CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
The analysis of blast loading was started in 1960s
only. Protecting civilian buildings from the threat of terrorist activities is one
of the most critical challenges for structural engineers today. Most of the
studies were conducted using the vehicle driven high-energy explosive
loading on the concrete/composite masonry wall building simulating
terrorist attack. The terrorist activities and threats have become a growing
problem all over the world and protection of the citizens against terrorist
attacks involves prediction, prevention and mitigation of such events.
Extensive research into blast effects analysis and
techniques to protect buildings has been initiated in many countries to
develop methods of protecting critical infrastructure and the built in
environment. The private sector is also increasingly considering measures to
protect so-called icon buildings against the threat of external terrorist
bomb attacks. If the structures are properly designed for these abnormal
loads damage can be reduced. Additionally, in order to ensure safety of
existing structures against such events, an evaluation procedure for their
inspection and eventual retrofit is needed.
After the progressive collapse of the Ronan Point
apartment, England in 1968[1], structural engineering research department
throughout the world forced to direct their research towards the progressive
collapse of high rise buildings under abnormal loads. So many guidelines,
standards and criteria were developed by different government and private
agencies in the world. According to UFC (Unified Facilities Criteria)
1

[2]

guidelines and criteria have been efficient to prevent the progressive

collapse to some extent. if the target buildings were designed and built for
the above guidelines and criteria. It is highly expensive to design each and
every element of high rise buildings to withstand for unexpected abnormal
loads.
Earth quake performance of RC structures has been
well documented in the past. Also, damage patterns in reinforced concrete
structures during the past earthquakes have been extensively studied.
However, more recently, several destructive earth quakes, including the 1999
Athens[3] (Greece) earthquake, the 1999 Izmit[4] and Duzce[5] earthquake
(Turkey), 1999 Chi Chi[6] (Taiwan) earthquake, 2001 Bhuj[7] (India)
earthquake, and the 2003 Boumerdes[8] (Algeria) earthquake, most recent
2015 Gorkha[9] (Nepal) earthquake have given more insights to performance
of RC frame constructions. In order to understand the complete behavior of
RC structures, it is required to study the performance from no loading
condition till the complete collapse. In fact, the structures which are
designed for regular design codes are capable to withstand to some extent of
abnormal loads and then lead to collapses. Many structures are not being
designed to resist such abnormal loads due to economic reasons but major
causalities in the earthquake around the world are due to the structural
collapse. Life safety considerations necessitate that in the event of an
abnormal loading condition on a building, people can be evacuated safely
before the building collapses. This requires a forecast about whether a
building eventually collapse in such an event or not, and such a forecast is
applicable for further structures as well as existing structures.

1.2 Previous Incidents of Progressive collapse:

1.2.1 Ronan Point apartment building, England[1]
Ronan Point was a development of apartment
buildings in London. It was built between 1966 and 1968. On the morning of
may 16, 1968, a gas leak caused an explosion in an apartment of the 18 th
floor of one of the buildings. The explosion blew out an exterior wall panel.
The loss of an exterior wall triggered the collapse of the upper floors
followed by the collapse of the lower floors due to the impact of the falling
upper floors.

Figure 1.1 Floor plan and Ronan point after collapse

1.2.2 Alfred P. Murrah Fedral office building in Oklahoma city, USA [10]
Alfred P. Murrah Fedral office building in Oklahoma
City was blasted by a truck bomb. The truck bomb estimated 1814 kg of
high explosives and located 3 to 5 m from the north face of the building and
about 12 to 15 m from the east end, caused 168 fatalities and numerous
injuries. Besides this, the number of surrounding buildings damaged was
3

around 75. The bomb was fertilizer-based (Ammonium Nitrate fuel oil
ANFO) explosive which had the TNT (Trinitrotoluene) equivalent 1814
(1.05) = 1905 kg. The Murrah building was a nine storey building of RC 4
slab-column construction, measuring 61.5m 21.5 m. The bomb, in a truck
at the base of the building, destroyed three of the four front columns. This
caused failure of transfer girder and columns supported by the transfer
girder. About 50% of floor area was lost over the full height of the structure.

