I

iJ

g-t

:::E

"

...~

=:

r
r

, .8..:

-1~

;0

rn

(/')

=i

rn

z0

n
0

.. .

'<

~r

;;;

;1' C)

;:Q...

0..

~- ~0

.. Q...

I~

V)

G)

-z

c:::J

-r

iJ

;0

"<

er

A:J

-< >
r

G)

A:J

-I

0 n
r -I

.."

G)

V)

PMTE 1. Teton Range, Wyoming. View from east, showing eroded fmdt 8carp on east side of range. (Photo by United States
DC11artment Q.Uhe In~i~
, _ .__
'".

CHAPTER 2

Mechanical Principles
MATERIALS OF THE OUTER SHELL OF THE EARTH

Atoms
Matter is composed of atoms, Although different in size, all atoms
are inconceivably small, and average 2 X 10- 7 millimeter (0,0000002
rom.) in diameter. Some atoms are much heavier than others; the mass
of umnium} Ol1e of the heaviest atoms, is about 237 times as great as

that of hydrogen, the lightest. An atom of uranium weighs 392.98 X

10- 24 gram; an atom of hydrogen weighs only 1.66 X 10- 2 gram.
It was formerly believed that atoms were the smallest constituent par
ticles of matter. )Iodern physical invesligations reveal, however, that
the atom is made of still smaller parlicles, such as protons, neutrons,
electrons, and others, Although a delailed knowledge of atomic struc
Lure is essential to the geologist investigating radioactivity and the prob
lem of the heat of the earlh, the nature of the atom is not the direct con
cern of the slructural geologist, For his purpose the alom is the smallest
unit of significance. An elemenlary discussion of the nature of the atom
may be found in Hecht;' a more advanced discussion is in Blatt and
Weiskopf.'

Gases, Liquids, a.d Solids

At and near lhe surface of the earth, the atoms combine to form
gases, liquids, and solids. Many substances are found in all three of
these states. At sea level, water is a liquid between 0 and 100 degrees
Centigrade, but above 100 degrees it becomes a gas, and below 0 degrees
it becomes a solid. At exactly 0 degrees ice and wal~r can exist togelher
in equilibrium, and similarly at exactly 100 degrees water and steam
are in equilibrium.
In a gas lhe atoms are in rapid motion, move independently of each

other, and have no orderly arrangement. The forces of mutual attraclion

are less than the forces of movement. Gases have high mobility.
t

Hecht, Selig, Explaining the Atom. New York: Viking Press, 1947.

=Blatt, John l\.f " and Victor F. Wei1:lkopf, Theoretical Nuclear Physics. New

York: John Wiley & SODS, Inc" 1952.

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

In a liquid the atomic forces are strong enough to keep the atoms
together, but there is eitber no orderly arrangement or only limited or
derly arrangement. A liquid is fairly mobile.
Solids are characterized by "stiffness" or "rigidity.'1 There are two
kinds of solids: the crystalline solid and the noncrystalline solid.
In the crystalline solid the atoms
have an orderly arrangement. Com
mon salt, for example, is c.omposcd of
sodium and chlorine, always in the

'.

ratio of one to one. The relation of

the atoms to each other is such as to
form a cube (Fig. 1), and salt crystals
occur as cubes or as some related

form. QUfl,J'tz is another example of a

crystalline solid. For every atom of
silicon there are two atoms of oxygen;
the atoms are associated in such a way
Fig. 1. Atomic struclure of com
mon salt. The large spheres repre
sent chJorine atoms; the small
spheres represent sod.ium atoms.
(From R. 'V. G. Wyckoff's Struc
ture 0/ Crystals, Znd ed. The Chemi
cal Catalog Co., 1931.)

as to form an hexagonal pattern.

In the noncrystalline solids, there
is no orderly arrangement of the at
The vitreous solids} or glasses J

ObIS.

,are liquids that have cooled so rapidly

that the atoms have been unable to
organize themselves into a systematic

pattern. Technically these vitreous solids are supercooled liquids, and by

some they are classified as liquids rather than solids. Window glass is a
common example of a vitreolls solid. Obsidian, n volcanic glass, is a well

known natural example. A morpholls solids do not have a definite armnge

ment of the atoms. They have not formed from the cooling of a liquid,
however, and cannot. properly be considered vitreous solids. JViany organic
substances and some minerals such as opal are amorphous.

The outer shell of the earth consists predominantly of solids, but

gases and liquids are also present; their importance varies with time and

space. Groundwater and active volcanoes altest to the importance of

liquids at the present time, and the igneous rocks of intrusive bodies
iudicate the abundance of liquids in the past. Gases, present in the outer
shell of the earth, are strikingly manifested in regions where petroleum
is found; vast quantities of gas are sometimes expelled by active vol
canoes. Never, however, docs the gas occupy great underground cham

bers. The natw'al gas associated with petroleum occupies small pore
spaces and fractures in solid rock, and the gas of volcanoes effervesces
from magma.

In this section ef the book we are concerned primarily wi',h solids.

..

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

Gases ancl liquids arc important only if their presence in pore spaece
modifies the behavior of the solids.
The outer shell of the earth consists of sedimentary, igneous) and
metamorphic rocks. The structural geologist, however, is interested
primarily in the mechanical properties of the rocks with which he deals
rather than in their origin. Is the rock well-consolidated or not? A
poorly cemented sandstone will be weaker than a well-cemented one,
and quartzite will have greater strength than lava full of gas bubbles.
Is the rock massive or not? Thin-bedded strata are weaker than thick
bedded formations. A thick, massive limestone \vill be stronger than a
series of thin lava flows, although in laboratory tests of individual
specimens, the lava may be the stronger of the two. A thick, massive
sandstone can be stronger than a highly fractured granite. Is the com
position such that the fractures may be readily healed? Specimens of
quartzite may be stronger than a limestone. But fractures in quartzite
hca[ less readily than those in limestone.

