National University of Singapore

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

CE5108
EARTH RETAINING
STRUCTURES
Part 1
Fundamentals and Basic Design & Analysis
Semester 1 2013/14

Goh Siang Huat

12 Kent Ridge Road / Centre for Protective Technology
T l h
Telephone
: 6516 8663
Email : gohsianghuat@nus.edu.sg
Advisable to call or email before coming!
g

Overview
1st Half ((S.H. Goh))
Fundamentals, Earth Pressure
Th
Theories,
i
Design
D i
Philosophies,
Phil
hi
Rigid Structures, Flexible Walls
(C til
(Cantilever
+ Si
Single-Prop)
l P
)
2nd Half (Prof Harry Tan)
D
Deep E
Excavations,
i
M
Multi-propped
li
d
Walls, Finite Element Modeling and
A l i
Analysis

Course Outline (Part 1)

Fundamentals and Basic Design
Introduction
Types of retaining structures

Earth pressure theories

Earth pressure theories, relationship between soil movement and
earth pressure, selection and acquisition of soil parameters

Rigid retaining structures

Limit equilibrium analysis
analysis, limit state design approach
approach, seepage
analysis, displacement and ground water control, design to EC7
requirements

Flexible retaining structures

Cantilever and anchored sheet pile walls, pore water pressure and
seepage analysis,
l i soilil arching
hi effects
ff t

Broad Learning Outcomes

Appreciate the significance of the different types of earth
pressures and their application in the analysis of retaining
walls.
ll
Able to apply mathematical and soil mechanics concepts to
derive basic earth pressure theories
Able to analyse simple retaining structures, such as gravity
( i id) structures,
(rigid)
t t
cantilever
til
walls
ll and
d singly-propped
i l
d wallll
(using common earth pressure theories)
Understand and appreciate basic design philosophies (for
retaining structures)
Understand and appreciate basic design philosophies (for
retaining structures)
Understand the key features of Eurocode 7
7, and able to
apply the code requirements for design of earth retaining
structures

Broad Learning Outcomes

Understand and appreciate common stability issues
associated with earth retaining structures, and how to
calculate
l l t safety
f t factors
f t
for
f common stability
t bilit problems
bl
Appreciate that there is a lot more to earth retaining
structures that we do not have time to cover
cover, but you
should at least be equipped with the fundamentals to
enable you to understand and absorb new information and
k
knowledge
l d on your own.

CA and Exam Components

Continuous assessment for GSH part
1 quiz (10%) + selected assignments (10%)
18 Sept 2013 (subject to change)

Continuous assessment for Prof Harry Tans

Tan s part
1 project + ?? (20%)
Final Exam (60%)

1. Introduction
1
Types
yp of Retaining
g Structures

Types of Retaining Structure

Gravity
y

Embedded / Flexible

Mechanically Stabilized
Earth (MSE)

Types of Retaining Structure

Gravity
y

Embedded / Flexible

Mechanically Stabilized
Earth (MSE)

Gravity Retaining Walls

Probably the oldest type of retaining
structure.
Used in fortifications, roads/pavements,
bridges underground shafts (graves)
bridges,
(graves).
Constructed using
g stone masonry
y in the
past.
Concrete
C
with
i h steell reinforcement
i f
quite
i
commonly
y used these days.
y

Gravity Retaining Walls

Ancient Greek Theatre about 300 B
B.C.
C

Gravity Retaining Walls

Longji Terraced Rice Fields in China circa 1300
1300.

Gravity Retaining Walls

Citadelle Besancon in France circa 1700
1700.

Gravity Retaining Walls

Modern Times

Gravity Retaining Walls

Gabion Walls

Gravity Retaining Walls

Stone Blocks Retaining Wall

Gravity Retaining Walls

With advances in building materials (e
(e.g.
g
concrete, steel),
cantilever
wall
backfill

cantilever
wall

backfill

backfill
counterfort

reinforcement
plain
concrete

Gravity wall

Cantilever wall

Counterfort wall

Gravity Retaining Walls

Counterfort Cantilever Retaining Wall

Types of Retaining Structure

Gravity
y

Embedded / Flexible

Mechanically Stabilized
Earth (MSE)

Embedded / Flexible Wall

Also has historical roots.
Earliest embedded walls made of timber piles.
Swiss Lake Dwellers about 6000 years ago
houses built on platform supported by timber
piles.
Greeks were using timber piles in ~400 B.C.
BC
q
, bridges
g
Romans also built roads,, aqueducts,
supported by timber piles 100 A.D.
H
However, it iis nott clear
l
when
h piles
il were first
fi t used
d
for their lateral capacity as a retaining wall.

Embedded / Flexible Wall

Nevertheless, timber piling as a retaining wall
continued as an important earth retention
method until the early 20th century.

Embedded / Flexible Walls

These days,
y , the following
g type
yp of embedded
flexible walls are commonly used:
Sheet Piles
Soldier Piles with Lagging
Secant Piles / Contiguous
g
Bored Piles
Diaphragm Wall

Embedded / Flexible Walls

These days,
y , the following
g type
yp of embedded
flexible walls are commonly used:
Sheet Piles
Soldier Piles with Lagging
Secant Piles / Contiguous
g
Bored Piles
Diaphragm Wall

Embedded / Flexible Wall

Steel sheet p
piling
g became popular
p p
after World
War I. It was first patented ~1900.