Figure 1.2 Floor plan and Damage to north and east sides of Murrah
Building
1.2.3 Khobar Tower bombing, Saudi Arabia [11]
In 1996, Khobar Tower in Saudi Arabia was being
used to house foreign military personnel. On June 25, 1996, terrorist
detonated a bomb estimated at 9000kg TNT equivalent, apparently placed in
a tank truck parked approximately 24m from one of the buildings. The
explosion, which created a crater 17 m in diameter and 5 m deep, destroyed
the facing faade wall of the closest building, and damaged interior floors
and wall components. In addition, the explosion seriously damaged other
nearby buildings, and caused widespread glass damage in the complex.
4

Figure 1.3 Crater created due to explosion and building after the
bombing

1.3 GENERAL OBJECTIVES

The primary objectives are to establish design
procedures and construction techniques to prevent propagation of explosion
or mass detonation and to protect personnel and valuable equipment.
The secondary objective is
Establish the blast load parameters required for design of protective
structures.
Provide methods for calculating the dynamic response of structural
elements including reinforced concrete and structural steel.
Establish construction details and procedures necessary to afford the
required strength to resist the applied blast loads.
Establish guidelines for sitting explosive facilities to obtain maximum
cost effectiveness in both planning and structural arrangements,
providing closures, and prevent damage to the interior portions of
structures because of structural motion, shock and fragment
perforation.
Damage to the assets, loss of life and social panic
are factors that have to be minimized, if the threat of terrorist action cannot
be stopped. Designing the structures to be fully blast resistant is not a
5

realistic and economical option, however current engineering and

architectural knowledge can enhance the new and existing buildings to
mitigate the effects of an explosion. Only explosions caused by high
explosives (chemical reactions) are considered within the study. High
explosives are solid in form and are commonly termed condensed
explosives. TNT (trinitrotoluene) is the most widely known example. There
are 3 kinds of explosions which are
Unconfined Explosions,
Confined Explosions,
Explosions Caused by Explosives attached to the structure.
Unconfined explosions can occur as an air-burst or a
surface burst. In an air burst explosion, the detonation of the high explosive
occurs above the ground level and intermediate amplification of the wave
caused by ground reflections occurs prior to the arrival of the initial blast at
a building.

Figure 1.4 Air burst with ground reflections

As the shock wave continues to propagate outwards
along the ground surface, a front commonly called mach stem is formed by
the interaction of the initial wave and the reflected wave. Whereas surface
6

burst explosion occur when the detonation occurs close to or on the ground
surface. The initial shock wave is reflected and amplified by the ground
surface to produce a reflected wave.

Figure 1.5 Surface burst

Unlike the air burst, the reflected wave merges with
the incident wave at a point of detonation and forms a single wave. In the
majority of cases, terrorist activity occurs in built-up area of cities, where
devices are placed on or very near the ground surface. When an explosion
occurs within a building, the pressures associated with the initial shock front
will be high and therefore will be amplified by their reflections within the
building. This type of explosion is called a confined explosion. In addition
with this and depending upon the degree of confinement, the effect of the
high temperature and accumulation of gaseous products produced by the
chemical reaction involved in the explosion will cause additional pressure
and increase the load duration within the structure. Depending on the extent
of venting, various types of confined explosions are possible.

Figure 1.6 Fully vented, partially vented and fully confined explosions
If detonating explosive is in contact with a structural component, e.g. a
column, the arrival of the detonation wave at the surface of the explosive
will generate intense stress waves in the material and resulting crushing of
the material. Except that an explosive in contact with a structure produces
similar effect to those of unconfined or confined explosions. There are many
forms of high explosive available and as each explosive has its own
detonation characteristics, the properties of each blast wave will be different.
TNT is being used as the standard benchmark, where all explosions can be
expressed in terms of an equivalent charge mass of TNT. The most common
method of equalization is based on the ratio of an explosives specific energy
to that of TNT.

1.3.1 Explosion Process for High Explosives:

An explosion occurs when a gas, liquid or solid
material goes through a rapid chemical reaction. When the explosion occurs,
gas products of the reaction are formed at a very high temperature and
8

pressure at the source. These high pressure gases expand rapidly into the
surrounding area and a blast wave is formed. Because the gases are moving,
they cause the surrounding air move as well. The damage caused by
explosion is produced by the passage of compressed air in the blast wave.
Blast waves propagate at supersonic speed and reflected as they meet
objects. As the blast wave continues to expand away from the source of the
explosion its intensity diminishes and its effect on the objects is also
reduced. Once the blast wave has formed and propagating away from the
source, it is convenient to separate out the different types of loading
experienced by the surrounding objects. Mainly three types of effects have
been identified in three categories. The effect rapidly compressing the
surrounding air is called Air Shock Wave. The air pressure and air
movement effect due to the accumulation of gases from the explosion
chemical reaction is called Dynamic Pressure and the effect rapidly
compressing the ground is called Ground Shock Wave.