FORCE
Force and Acceleration

Force i; an explicitly definable vector quantity that changes 01' tends

to produce a change in tbe motion of a body. 'The locomotive of a train
exerts the force that mo\'es the cars. Force is definecl by its magnitude
and direction; hence it may be expressed by an al'l'OW, the length of which
is proportional to the magnitude of the force, and the direction of which
indicates the direction in which the force is acting.
An unbalanced force is one that catlses a change in the motion of a
body. The accelemt.ion is the rate of change of velocity. If a train starts
from rest and acquires a velocity of 20 miles per hour at the end of 10
minutes, the acceleration is two miles per haul' per minute. A body
dropped from a high building is subjected to an unbalanced force be
cause of the gravit.ational pull of the earth, and the body accelerates at
the rate of approximately 32 feet pel' second per second.
Balanced forces exist where no change in motion occurs. If a train
is moving at a constant velocity, the frictional resistance of the tracks
and the air equals the force exert.ed by the locomotive. If a man pushes
against a wall that he cannot move, the wall is exerting a force equal
and opposite to that exerted by the man.
The unit of force in the centimeter-gram-second system, commonly
referred to as the e.g.s. system, is the dyne; the dyne is that force which,
acting upon a mass of one gram, causes an acceleration of one centi
meter per second per second.

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

10

Most problems confronting lhe struclural geologist may be analyzed

by assuming balanced forces because the velocity of rock bodies is so
small that acceleration is negligible. Along faults, however, the motion
causing eartbquakes may be so rapid that aceeleralion is important.

Composition and Resolution at Forces

Force may be represented by a vector, that is, a line oriented in the
direction in which the force is operating and proportional in length 10 the
intensity of the force. Two or lllorc forces may act in differlJut directions
at a point, as in Fig. 2, where OX (8 pounds) and OY (12 pounds) act
at O. The same result would be produced by the force OZ (Hi pounds)
acting in lhc direction indicated; OZ is the resultant of OX and OY. A
resultant is the single force tbat produces the same result as two or more
forces, and it may be represenled by the diagonal of a parallelogram con

I
I
I
I

I
I

I
I

;o=

~/y

Scale.'" pounds

0
2
4,

Fig. 2.

6,

8
1

~
,

Composil ion of forces.

structed on two arrows that represent the lwo forces. The equilibrant is
the force necessfLry to balance two or morc forces. In Fig. 2, OW is the
force necessary to balance OX and OY; it is equal to lhe resultant of tk
two forces, but aels in lhc opposite direction. The process of finding
the resultant of two or more forces is called the cOlJ1,position of forces.
Conversely, the effect of a single force may be considered in terms of
two or more forces that ,,,,auld produce the same result. 'I'hus, in Fig. 3A,
OY and OZ would produce the same result as OX; in Fig. 3B, OW and
OV would produce the same result as OX; in Fig. 3C, OT and OU would
produce the same result as OX. A single force may thus be resolved inlo
two COm7JOnenls, a.cting in defined directions, by constructing a parallelo
gram the diagonal of which represents lhe given force, and the sides of
which have lhe directions of the components. The process of finding the
components of a single force is called lhe resolution of jorce,.

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

11

In Fig. 3D the force OP (l2 pounds) impinges on the line LM, and it
is necessary to find the value of the component parallel to LNI. This
component OQ Jlas a value of about 11 pounds, as can be determined
from the scale in the figure. OR, which is the component perpendicular
to LM, has a value of about 5 pounds.

~x

'Z

A
T __

--

'u

~I

Scale i... pounds

0,

c.

o
Fig. 3.

Resolution of forces.

O~----:-----4(

/--------------'" w
I
I

... "",

'

I
I

'/
z""----------'

Fig. 4. Resolution of forces in three dimcn

6iou.~

8,

12

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES
The preceding discussion of the composition and resolution of forces

has bep.n confined to two dimensions, but geology is concerned with

three dimensions. In Fig. 4 an inclined force OW lies in the vertical
plane OZVW. This force may be resolved into two components, onc 01
which, OZ, is ver.ieal; the other, OV, lie. in the horizontal plane OXVY.
The OV may in tum be resolved into OX and OY, which lie in the hori

zontal plane and at right angles to each other. Moreover, any force, re
gardle.s of its value and its angle of inclination, may be similarly
resolved into three components parallel to the X, Y, and Z axes of
Fig. 4.

Lithostatic or Confining Pressure

The pressure on a small body immersed in a Hquid is described as
hydrostatic pressure. For example, at a depth of a mile in the ocean, the
pressure is equal to the ""eight of a column of salt. water one mile
high. The pressure is 337,900 pounds per square foot, or 2,346 pounds
per square inch. Every square inch of the surface of a small sphere at

this depth would be under a pressure of 2,346 pounds per square inch.
Such an undirected, all-sided pressure is called hydrostatic pressure.

Rocks in the lithosphere, because of the weight of whatever rocks He

above them, are subjected to a similar but not identical kind of pressure.

The weight of a column of rock one mile high will be several times that
of an equally high column of water, because rocks have a higher specific
gravity. The weight of a column of granite one mile high and one inch
square would be 6,178 pounds. A small imaginary sphere at a depth of
one mile in the granite would be subjected to an all-sided pressure that
would simulate hydrostatic pressure. This type of pressure may be called
lithostatic pressure," but in experimental work this equal, all-sided pres
sure on solids is called the confining pressure.
Obviously, the lithostatic pressure increases with deptb in the earth
and reaches tremendous values in the interior. It is equal to the '~ieight of
the overlying column of rocks) but near the surface this is only approxi
mately true.
An increase in confining or lithostatic pressure causes a decrease in
the volume of rocks but an increase in the density. A decrease in confin
ing pressure causes an increase in volume but a decrease in density.