Embedded / Flexible Walls

These days,
y , the following
g type
yp of embedded
flexible walls are commonly used:
Sheet Piles
Soldier Piles with Lagging
Secant Piles / Contiguous
g
Bored Piles
Diaphragm Wall

Embedded / Flexible Wall

Driving of steel sections appears to have started
~1880.
Soldier pile walls were successfully used in New
York, London, Berlin since the late 18th century.
In fact, the system of shoring using soldier pile
Berlin method.
and lagging is also known as the ______
method

Embedded / Flexible Wall

S ldi Piles
Soldier
Pil with
ith Timber
Ti b Lagging
L
i

Embedded / Flexible Wall

Soldier Piles with Timber Lagging + Ground Anchors

Embedded / Flexible Walls

These days,
y , the following
g type
yp of embedded
flexible walls are commonly used:
Sheet Piles
Soldier Piles with Lagging
Secant Piles / Contiguous
g
Bored Piles
Diaphragm Wall

Embedded / Flexible Wall

Secant Piles
First use of secant walls is recorded in the 1920s in Europe.
Secant pile walls are formed by constructing intersecting
reinforced concrete piles
piles.
The secant piles are reinforced with either steel rebar or
with steel beams and are constructed by either drilling
under mud or augering.
yp
piles are installed first with secondary
yp
piles
Primary
constructed in between primary piles once the latter gain
sufficient strength.

(secondary pile)

(primary pile)

Embedded / Flexible Wall

Secant Piles

Embedded / Flexible Wall

Contiguous Bored Piles
In the U.S.,
U S the first use
se of continuous
contin o s or contig
contiguous
o s bored
pile was in 1950.
Closely spaced bored piles can be used to form a retaining
wall, perhaps for the construction of a deep basement or a
cut and cover tunnel.
The piles may be constructed so that they virtually touch
each other (contiguous).
The gaps between the piles can be grouted to form a
watertight retaining wall.

Embedded / Flexible Wall

Contiguous Bored Piles

Embedded / Flexible Walls

These days,
y , the following
g type
yp of embedded
flexible walls are commonly used:
Sheet Piles
Soldier Piles with Lagging
Secant Piles / Contiguous
g
Bored Piles
Diaphragm Wall

Embedded / Flexible Walls

Diaphragm
p
g Walls
Generally constructed in a series of discrete panels
yp
y ranging
g g in length
g from 3m to 7m.
typically
Depths of diaphragm walls vary depending on the
application and the specified requirements,
requirements but typically
they can range from a few meters to tens of meters.
The width (thickness)
(
) off the wall can vary from
f
600mm
to 1800mm, again depending on the application.
Diaphragm walls can be used as (a) retention systems,
(b) permanent foundation walls, and/or (c) groundwater
b i
barriers
.

Embedded / Flexible Walls

Diaphragm Walls

reinforcement Few
cage
metres
to tens
of
metres
concrete

bentonite
slurry to
support
the trench

panel (3 7 m)

panel (3 7 m)

Embedded / Flexible Walls

Diaphragm Walls
Because slurries are used to provide the trench stability
before the concrete is poured in, diaphragm walls are
also commonly referred to as slurry walls
walls.
Use of slurry to maintain stability in an otherwise
unstable hole was born in the petroleum industry in 1914
1914.
The first slurry trench cutoff walls for ground water
control were installed in the U.S.
U S in 1948.
1948
The first structural slurry walls were constructed in Italy
in 1950.
Structural slurry walls did not appear in the U.S. until
1962.
The original World Trade Centre bath-tub was
constructed as a diaphragm wall in the mid 1960s.

Embedded / Flexible Wall

Diaphragm Wall

Embedded / Flexible Wall

Completed
C
l t d
diaphragm walls
(for a shaft
excavation)

Types of Retaining Structure

Gravity
y

Embedded / Flexible

Mechanically Stabilized
Earth (MSE)

Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE)

Mechanically Stabilized Earth
A
An MSE wall
ll consists
i t off soil,
il reinforcement,
i f
t and
d facing
f i
to retain earth and support overlying structures.
Although
Altho gh the basic principles of MSE has been used
sed
throughout history, MSE was developed in its current
form in the 1960s.
The reinforcing elements used can vary but include steel
and geosynthetics.
Another common name for this type of wall is Reinforced
Earth.
However,
H
the
h term R
Reinforced
i f
dE
Earth
h is
i a trade
d name off
the Reinforced Earth Company in the US, hence it is not
usually used there.
there
Elsewhere Reinforced Earth is the generally accepted
term.

Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE)

Mechanically Stabilized Earth
Laying of Reinforcement Strips

Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE)

Completed reinforced earth walls for
bridge embankment

Types of Retaining Structure

Brief introduction to the common types of walls
used for earth retention.
Other methods of earth retention are possible:
soil nailing, ground freezing.
Different types
yp of walls are applicable
pp
for
different ground conditions and construction
requirements.
q
Walls must be properly designed and
constructed to support / retain the soil behind
them.
If walls are not properly designed and
constructed, they may FAIL.

When Walls Fail

When Walls Fail

When Walls Fail

How to minimize risks of failure

Rational
at o a Analysis
a ys s
Fundamental soil mechanics
Lateral
L t l earth
th pressure theories
th
i
pp op ate wall
a type and
a d design
des g
Appropriate
Adequate resistance against
diff
different
t modes
d off ffailure
il

Safe Design
Factor of Safety,
y, Limit States,,
Eurocode

Ending Thought
Unfortunately, soils are made by
nature
t
and
d nott by
b man, and
d the
th
products of nature are always
complex.
Karl von Terzaghi, 1936