Figure 1.7 Blast wave pressure plotted against time

1.3.2 Blast Phenomena:
The term detonation refers to a very rapid and stable
chemical reaction which proceeds through the explosive material at a speed,
called detonation velocity, which is supersonic in the unreacted explosive.
Detonation velocities range from 22,000 to 28,000 feet per second for most
9

high explosives. The detonation wave rapidly converts the solid or liquid
explosive in to a very hot, dense, high pressure gas, and the volume of this
gas which had been the explosive material is then the source of strong blast
waves in air. Pressures immediately behind the detonation front range from
2,700,000 to 4,900,000 psi. Only about one-third of the total chemical
energy available is most high explosive is released in the detonation process.
The remaining two-thirds is released more slowly in explosions in air as the
detonation products mix with air and burn. This after burning process has
only a slight effect on blast wave properties because it is slower than
detonation.
The blast effects of explosions are in the form of a
shock wave composed of a high intensity shock front which expands
outward from the surface of the explosive in to the surrounding air. As the
wave expands, it decay in strength, lengthens its duration, and decrease its
velocity.
1.3.3 Explosive materials:
Explosive materials may be classified according to
their physical state, solid, liquid or gases. Solid explosives are primarily high
explosives however other materials such as flammable chemicals and
propellants may also be classified as potentially explosive materials. Liquid
and gaseous explosives encompass a wide variety of substances used in the
manufacture of chemicals, fuels, and propellants. The blast pressure
environment produced will vary not only among the different materials but
may also differ for a particular material. Such factors as methods and
procedures used in manufacturing, storage, and handling, in addition to

10

specific individual physical and chemical characteristics, may alter the blast
effects of an explosive material.

1.3.4 Characteristics of Blast Waves:

The violent release of energy from a detonation
converts the explosive material in to a very high pressure gas at a very high
temperature. A pressure front associated with the high pressure gas at very
high temperatures. A pressure front associated with the high pressure
propagates radially in to the surrounding atmosphere as a strong shock wave,
driven and supported by the hot gases. The shock front, termed the blast
wave is characterized by an almost instantaneous rise from ambient pressure
to a peak incident pressure pso.

Figure 1.8 Time After Explosion

The pressure increases or shock front travels radially from the burst point
with a diminishing shock velocity U which is always in excess of the sonic
velocity of the medium. Gas molecules behind the front move at lower flow
velocities, termed particle velocities u. These latter particle velocities are
11

associated with the dynamic pressures, whose maximum values are denoted
q0 or the pressures formed by the winds produced by the passage of shock
front. As the shock front expands into increasingly larger volumes of the
medium, the peak incident pressure at the fronts decrease and the duration of
the pressures increases.
At any point away from the burst, the pressure
disturbance has the shape shown in above fig. The shock front arrives at a
given location at time tA and after rise to the peak value, P so the incident
pressure decays to the ambient value in time to which is the positive phase
duration. This is followed by a negative phase with a duration t 0 that is
usually much longer than the positive phase and characterized by a negative
pressure (below ambient pressure) having a maximum value of p so as well as
a reversal of the particular flow. The negative phase is usually less important
in a design than that of positive phase, and its amplitude P s- must, in all
cases, be less than that of ambient pressure P o. The incident impulse density
associated with the blast wave is the integrated area under the pressure-time
curve and is denoted as is for the positive phase and is- for the negative
phase. An additional parameter of the blast wave, the wave length, is
sometimes required in the analysis of structures. The positive wave length
Lw+ is that length at a given distance from the detonation which, at a
particular instant of time, is experiencing positive pressure. The negative
wave length Lw- is similar defined for negative pressures.

1.4 Main Theme of the Thesis:

The purpose was to present a quick
overview of blast induced loading and provide the references used for its
computation. The first step in the blast resistant design of structures is to
12

know how to define the blast loading. The structures may be subjected to
blast loading, which comprises blast pressure, ground shock, and fragment
impact, particularly in the near range region, whereas in the far-field region,
structures are subjected to only blast pressure. In case of nuclear blast, the
resulting shock wave produces very high blast pressure and large impulse
loading, which results in destruction of structures situated at even a large
distance from the source. Now mainly explosive induced blast loadings are
studied rather than the nuclear blast.
Blast overpressure is expressed as relative to ambient
condition (P0) rather than the absolute pressure.