Differential Forces
In many instances the forces acting on a body are not equal on all
sides. A body is said to be under tension when it is subjected to external
forces that tend to pull it apart. Tension may be represented, as in Fig.
e Kennedy, G. C., '( 'Pneumatolysis) and the Liquid Inclusion MeLhod of Geologic
Thermometry," Ecunomic GeoloOIJ, Vol. 45, pp. 533-547, 1950; cspQcially p. 542.

13

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

5A, by two arrOWE lhat are on the same straight line lind are directed
away from cHeh other; the arrows represent the forees, w!lcl'cns the
rectangle represents the body or part of a body upon which the forces
act. The rectangle may be omitted.
A body g; said to be under compression when it is subjected to ex
lernal forces that tend to compress it. Compression may be represented,
as in Fig. oB J by two arrows that are on the same straight line and are

L..

---70~

~O~

10 ~
---;.

Tension

Compression

A
Fig. 5.

C.ouple

,\rrows representing tension, comprC$Slon. and a couple.

directed toward carh other; tl1e arrows represent the forces, whereas lhE:
rectangle represents the body or part of the body actcd upon. The rcc
t.ngle may bc omitted.
lLE!!!FPJc con~i5ts of t\\~ equal forces that acJ in opposite directions

in the---.S3mc plan.Q, hut not along the same line. In Fig. :lC a c0L!.l21e is
representcd by lhe uppcr and
!owerarro\ys, whicb arL not C-.
on the same straight. line and
which are directed away fron~
each other. To prevent rota
tion and preserve equilibrium
a second cOllple i~ necessary, as
::;hown by the vertical tHrows.
T.!le rectangle, which reprcsents
the body or part of tl'e body
acted upon, may Le omitted.
Tor.riolL results from Lwist
ing. If lhe two cncts of "it rod are
turned in opposite direttiolls,
A
B
the rod i. subjected to torsion
Fig.
6.
Torsion.
A
rod
(.4)
or
plate
(8) is
(Fig. 6.-\). A plate undergoes
5Ubjecterlto torsion when lhe ends are twisted
tor5ion, as in Fig. 6B if two
in opposite directions.

diagonally opposite Cl)mers arc

:,ubjccted lo forces <.lcting in one direction while the other
are subjcdetl to forc~ ncling in thp opposite direction.

iWG CO!Tlcrs

14

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

STRESS
Concept of Stress
Imagine a vertical column of material. Along any imaginary hori

zontal plane within this column the material above the plane, because

of its weight, pushes downward on the material below the plane. Simi
larly, the part oi the column below the plane pushes upward witb an
equal force on the material above the plane. The mutual action and
reaction along a surface constitutes a stress.

Moreover, along any imaginary plane within the column there are
similar actions and reactions. The imaginary plane may be horizontal,
vertical, or inclined at any angle. The force, due to thc weight of that
part of the column that lies above the plane, aels in a vertical direction.
This force would be direeled normally to a horizontal plane. Along an
inclined plane, however, the vertically directed force would be resolved
into a normal component and a tangential component. If Fig. 3D were
turned w that OP were vertical, LM would represent the inclined plane,
OR the normal component, and OQ the tangential component.
The normal component is a compressive stress if it tends to push
together the material on opposite sides of the plane. The normal com
ponent is a tensile stress if it tends to pull apart the material on opposite
sides of the plane. The tangential component is generally called a shear
ing stress or shear.
In this book, in accordance with common geological practice, a com

pressive stress will be considered positive, and a tensile stress will be

considered negative. In engineering and physics the opposite convention
is often followed.
The stress-differellce at any point in a body is the algebraic difference
!Jetween the greatest stress and the least stress at that point. This con
cept is more fully dewloped in Chaptel' J O.
Physici~ts measure stress as the force per unit area; it is stated in
pounds per square inch, tons per square foot, kilograrns pCI' square
centimeter. or similar cOllycnient units.. Engineers prefer to usc unit stress

for the force per unit area.

~1any geologists use stress as synonymous with external force. This
usage is unnecessary and is hardly to be commended because it causes

misunderstandings between geologists on the one hand and physicists,

engineers, and mathematicians on the other. It is desirable to distinguish
between the external iorce that is applied to a body and the resulting
internal actions and reactions that constitute the stress.
Calculation of Stress

There is no direct way to measure the stresses in a body, but they

may be calculated if tbe external forces are known. If a body is com

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

15

Dressed or strctched, the stress is referred to a plane perpendicular to the

direction in which the external forces are acting. Thus if a vertical
square column 10 inches on a side supports a load of 5,000 pounds, cvery
horizontal plane in the column is subjected to a compressive force of
5,000 pounds if we neglcct the weight of the column itself. Each square
inch on these horizontal planes supports a load of 50 pounds per square
inch. The compressive stress is said to be 50 pounds per square inch. If
a vertical rod with a cross-sectional area of 10 square inches carries
a weight of 5,000 pounds at its lower end, every horizontal plane in the
rod is subjected to a pull of 500 pounds per square inch. The tensile stress
i, said to be 500 pounds per squarc inch.

