentationspeech.html)
24. "WhatIstheBestWorkofAmericanFictionoftheLast25Years?".NewYorkTimes.May21,2006.
RetrievedDecember4,2009.
25. Bloom,Harold(June15,2009)."HaroldBloomonBloodMeridian".A.V.Club.RetrievedMarch3,2010.
26. Bloom,Harold(September24,2003)."DumbingdownAmericanreaders".TheBostonGlobe.Retrieved
December4,2009.
27. "AllTime100Novels:TheCompleteList".TimeMagazine.October16,2005.RetrievedDecember4,2009.
Citeerror:Invalid<ref>tagname"time100"definedmultipletimeswithdifferentcontent(seethe
helppage).
28. Grossman,Lev(August12,2010)."JonathanFranzen:GreatAmericanNovelist".TimeMagazine.Retrieved
August16,2010.
29. Kakutani,Michiko(August15,2010)."AFamilyFullofUnhappiness,HopingforTranscendence".New
YorkTimes.RetrievedAugust16,2010.
30. Tanenhaus,Sam(August19,2010)."PeaceandWar".NewYorkTimes.RetrievedAugust19,2010.
31. Kakutani,Michiko(20070831)."InVietnam:StarsandStripes,andInnocenceUndone".TheNewYork
Times.RetrievedApril17,2010.
32. "2012NationalBookAwards".NationalBookFoundation.November14,2012.RetrievedDecember2,2012.
33. "GianninaBraschi".NationalBookFestival.LibraryofCongress.2012.RetrievedFebruary17,2015.
"'Braschi:oneofthemostrevolutionaryvoicesinLatinAmericatoday'"
34. IlanStavans(2011)."NortonAnthologyofLatinoLiterature".Norton.RetrievedFebruary17,2015.
Bibliography
NewImmigrantLiteraturesintheUnitedStates:ASourcebooktoOurMulticulturalLiterary
HeritagebyAlpanaSharmaKnippling(Westport,Connecticut:Greenwood,1996)
AsianAmericanNovelists:ABioBibliographicalCriticalSourcebookbyEmmanuelS.Nelson
(Westport,Connecticut:GreenwoodPress,2000)
Witschi,N.S.(2002).TracesofGold:California'sNaturalResourcesandtheClaimtoRealismin
WesternAmericanLiterature.Tuscaloosa:UniversityofAlabamaPress.ISBN0817311173.
Externallinks
WhyaNationalLiteratureCannotFlourishintheUnitedStatesofNorthAmerica(1845)
(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/31777)byJosephRocchietti
ErnestHemingwayWebsite(http://www.ernesthemingway.org.uk)
AudiolecturesonAmericanLiteratureinTheEnglishCollection.com(clickabletimeline)
(http://engelsklenker.com/us_resource.php)
AStudent'sHistoryofAmericanLiterature(1902)byEdwardSimonds
(http://classiclit.about.com/library/bletexts/esimonds/blesimondsstudent11.htm)
ElectronicTextsinAmericanStudies(http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/etas/)
Chisholm,Hugh,ed.(1911)."AmericanLiterature".EncyclopdiaBritannica(11thed.).
CambridgeUniversityPress.
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_literature&oldid=714920806"
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