Figure 1.9 Blast wave and amplitude-frequency relations of structural

loadings
From the above fig it shows the typical blast-induced pressure wave
profile produced from the ideal detonation, along with the different loadings
in relation with amplitude and frequency that govern the design of any
13

structural component. An ideal blast wave representation and its

characteristics are a function of the distance of a structure to the centre of the
charge, R and time, t. The peak pressure is known as peak positive
overpressure, Ppos.
A negative phase follows, in which the pressure is lower than
ambient pressure, known as under pressure, Pneg. The duration of peak
positive overpressure and under pressure are known as positive (tpos) and
negative (tneg) duration, respectively. However, for simplicity in the analysis,
a triangular blast load profile is generally shown in the above fig, neglecting
the negative phase. For relatively thinner components that are flexible,
however, the negative phase should also be modeled. It can be noted from
the above fig that blast loading is associated with very high magnitude and
frequency, hence it needs special attention.
1.4.1 Assessment and Performance of Structures against Blast:
Assessing behavior of a structure is one of the most
important and foremost requirements for any structural engineer to properly
quantify and assess its performance against a specified blast level. The
quantifying measures include maximum stress, displacement, ductility,
functionality, and similar parameters. The results of experimental and
numerical analysis need to be expressed in such a way that they support the
decision for design and at the same time confidently express the
sustainability of structures for the considered level of threat. The analysis
provides confidence that the structure will perform as anticipated when it is
subjected to the given level of threat.

14

1.4.2 Blast Response Mitigation:

The

blast

resistant

design

technologies used in the mitigation and protection of the structures against

explosion-induced loading are presented here, with discussion on past and
present strategies used to mitigate blast loading. The main objective to
design a blast resistant structure is composed of two major targets,
Acceptable damage limit to the structure and,
Functionality requirement after blast.
In blast-resistant design, the most effective
strategy is to increase the standoff distance (Distance from the possible
centre of explosion to the structure), because blast waves decay quite fast
and increased distance results in lower pressure levels, which is economical
design.
The second major factor influencing the blast
design is the provision and distribution of mass, the weight being placed
strategically helps in energy absorption under blast-induced loading.
1.4.3 Mat lab:
MATLAB is a high performance interactive software
package for scientific and engineering computation. MATLAB integrates
numerical analysis, matrix computation, signal processing and graphics in an
easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are expressed just as
they are written mathematically.

15

Figure 1.10 Mat Lab Version 7.10.0.499

1.4.4 MATLAB Plotting
MATLAB is very useful for making scientific and
engineering plots. You can create plots of known, analytical functions, you
can plot data from other sources such as experimental measurements, and
you can analyze data, perhaps by fitting it to a curve, and then plot a
comparison. MATLAB also has powerful built-in routines for drawing
contour and three-dimensional surface plots z = f(x, y) data.

16

Figure 1.11 To enhance the protection of building against blast

loading

17

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
H. Draganic [12] et al., Studied and describes the process of determining the
blast load on structures and provides a numerical example of a fictive
structure exposed to this load. The aim was to become familiar with the
issue of blast load because of ever growing terrorist threat and the lack of
guidelines from national and European regulations on the verification of
structures exposed to explosions. The blast load was analytically determined
as a pressure-time history and numerical model of the structure was created
in SAP2000.

ZeynepKoccaz

[13]

et al., Discussed about the number of terrorist attacks

especially in the last few years has shown that the effect of blast loads on
buildings is a serious matter that should be taken into consideration in the
design process. Although these kinds of attacks are exceptional cases, manmade disasters, blast loads are in fact dynamic loads that need to be carefully
calculated just like earthquake and wind loads.
The objective of this study is to shed light on blast resistant building
design theories, the enhancement of building security against the effects of
explosives in both architectural and structural design process and the design
techniques that should be carried out. Firstly, explosives and explosion types
have been explained briefly. In addition, the general aspects of explosion
process have been presented to clarify the effects of explosives on buildings.
To have a better understanding of explosives and characteristics of
18

explosions will enable us to make blast resistant building design much more
efficiently.

ManmohanDassGoel

[14]

et al., Studied the strategy for dealing with the

blast-induced threats against a structure requires attention from planning and

design stages, as introducing or altering various blast response mitigation
strategies becomes either difficult or impossible later on. Blast response
mitigation strategies can be incorporated in the structural design at concept
stage, leading to a well-designed and constructed structure that can exhibit
improved blast resistance and at the same time maintain its architecturally
appealing appearance.
In this paper, various strategies for blast mitigation are reviewed and
discussed with an emphasis on presenting a comprehensive assessment of
blast response mitigation technologies beginning from the necessary
discussion on fundamental aspects of blast-induced impulsive loading and
material characterization, especially at high strain rates.
Javier Malvar [15] et al., Studied that Buildings are vulnerable to blast loads
from accidental or terrorist explosions. Key structural components, such as
columns, can be shattered and result in the collapse of the whole building
and a large number of casualties. Recent retrofit procedures have shown that
composites can be used to strengthen structural components so that they can
survive the blast load and maintain their load carrying capacity, insuring that
building integrity is not affected.