STRAIN
Delinition

Strain is the deformation caused by stress; strain may be dilation,

which is a change in volume, or distortion. which is a change in form, or
both.
When there is a change in the confining pressure, an isotropic body
-that is, a body whose mechanical properties are ullifom) in all direc
tions-will change in volume, but not in shape. 'Vith increasing confining
pressure, the volume of the body decreases and the dilation is negative.
\rith decreasing confining pressure, the volume of the body illereases and
Ihe dilation is JlO itivc. Grallite has a higher compressibility than gabbro
and diabase; that is. for unit increase in confining pressure, a granite
undergoes a greatcr dccrcase in volume than do gabbro alld diabase.
under low confining pressure, a unit increase ill confining pressure
causes a greater decrease ill volllme than under higher confining pres
sures.
Under directed forces distol'!ion occurs. For example, a steel rod 10
inches long with a cross section of one square inch is subjected to tCll
sian. A pull of 20,000 pounds stretches the rod 0.007 inch. The stress is
20,000 pounds per square inch and the strain is 0.0007 inch per inch.
Three Stages 01 Delormatian

If a body is subjected to directed forces, it usually passes through

three stages of deformation. At first, the defonnation is elastic; that is,
if the stress is withdrawn, the body returns to its original shape and size.
There is always a limiting stress, called the elastic limit; if this is ex
ceooed, the body does not return to its original shape. Below the elastic
limit, the deformation obeys Hooke's law, which states that strain i'
proportional to stress.
If the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the deformation is plastic; that
is, the specimen only partially returns to it. original shape even if th,

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

16

stress is removed. Steel rods under tension, for example, begin to get
thinner or ((neck" in the middle~ and, eyeD aftcr the stress is released,
the constriction remains in the rod.
\Vhen there is a continued increase in the stress, oTIe or more frac

tures develop, and the specimen eventually fails by rupture, The arrange
ment and form of the fractures depend upon f:everal factors which are

fully discussed in Chapter 6.

Brittle s1lbstances arc those that rupture before any plastic deforma
tion takes place, Ductile s1lbstances are those that have a large interval
between the elastic limit and mpture. After the elastic limit has been
exceeded, ductile substances undergo a long interval of plastic deforma
tion, and in some instances they may never ruptu!e.

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS
In engineering practice the relation existing between stress and strain
is commonly expressed in a graph known as the stress-strain- diagram

(Fig. 7). The stress is commonly plotted on the ordinate (vertical axis),
the strain on the. abscissa (horizontal axis). Curve A of Fig, 7 is a graph

Ultimate strength

'-0.000

Proporbon II;
elasbc limit

'"
u
.~

30.000

"Rupture

(Str.ngth)

,t

If

A " Ductile subsunc.t

B = B,.ittle 5ubstel"lce

1!

&.
.~

10,000

L_-i---t---t---t--~t---+_---.J
2
3
4
5
1&

Streltn - shorteni"g.,. per cent

Fig. 7.

Stress-strain diagrams.

of material under compression. The compressive stress is shown in

pounds per square inch. 'Vith increasing stress, the specimen becomes

shorter, and the strain is plotted in terms of the percentage of shortening

of the specimen Under a stress of 10,000 Ib./in', the specimen has

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

17

,11Ortened only a fraction of I per cent;' at 20,000 lb.lin.', thc shortcning

is 0.7 per cent. When thc stress is 30,000 Ib.lin.', the specimen has been
shortened 1 per cent of its original length. The shortening increases as
lhe stress is increased and, just before rupture occurs) the specimen is
4.5 per cent shorter than it was originally. The point at whieh the eurve
departs from a straight line is known as the proportional elastic limit; it
is u,ually essentially the same as the elastic limit (p. 15). The propor
tional elastic limit is 30,000 Ib./in.', and the shortening at this point is
one per cent.
Curve B of Fig. 7 is a graph of a brittle substance. The elastic limit
is 20,000 Ib.lin.'; there is no plastic deformation before rupture takes
place.
S/.rength, sometimes referred to as ,-upt"re strength, may be defined
as the force per unit area necessary to cause rupture at foom tempera
ture and atmospheric pressure in short-time experiments. Under such
conditions most ro.eks are brittle substances and, consequently, little
or no plastic deformation precedes rupture.
Table 1 gives thc strength for some common rocks. Data are more
complete for some than for others, and such a table is merely indicative
of the magnitur!e of the values. The values are in separate columns for
compressive, tensile, and shearing strengths. Some granites, fo1' example,
can stand a compressive stress of only 370 kg.lcm.' Lefore rupturing;'
other granites, however, can stand a compressive stress of 3/790 kg./Clll. 2.

Table l'
Rupture Strength of Rocks
(In kilograms per square cent.imeter)
RoCK

COMPRESSIVE

Average

Range

TENSILE

SHE.-\RlNO

Range

Range

30-50
Granite
1480
370-3790
150-300
Syenite
1960
1000-3440
Diorite
1960
960-2600
Gabbro
1S00
460--4700
lIelsite
2450
2000-2900
Hasalt
2750
2000-3500
10-30
Sandstone
740
110-2520
50-150
30-60
Limestone
960
60-3600
100-200
Slate
1480
600-3130
250
150-250
Quartzite
2020
260-3200
30-90
Mao'ble
1020
310-2620
100-300
Gneiss
1560
810-3270
Serpen{,ine
1230
630-1230
60-110
180-340
'Ib.jin.' meaM "poundS per square inch.':
& kg./cm.. ~ means kilograms per square centimeter.
~ Compiled from: Illtemalimwl Crlticnl '1'abl~st Vol. 2. pp. 47-49. New York:
McGraw-Hili Book Company, 1927; Birch. Fl'uncii:!, J. F. Schairer, and a. C. Spicer,
"Handbook of Physical Constants," Geological Soclety oj America! Special Paper
No. 36. 1912, p. 111.

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

18

In tenslon, however, granite ruptures If the stress exceeds a value of 3

t.o 1)0 kg.!cm.'. In ot.hcr words, granite is 33 times stronger under com
pression than it is under tension. Under shearing stress granite has
strength of 150 t.o 300 kg./cm.'. Undcr compression, basalt i. the strongest
of all the rocks listed in the table.
In ductile mat.erials, as shown in curve A (Fig. 7), the streBS at th
time of rupture may be con.iderably Ie" than the maximum Btress ths
the material haB supported. The ultimate strength iB t.he highest stresl
on the stress-strain curve.
Fundamental strength is defined on p. 24.