19

C.K. Gautam

[16]

et al., Explained about shock/blast resistant structure

designed, developed and experimentally evaluated by the authors is

described. The structure, capable of withstanding dynamic loading (~12 psi
and a static pressure of 1.5 m earth cover) due to blast or any other
explosion, also gives protection against radiation, chemical and thermal
hazards. Some results and details of analysis and experimentation are
presented.
Andrew Sorensen

[17]

, Ph.D et al., Studied about the recent increases in the

number of terrorist bombings and explosions have led to increased need for
post blast investigators. Numerous advances have been made in the area of
chemical analysis of explosive residues, but little work has been done to aid
post blast investigators in the determination of explosive charge weight
using post blast structural damage.
Ranjan Kumar, S.M.ASCE

[18]

et al., In the recent past years, the topic of

blast loads on structures has received considerable attention from

researchers. Site specic empirical models for blast-induced vibration
parameters like peak particle velocity(PPV),peak pressure(PP),peak particle
displacement(PPD), and pore pressure ratio (PPR) are commonly used for
blast-resistant designs.
By Shlomo Ginsburg

[19]

et al. Studied some aspects of analysis and design

of protective structures are discussed. It is demonstrated that parametric

analyses can be used to obtain an approximate model for reanalysis. The
latter describes the major phenomena involved in the problem i.e., that most
influence the design variables. It has been shown that a multilevel
20

optimization scheme which employs an approximate analysis model

provides a tool for systematic design of protective structures.
Avinash C. Singhal

[20]

et al., Studied on flexible aluminum panels of

various thickness subjected to blast loads have been analyzed by different

techniques an equivalent single degree of freedom program. Integration
techniques for a multiple degree of freedom of finite element program.
Panels of various thicknesses have been modeled as simply supported plates
using equivalent beams with moment of inertia adjusted to account for the
greater stiffness of plate action. Dynamic reduction factor (DRF) curves
shows that the dynamic nature of blast loads reduce panel response
significantly. In addition, flexible thin panels are less responsive to the short
duration loads than the stiffer panels.
Giovanna A. Naselli

[21]

et al., Studied on a simple procedure to design a

blast resistant wheel is presented. Finite element analysis is employed to

provide preliminary evaluations on the blast resistance of the wheel; the
issues of such work are analyzed and the results are shown in order to prove
the validity of the proposed procedure. The analysis is carried out in order to
avoid

unnecessary

experimental

tests,

without

requiring

high

computational burden.
JUN LI

[22]

et al., Studied on the response of structural concrete elements

under extremely short duration dynamic loads is of great concern nowadays.

The most prevailing method to this problem is based on SDOF
simplification. It is well known that the SDOF model can reliably predict the
overall structural component response if the response follows predominantly
21

a predefined damage mode such as shear or flexural mode. It demonstrated

that the proposed method with more than 90% savings in computational
time, yields reasonable predictions of structural responses. The proposed
method has great potentials for application in practice to model responses of
large structures to blast loadings.
N. ANANDAVALLI [23] et al., Studied about blast resistant structures usually
undergo large plastic deformation and absorb energy before collapse. There
are many structural forms that have improved blast resistance are reported in
literature. Among these, steel-concrete composite panel has been considered
as extremely resilient to blast loading. Conventionally, steel-concrete
composite panels are analyzed using solid element model for plates, concrete
as well as shear connectors.
Ben F. Harrison

[24]

There exists a need for blast resistant yet portable

buildings to protect personnel temporarily assigned duties within explosively

hazardous areas. Blast resistant portable buildings (BRPBS) are a valuable
asset for protection of temporarily assigned personnel involved in activities
located near potential explosion sites. Blast resistant portable buildings play
an important role in protecting personnel in explosively hazardous
workplaces. In order to achieve to proper level of protection and building
performance several technical sitting issues must be considered.
Charis J. Gantes

[25]

et al., Studied the design of structures subjected to

loads due to explosions is often treated by means of elasticplastic response

spectra. Such spectra that are currently available in the literature were
computed on the basis of triangular shape of blast pressure with respect to
22

time. In the present paper, response spectra based on an exponential

distribution of blast pressure, which is in better agreement to experimental
data, are proposed.
H. Meng