FACTORS CONTROLLING BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS /

Confining Pressure

The engineer is primarily interested in the physical properties of

materials under atmospheric pressure and surface temperatures. Con

sequently, Illost of the available experimental data are distinctly limited

in their application to geology. Factors that are important to the struc
tural geologist are confining pressure, temperature, time, and solutions.

Griggs, Robertson, Balsley' and others have performed a number of

experimenta showing the effect of confining pressure on the properties of
rocks. In Olle type of experiment small solid cylinders of rock, i inch in
diameter and t to It inches long, are used. The confining pressure-in
this case a hydrostatic pressure--is obtained through the medium of a
fluid. An additional stress, compressive or tensile, is applied on the ends
of t.he cylinder.
Figure 8, based on recent work hy Robertson, illustrates the behavior
of Solenhofen limestone under such conditions. The compressive stress on

the ends of thc cylinder is given on the ordinate in kilograms per square
centimetcr. The percentage of shortening of the cylinder is given on the
abscissa. Seven separate experiments are shown at confining pressures of

1, 300, 700, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, and 4,000 kilograms per square centi
meter. Separate curves arc given for the behavior at each of these con
fining pressures. Below a compressive stress of 3,700 kg.!cm 2 the curves
run together and appear as one. One experiment was run in air so that

the confining pressure was equal to 1 kg.lcm.', that is, 14.7 pounds per'

I
Griggs, David T _, lCDeformation of Rocks under High Confining Pressures,"
lo.,nal 0/ Geolouy, Vol. 44, pp. 541...,';77, 1936.
Griggs, David, et al., "Deformation of Yule Marble: Part 1/' Bulletin Geological,
Society oj America, Vol. 62, pp. 853--862, 1951.
.
Robertsoll, Eugene, "An Experimental StudY of Flow and Fracture in Rocks," i
Doctoral thesis, Harvard University, 1952.
Balsley, J. R., I'Deforrnation of Marble under Tension at High Pre8Bures," TranI
actions American Geophysical Union, part 2. pp. 519--525, 1941.
RobertBoD., OJ)- cit,
'f

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

19

re inch, or 1 atmosphere, This spccimen behaved elastically up to

, pressive stress of 2,800 kg./cm?, when it failed by rupture, The
imens tested under confining pressures of 300 and 700 kg./cm.' de
ed elastically, went through a short stage of plastic deformationt portion of the lines that is bending-and then failed by rupture, The
imens tested under confining pressures of 1)000 or more kg./cm. 2
began to deform plastically at a compressive stress of ahout 4,000
. kg./cm.' and continued to deform plastically, The specimen tested under
confining pressure of 2,000 kg./cm,2 had shortened 30 per cent when
'0,000

9000

eooo

'7000

;;
c 6000

f e

.
: .
e

~ ~
~
>

eL

..,h2.

5000

1000 kg/em'

4000

3000

.5

2000
1000

10

15

20

30

Strain - Shol"tening in percent

Fig. 8.

Effect of confining pressme on beluwiol' of Solenhofen limestone

under eompression. (After E. Robertson.)

the test was terminated, The curvee representing the tests at a confining
pressure of 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, and 4,000 kg.Jcm.' end, not because of
failure by rupture, but because the tests were not carried any further.
It is also readily apparent that the strength increases with the con
fining pressure. Whereas the specimen tested at a confining pressure of
1 kg./cm. 2 fails by rupture at a compressive stress of 2,800 kg./cm.' and
the specimen tested at a confining pressure of 1,000 kg./cm.' cannot sup
port a compressive stre8S greater than 3,900 kg./em.', the specimen tested
at 8 confining pressure of 4,000 kg.lcm. 2 can support a compressive stress
in excess of 8,000 kg./cm.'.
Such experiments indicate that rocks exhibiting very little plasti~

20

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

deformation ncar the surface of tllP l'art,h lll.ay he very plastic und~T high
confining pressure. Thus under n confining pres,sure of 1~000 kg./0Ill. 2
or greater. Solenhofen limestone will d8form plaf'.tically. This m~ans that
at a depth of 2.5 miles Solenhofen limestone will deiorm plm.tieally if
,sufficient compressive f.trpss is applied; as will be shown later, this figure
may hI:' still less because of other factors.
Dill'erent rorks: of course: bpha\"(~ differently. Fig. 9 shows the stress
strain diagram for several rocks and one mineral. The rcsult:; are not
strictly comparable bc{'auH~: as the figure shows: the eonfining pressure
\vas not thE' same in all expel'inwnts, ranging from 300 to 500 kg./cm. 2

,----,----r---,---r-----r---..,...-----,

6000

~ 7000

:;: GODO

~Pvrite

u
~
5000

at 500 1':9/cm2

~ : 4000

~ \'I"
EE
o

3000

2' 2000

at 500 kg/cm1:
"'Cambndge argillite at 300 1<9/cm2

Solenhohn hrr'les1"one at 500 I(g/cm~

........ New Scotland Ilme~~one aT

"c

sao kg/cm 2

'--Danby marble at 400 f<.9/cm2

ao~---!---""""at,---""""'t,----4!----5!---""""6!---......,!7
Strain - Shortening in percent

Fig. 9.

Effcct of eonfinmg pn'sHII'(' nn lwhaviol' of

('omprl;'.".~i()n. (Aflf'l'

E.

Yariou~

l'ocks [lnd

p~.'lile

llnder

Robel't~on.)

Pyrite, Cambridge argillite, and Bfl,rre granite are relatively brittle rocks,
which behave elastically up to a compressive stress of over 4,500
kg./cm. 2 . Above the elast.ic limit t.here is a small zone of plastic deforma
t.ion: and then rupturc take:: place. ~e,v Scotland limestone was clastic
up to a compressive stress of about 3,000 kg./ern. 2 , deformed plastically
for a short interval, and then ruptured at 3.200 kg.:/cm. 2 . Solenhofen
limestone shmvs a ~t.illlarger range of plastic dd ormation. Danby marble
~~ much weaker. It deforms elastically Ul1 to a c()mprC:'s:'i-ivc ~trcss of 1,000
kg./cm. 2 and then deforms plastically. Although the curve scale ends at
7 per ('rnt, Robertson's original data show that the specimen short+:'oed
14 per cent before the test was ended.
Similar tcsts have been run on rocks undf'r tension. As before: a con
fining prrssure is cxertGd by a fluid, but the ends of t.he cylinders arc
pulled apart to produce tension.1) Figure 10 611ow8 fin~ te~ts on a marble,
9

Ba.lsley, op, cit.

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

21

eonfining pressures of 2,830, 4,500, 6,000, 8,000, and 10,000 atmos

res (essentially the same as kg/em. 2 ), All the specimens \vent through
'Otage of elastic ddormation, but tbe elastic limit ranges from 1,800
./em. 2 to 3,300 kg./cm. 2 .. depending upon the confining pressure. 1'1ore
r, the ultimate strength incIca.';('sJ from a minimum of 2,400 kg.lcm. 2
'Co 5,500 kg./cm.2~ again depending upon the confining pressure.

L.

6000

E 5000
:.:.
<
w
u

'!

:= <T
<I)

'"

"'sOOO Atm

:-:=---~

4000

6000 Atm.

l-.

3000

2000

c ~
~ "

'"o

:i:

2830

Atm,

1000

10

12

Strain - Ex'tension in per cent

'.

Fig. 10.

14

I.

Effect <If confining pressure on behavior of marble

under tension. (After J. Balsl~y.)

,Changes in temperature modify the strength of rocks, Hot steel, for

ample, 'undergoes plastic deformation much more readily than docs cold
el. Figure 11 shmvs two test.~ run on Yule marble. lO Conditions were
entical except for temperature: the axes of the. cylinders \vere perpen
icular to the foliation., the confining pressure was 10,000 atmospheres,
and the deformation was produced by compressive stress. The uppermost
curve is that obtained at room temperatures, \vhcreas the intermediate
curve is that ohtained at a temperature of 150 0 C. At room temperature
the elastic limit is at a compressive stress of about 2,000 kg./cm. 2, at
150 0 C, the elastic limit is at about 1,000 kg-!om,', :';looeoYeo, to produce
8 given strain far less stress is necessary when the specimen is hot than
when it is cold, For example, to produce a strain of 10 peo cent at 150 C.
the compressive stress is 3,000 kg./cm,2, but at room temperature the
stress necessary to produce a similar defonnation 1S 4,500 kg./Cffi. 2
It is apparent that plastic deformation is far less common ncar thc
0

1DGriggs, D. T" et of .. "Deiormation of Yule ::\farble: Part IV, Effects at.

'l50 C.."Rullelin GeologicaL Society 0./ A,men:ca, Vol. 62, PP 1385-1406,1951.
G

22

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

surface of the earth, where thc confining pressure and the temperature
are low, than it is at greater depths, where higher temperatures and
greater confining pressure increase the possibility of plastic deformation.

6000

1!
E

-..
_ 0u

~ ~

-:;

,.

sooo
4000

.~

..

'j,; '

~~

0._

3000

E E

o'

u~

-" zooo

:i
c

1000

(;

10

12

14

Strain - Shortening in pereent

Iti

2.

Fig. 11. Effect of temperatUl'e and solutions on deformation of marble, Yule

marble. ronfining pressure of 10.000 atmospheres, cylindrical iipecimen l'l1t yer.
}Jendieular to foliation. (After D. T. Griggs d al.)

Time: Fatigue and Creep

Stresses that can he applied 3 few times without causing failure may,
if repeated many times. cause rupture. This subject has boen studied
particularly in regard to metals. For example, a stres, of 35.000 lb.!in.'
repeated 100)000 times may not cause rupture; if however, the same
stress is repeated a million times: rupture occurs. If enough experiments
are performed, a curve may be prepared, with the streES plotted on the
ordinate, and the number of cycles of stress necessary to cause fracture
plotted on the nbseissa (Fig. 12). The curve becomes horizontal toward
the right. The endurance limit, which is also known as the fatigue limit,
is defined as the limiting stress below which the specimen can withstand
hundreds of millions of repetitions of stress without fracture. In Fig.
12 the endurance limit is 30,000 Ib./in.'.
The endurance limit for many metals is approximately half that of
the strength of the metal. For example, wrought iron, with a tensile
strength of 46,900 Ib./in.', has an endurance limit of 23,000 Ib./in.';
nickel steel, with a tensile strength of 111,800 lb./in.', has an endurance
limit of 67,000 Ib./in.'.
I

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

23

n more importa.nt to geology are those stresses, ~mall though

may be, that act f.'ontinuomdy for many years, Creep refers to slow;
ormation under small strC'ssC's acting over long periods of time; ordi
'ly the term is restricted to deformation resulting from stresses below

50,000

i!f

40.000

i.

1&.

30,000

Endurance limit :;
30,000 pOlJnd~ per square inch

20,OOOL....-----;;;;!-,;;"'-----;-"'*=,__----c=0;-;;;;;;-----c=:;;;-=,__---J
100,000
1,000,000
10,000,000
100,000,000
Number of cydl2s to cause fracture
Fig. 12.