[26]

et al., Studied on pulse loading shape effects on the dynamical

response of an elasticplastic, single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) structural

model are studied in the present paper. Two dimensionless parameters are
introduced to classify the studied problem into elastic, elasticplastic and
rigidplastic structural responses. Maximum pressure intensity and total
impulse are two important loading parameters for the safety design of
protective structures to resist dynamic loads. The variations of loading shape
lead to different PI diagrams even when these loads have the same
maximum pressure and total impulse.
B.M. Luccioni [27] et al., Studied on the analysis of the structural failure of a
reinforced concrete building caused by a blast load is presented in this paper.
All the process from the detonation of the explosive charge to the complete
demolition, including the propagation of the blast wave and its interaction
with the structure is reproduced. The analysis of the structural failure of a
reinforced concrete building caused by a blast load is presented. All the
process from the detonation of the explosive charge to the complete
demolition, including the propagation of the blast wave and its interaction
with the structure is reproduced.
Manuel Campidelli

[28]

et al., Studied an analytical-numerical method to

predict the response of a linear spring-mass system without damper, excited

by a family of pulse loads, is proposed. The external loading is described by
23

a four parameter expression, involving the peak overpressure, the loading

duration and two parameters which characterize the pulse shape (l and g). A
parametric analysis for ranges of pulse shape parameters suitable to describe
a wave front pressure profile produced by an air blast from high explosives
is developed.
Feng Fu

[29]

et al., Using the general purpose finite element package

ABAQUS, a 3-D finite element model representing 20 storey buildings were

first built in this paper to perform the progressive collapse analysis. Shell
elements and beam elements were used to simulate the whole building
incorporating non-linear material characteristics and non-linear geometric
behavior. The modeling techniques were described in detail. Numerical
results are compared with the experimental data and good agreement is
obtained.
H.M. Elsanadedy

[30]

et al., Studied recent terrorist attacks all around the

world and the evidence of the threats found especially in the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia have prompted the concerned authorities to address the risks
to the critical infrastructure of the Kingdom. Understanding of the
progressive collapse mechanism is an essential step to protect buildings
against blast attacks. Buildings are very vulnerable to progressive collapse if
one or more columns are lost due to extreme loadings.
Bing Li

[31]

et al., Studied Proper control levels of lateral drifts anticipated

for reinforced concrete (RC) frame structures within the predefined

performance level become crucial when the frame structure is subjected to
distant intense surface explosions. For this purpose, a new design method is
24

presented in a two-part paper based on the transformation of a blast loading

into an equivalent static force (ESF). The ESF is calculated in such a manner
that the same maximum inter-storey drift ratio (MIDR) under the blast
loading will be reproduced.
Guichang Yang

[32]

et al., A new method to calculate the dynamic strength

of reinforced concrete (RC) structures, with emphasis on the embedded

response of mild steel reinforcement, subjected to air-blast loading is
derived. The proposed method is based on a single- degree-of-freedom
(SDOF) system with appropriate modification for strain-rate effect. A
detailed procedure has been presented for the construction of approximate
formulae to calculate the yielding delay time of mild steel reinforcement in
the analysis of RC elements subjected to air-blast loading.
X.Q. Zhou

[33]

et al., Studied on a dynamic plastic damage model for

concrete material has been employed to estimate responses of both an

ordinary reinforced concrete slab and a high strength steel fiber concrete
slab subjected to blast loading. In the concrete material model, the strength
envelope is a damage-based modified piece-wise Drucker Prager model the
strain rate effect on tension and compression are considered separately the
damage variable is based on Mazars' damage model, which is a combination
of tensile and compressive damage. A simple dynamic material model has
been developed in the present study. By using this model, numerical
simulations of the response and damage of ordinary RC slabs and SFRC
slabs under different charges have been carried out.

25

Xiaoli Bao

[34]

et al., Columns is the key load-bearing elements in frame

structures and exterior columns are probably the most vulnerable structural
components to terrorist attacks. Column failure is normally the primary
cause of progressive failure in frame structures. A high-fidelity physicsbased computer program, LS-DYNA was utilized in this study to provide
numerical simulations of the dynamic responses and residual axial strength
of reinforced concrete columns subjected to short standoff blast conditions.
The numerical results show that the use of seismic detailing techniques
can significantly reduce the degree of direct blast- induced damage and
subsequent collapse of the reinforced concrete columns.
Onur Dogan

[35]

et al., Studied The results from an experimental blasting

program that was performed at the special explosives training field of the
General Directorate of Security in Ankara, where new residential blocks
are planned to be constructed nearby, are presented. With the objective of
estimating the blast-induced ground vibration effects on the proposed
structures,

various

blasting

parameters

of

nineteen

surface

and

underground explosions were recorded in two directions at three

measurement stations. Presented the results from an experimental study
that involves field measurements of ground vibrations induced by surface
and underground TNT blast operations conducted at a proposed
residential.