Fatigue curve for a metal.

e elastic limitl l But the tenn is also used to refer to plastic deform a
.on under any long-continued stress, even though the stress exrecds the
.tic limit.
SolenhoIen limestone under atmospheric pressure and at room tcm
ature has a strength of 2,560 kg./cln. 2 In a long-time exp""iment,
lenhofen limestone subjected to a

mpressive stress of 1,400 kg.jem.'

~ 0.020
half the value of the strength-de
~
ann' rapidly at first, then more
:.0016- / "
.Jlwly (Fig. 13). At the end of one .!:O.OI2-(
. y, it has been shortened about
0.008
.006 per cent; after 10 days about :l
:;;'0.004
.011 per cent; after 100 days 0;

o.Ooo,'-----.i,,;;;o-~,",",

---.3~OO;-,--'rl,,-Jo
\lout 0.016 per cent; and after 400
Time in days
. ays a little more than 0.019 per cent.
Fig. 13. Creep curve for Solen
~. Creep is the comhined effect of an
holeo limestone under 3 stress of
elastic strain and a pennanent strain. 12
1,400 kg./cm. 2 (After D. T. Griggs.)
The specimen recovers from that por
tion of the deformation that is caused by the elastic strain. The portion
or'the deformation that is the result of the permanent strain is, of
eourse l unrecoverable. The relative importance of these hvo types of
strain depends on many variahles, hut few precise data are availahle
ior rocks.

11

Grigg~,

David T., "Creep of Hocks," Journal of Geology, Vol. 47, pp. 225-251,

1839.
IINadai, A" Theory of Flow and Fracl'ure of Solids. Kf'w York: McGraw-Hili
Book Company, Inc., 1950.572 pn., ('spl?clally pp. 24-26.

24

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

The struct.ural geologist is esrcciaHy concerned with the time factor.

He \....1.mts to knov,' what :-;tresscs ",..-ill cause failure if they oI)('ratc over
a long period of time. The fundamental stren9th of a.ny material is de

fined as the stress \\'hich that material is able to withstand, regardless

of time, under given physical conditions-temperature, prCi3sure, solu
tions-v.. ithout rupturing or ddorming continuously. The fundamental
strength, \\'hich is always les~ than the strength and the ultimate strength,
is much more significant to the geologist. Unfortunately, at the present
time we have few data on the value of the fundamental strength of rock!',
Tim.e is also important in another respect. The amount of plastic:.
deformation hefore rupture l5 less if tll(' 8trC':38 is applied slowly than it'
is if the stress is applied rapidly. ~-1oreover, the ~tress necessary to cause
rupture is lesE' if the Rtress is applied slowly. \Ve may cite as specific:
examples experiments on Solenhofen limestone. In one experiment the
confining pressure ,.. ' us 10:000 atmospheres, and a little more than an
hnur elapsed before the maximum compresslve ~tress was attained. \Vhen
the stress reached 185,000 lb,/in,'. the specimen had shortened 30.3 per
cent, but rupture had not occurred. In another experiment in which the
confining pre~surc was the t'lame (10,000 atmospheres), but in which 22
hours han elapsed before the maximum stress was attained, the specimen
ruptured under a compressive stress of 96,000 Ib./in. 2

Solutions
Geologists have for many yearE' realized that much rock deformation
takes place while solutions capable of reacting ehemieally with the rock
are present in the pore spaces. This i:;; notably hue of metamorphic rocks,
in which extensive or complete recrystallization occurs. The solubons dis~
solve old minerals anu prec1pitate ne\-",' ones. 'Vhen rocks arE' deformed
under conditions favoring rcery~t.ullization, the mcehanical properties of
roeks arc grpatly modified.
Experimental data corroborat.e these deductions) as shown in Fig.
14 from Griggs. I3 Crcep expe;rimcnts were performed On alabaster (a
variety of gypsum). In all ease~ the eompre8~ive stre3S was 205 kg./em. 2
(less than half the normal ela,tic limit of 480 kg./em.'), and the tem
perature 24 0 C. The lowest curve IT1Jresents t.he deformation of a dry
specimen. 'Vithin a few days the; speeimrn had shortened about 0.03 per
cent, but therC': was no further detectable deformation even after 40 days.
A SpE'C1mCn deformed under ~ueh conditions that water had access to the
alabaster (intelmediate curve) had shortened 1 per cent at the end of 30
days and 1.75 per cent. by the end of 36 days, when the load Wfl.S released.
13Grig~8, David T .. "Expcl'illlfnial Flow of Docb UIll!cr ConditioJ1.,S Favoring
Rel'Tyswllizm.ion," Bullell?t Gwlo(jical Sudety oj America, Vol. .51, pp, 1001-1022,
1941'.
Griggs. D:\\,id T., rt ol., "Dl2fol'llllltion of Yule :\Jarble: Part IV, EffeetB at
.. 50 C,':' Bl1.llel'in Gwlogira{ Borwty oj Amtrica. Vol. 62, r,p, 1385-1400, 1rt51.
0

MECHANICAL PRINCIPUS

25

,A specimen deformed with acccss of dilute hydrochloric acid had de

fonned more than 2 per cent before rupturing at the end of 20 days,
-Whereas the strength of tbe dry alabaster under room temperature and a
'confining pressure of 1 atmosphere is 480 kgjcm,', and the ultimate
strength i> 520 kgjcm.', the fundamental strength under similar condi
tions, but with the specimen free to react with water, is estimated to be
only 92 kgjcm.'. In this particular case, therefore, the fundamental
strength is Icss than 20 per cent of the ,trcngth and the ultimatc ,trength.
Z
Rup1'ur9

.. z.o
c

&. I.S
I

'"

.~ 1.0

"

<

of)

,S
Dey

10

1&

20

Time - days

Fig. 14.

25

'0

35

40

Effect of solution:;; an deformation of alabaster. (After D.