26

CHAPTER-3
DETERMINATION OF BLAST WAVE
PARAMETERS
3.1 Introduction to Surface Blast:
A charge located very near to the ground surface is
considered to be a surface burst. The initial wave of the explosion is
reflected and reinforced by the ground surface to produce a reflected wave.
Unlike the air burst, the reflected wave merges with the incident wave at the
point of detonation to form a single wave, similar in nature to the mach
wave of the air burst but essentially hemispherical in shape.

Figure 3.1 Surface Burst Blast Environments

The positive phase parameters of the surface burst environment for
hemispherical TNT explosion are given in graphs while the negative phase
27

parameters are given in another graph. A comparison of these parameters

with those of free-air explosions are given in another graphs indicate that, at
a given distance from a detonation of the same weight of explosive, all of
the parameters of the surface burst environment are larger than those for the
free-air environment. The various shapes of the explosive materials are
given

Figure 3.2 Explosive Shapes

For each explosive material considered, the peak incident pressure P so and
scaled incident impulse is/W1/3 is presented as a function of the scaled ground
distance Z = R/ W1/3 from the point of detonation. The charge weight W is
equal to the actual weight of the explosive material under consideration
increased by the required factor of safety (20 percent). An estimate of the
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blast parameters other than incident pressure and impulse may be obtained
from the graphs. The scaled ground distance corresponding to the incident
pressure Pso is used to obtain the values of Pr, Pso-, Pr-, tA/ w1/3, U, Lw/ w1/3 and
Lw-/w1/3. In addition, this scaled ground distance Z = R/ w 1/3 is used to
calculate the equivalent TNT design charge weight W for pressure using the
actual ground distance R. The absolute values of the scaled blast parameters
are obtained by multiplying the scaled values by the equivalent TNT design
charge weight.
3.1.1 Procedure for field wave blast parameters of a surface burst:

Select point of interest on the ground relative to the charge.

Determine the
Charge weight and ground distance RG.

Apply 20% safety factor to the charge weight.

Calculate scaled ground distance ZG:

Determine free field blast wave parameters

from figure for
ZG = RG/W 1/3
corresponding scaled distance ZG.
Read:

Peak positive incident pressure Pso

Reflected Pressure Pr
Shock front velocity U
Scaled unit Positive incident impulse is/w1/3
Scaled positive phrase duration to/w1/3
Scaled arrival time tA/w1/3
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Multiply scaled values by W1/3 to obtain absolute values.

Example:1
Required: Free-field blast wave parameters P SO, U, is, to, tA for a surface burst
of 20,800 lbs at a Distance of 530ft.
Solution
Step-I: Given: Charge weight =20,800Ib, RG=530ft
Step-II: W=1.20(20,800) = 25000lbs
Step-III: For point of interest
ZG = RG/w 1/3 =530/(25000)1/3=18.1ft/lb 1/3
Step-IV: Determine blast wave parameters from figure 2-15 for
ZG=18.1ft/lb1/3
PSO=3.45psi
U=1.22ft/ms
Is/W1/3=4.7 psi .ms/lb1/3=137.4psi-ms
To/w1/3=3.3 ms/lb 1/3, to=3.3(25000)1/3=96.5ms
TA/W1/3=10.6 ms/lb1/3, tA=10.6(25000)1/3=310ms

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Figure 3.3 Positive phase shock wave parameters for a hemispherical

TNT Explosion on the surface at sea level

3.2 Brief of overview

A G+13 storied building consisting of each story height 4m
and the total height of the building frame is 52m. The present project is
proposed to study the blast wave pressures of the multi-story 2-d building
frame using TM-5 1300 Plots in UFC 3-340-02 (Unified Facilities Criteria).

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3.3 Modeling of Structure:

The following structure is considered, for finding
out the pressures which are induced due to the TNT Charge weight.

Figure 3.4 G+13 Storey

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CHAPTER-4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
This project is related to the prediction of blast loads both using
technical manuals and computational methods. Mainly the thesis focused on
the effect of external blast over the facade of structures by a high explosive
detonation (unconfined surface blast) with hemispherical charge. The
reflected pressure contours are prepared as per TM 5-1300 over the front
face of wall. The reflected pressure pr, reflected impulse ir, time of arrival
tA and positive phase time duration for reflected pressure tr are estimated.
Distribution graphs are prepared throughout the height of structure for the
charge weights of 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 kg TNT and the ground
distances (ranges) of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 m (i.e. Twenty Five combinations of
ground distances and charge weights are considered for the determination of
blast loads). Blast force-time curves (impact) are prepared throughout the
height of the frames in order to study the linear and non linear response of
the structures.
Application of blast load in the form of impact load over the
RC frames is discussed in this work. Category of blast explosion considered
in this study is external explosion, where the blast effect is considered over
the face opposite to the detonation. The charge shape considered, for the
calculation of the blast parameters is hemispherical. All the above mentioned
frames are simulated for Five blast load combinations a) 10 m range, 500 kg
TNT charge weight b) 10 m range, 1000 kg TNT charge weight c) 10 m
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range, 2000 kg TNT charge weight d) 10 m range, 3000 kg TNT charge

weight e) 10 m range, 4000 kg TNT charge weight Thirteen storey 2-D
frame is simulated for Four more blast load combinations by increasing the
ranges 20, 30, 40, 50 m with 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 kg TNT charge
weights. Total number of simulations performed in the linear analysis is
Twenty Five. The results are tabulated in table 1 to 25.

Figure 4.1 Reflected Pressure coefficient versus angle of incidence

The Angle of incidence effect for ranges 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 m with the
height are given in Figure 4.1. Starting at an angle of incidence of
approximately 400, Figure-193 in TM5 1300[36], depending on the static
condition.

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 From Table No 1 to Table No 5 represents the values of all blast load

parameters (Scaled distance, Reflected Pressures, Incident Pressures,
Impulses, Time, Velocity, Wave Length) with the charge weight 500kg
TNT from ground floor to G+13th Floor for 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50m
distance respectively.
As the pressure decreases from ground floor to the top floor and
where as the time of arrival (TA) may increases more and more as the
charge weight increases from ground floor to top floor. As the distance
and charge weight increases from the structure then the length of wave
(Lw ) increases from ground floor to top most floors. The velocity (U)
decreases from ground to top floors.
Similarly from Table No 6 to Table No 10 represents the blast load
parameters (Scaled distance, Reflected Pressures, Incident Pressures,
Impulses, Time, Velocity, and Wave Length) with charge weight
1000kg TNT from ground floor to G+13th Floor for 10, 20, 30, 40, and
50m distance respectively.
Similarly as the charge weight increases the pressure increase at the
bottom and top floors when compared to 500kg TNT charge weight
and the distribution of pressure decreases from ground floor to top
most floors. The velocity (U) decreases from bottom to top floors.
From Table No 11 to Table No 15 represents the blast loads
parameters with charge weight of 2000kg TNT from ground floor to
G+13th Floor for 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50m distance respectively.
As the charge weight is gradually increasing then the blast parameters
varies from bottom to top most floors of the structure. The pressure
gets decreases from ground floor to G+13th floor and the time period

35

increases with respect to the height of the structure, where as the

velocity decreases from bottom to top most floors.
From Table No 16 to Table No 20 represents the blast loads
parameters with charge weight of 3000kg TNT from ground floor to
G+13th Floor for 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50m distance respectively.
Similarly from the above statements as the blast parameters varies
with the increasing of TNT charge weights and also increasing the
distances from the structure to the explosive the pressure gets
decreases for the faade of the structure from Ground floor to top
most floors.
From Table No 21 to Table No 25 represents the blast loads
parameters with charge weight of 4000kg TNT from ground floor to
G+13th Floor for 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50m distance respectively.
Using the scaled distance all the blast load parameters are identified
using Dplot curves from TM5-1300.
From Fig 4.2, Fig 4.3 and Fig 4.4 represent the Incident Pressures
(Pso) for 500kg, 2000kg, and for 4000kg TNT's over the height of the
structure.
Similarly from Fig 4.5, Fig 4.6 and Fig 4.7 represent the Reflected
Pressures (Pr) for 500kg, 2000kg, and for 4000kg TNT's over the
height of the structure.
From Fig 4.8 to Fig 4.12 represents the impulse loading from the
ground floor to the top most floors with a charge weight of 500kg
TNT at 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50m distances from the structure to the
explosive material.
Similarly form Fig 4.13 to Fig 4.17 represents the impulse loading
from ground floor to top floors with charge weight 2000kg TNT
corresponding to 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50m distances respectively.

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 From Fig 4.18 to Fig 4.22 represents the impulse loading from ground
floor to top floors with charge weight of 4000kg TNT at 10, 20, 30, 40
and 50m respectively.
As the time duration increases from bottom floors to top floors the
impulse loading decreases simultaneously.
If the distance increases from the structure to the detonation material
then the time duration of blast wave increases to reach the structure as
the pressure gets decreases with respect to time.
As the charge weight increases the pressure induced on the structure
gets increased and as the distance increased the effect of pressure
toward structure gets reduced even though the charge weight is
increased.
Impulse loading graphs are useful to find the time history analysis for
that particular structure.
As the distance increase from structure to the charge weight the

impact of Pressures i.e., Incident and Reflected pressures decreases.

37