T. Griggs.)

The lowest curve in Fig. 11 shows the effect of water on the strcngth
of Yule marhIe. At a temperature of 150 0 C. thc clastic limit and strength
of the wet spccimcn is much less than the strength of the dry specimen
at the same temperature.

Anisotropy and Inhomogeneity

Most of thc tests described in the preceding scctions werc made on
isotropic material~, that is! rocks \-"hose mechanical properties were uni
fonn in all directions, Rocks that show bedding, banding, or foliation
are not isotropic. The strength of Buch rocks would depend upon the
orientation of the applied forces to the plan~r structures of the rock. This
point is well illustrated in Fig, 15. The rock was Yule marble, confining
pressure was 10,000 kgjcill,', and the tests were run at room temperature.
All the specimens show great plastic deformation. The solid lines repre
sent experiments under compression; in this case the stress is compressive
and the strain is shortening parallel to the axis of the cylindcr, Under
compression the cylinder perpendicular to the foliation is stronger than

26

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

the cylinder parallel to the foliation. The broken lines represent test,
under tension; in this rase the stress is tensile and the strain is lengthen
ing parallel to the cylinders. Under tension the cylinder parallel to
the foliation is much stronger than the cylinder perpendicular to the
foliation.
In attempting to analyze the mechanics of rock deformation in the
earth by the applieation of mathematical fonnulae , it is necessary to
assume that the part of the crust being studied is homogeneous; that is)
that it is all granite or limestone or some other roc.k. Actually, of COUf8e,
the crust as a whole is exceedingly heterogeneous. This fact at once intro

~ 6000

!l000

=~

~ ;. 4000

Q.

aE
e~

:3 !

3000

2000

- - - extension
Comprenion

O!-.l--!Z;-.l-~.;-""'''.-L-t.-''"-,I-';;O-'---'I-';;'-'-'l''''-'---:I'''--I.-',.!'-.l....-},O
Strain in pe.rce.nt

Fig. 15. Effed of 1'Inisolropy on deformation of marhle. Yule marble

at confining IJI'essure of 10,000 kg.!cm.~ and room LempenHUL'e. (Alter D.
T. Griggs et 01.)

duces many difficnlties into any mechanical analyses. Thns although.

it is now becoming possible, as \"ill be shmvn in later sections of this
book, to apply mathematics and engineering principles to rock deforma
tion, the heterogeneity of the crust in many cases prevents rigorous
analysis.
Summary

It is clear that the mechanical properties of rock,,; are profoundly

modified by confining pressure, temperature r the time factor, .and the
presence of reacting solutions. The combined effect of these factors is so
great that it is impossihle in the present state of our knowledge to
treat rock deformation in a quantitative way. Increase in confining pres
sure increases the elastic limit and the ultimate strength. Increase in the

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

27

perature weakens the roeks. After long oontinued ,tres, the rock,
,llooome much weaker. The fundamental 6trength is of more interest to
'.the structural geologist than is the strength or ultimate strength. Re
:;.acting solutions lower the strength, the ultimate strength, and the funda
mental strength of rocks.

MECHANICS OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION

Problem
The plastic deformation of solid,H is a subject of utmost importanco
to structural geology. How can solid rock' change their shape without
the appearance of any visible fractures? Just what happens within the
rocks to pennit such a change in form? The processes may be classified
into intergranular movements, intragranular movements, and recrystalli
. zation.

Interg!onulor Movements
Intergranular movements involve displacements between individual
grains. Intrusive igneous rocks are usually composed of such minerab
RS quartz, feldepar) mica) and hornblende. Sandstones consist of rounded
grains, usually quartz, cemented together. Limestones are composed of
small interlocking crystals of caleite. If such rocks are subjected to stress,
the individual crystals and grains may move independently. All the dis
placements) because they are between grains) may be described a5 iutcr
granular. The individual grains maintain their shape and size. The
defonnation of such a body might be compared to the change in "hape
undergone by a moving mass of B-B shot. Each grain can move an,l
rotate relative to its neighbors.
In the plastic deformation of metals, such intergranular movements
seem to be of subordinate importance. In rocks, particularly those of
granitoid character, in which the crystals tend to interlock, more or less
granulation takes place first; that is, the larger crystals are broken into
smaller spherical grains that may rotate relative to each other

Intragronular Mavements
Intragranular movements are very important in the plastic deforma
tion of metals. Displacements take place entirely within the individual
crystals, and slipping takes place along glide planes. Some minerals have
no glide planes. In others there is one glide plane-that is, one plane
parallel to which there are a vast number of additional planes along
Bridgman, P. W., Stu.dies in Large Plastic FlollJ and Fracture. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.) 362 pp., 1952.
Nadai. A., OP. cit.
1,1

28

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

PLATE

III.

Folded

Roc~.

29

In upper left-hand corner strata dip to the left.

/11, the center and lower right-harld corner the zigzag ridges are resistant beds in
pllmuing folds. Africa, lat. N. SO 85', long. W. 02 10'. (Photo by United Stales

Air Force.>

30

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

which gliding oan take place. In still other minerals there are several
glide planes-that is, several planes, parallel to each of whioh there are
a vast number of additional planes. The atomic structure oontrol9 the
position and number of glide planes. Hence the glide planes are related to
the symmetry of the mineral. Gliding isof two types, translation-gliding
and twin-gliding.

Fig. 16. Translation-gliding. .4. Al'rangeoll'nt of atoms before gliding. B.

Arrangement of atoms afler gliding along planes (fly1 and (J~gJ.

Translation-gliding is illustrated very diagrammatically by Fig. 16.

The oenters of the atoms are represented by dots. and the glide planes
by heavy horizontal lines labeled glgl and g,g,. Diagram A shows the dis
tribution of atoms before gliding takes place. The erystallattiee--that is,
the spacing of the atoms relative to one another-is such as to give a
characteristic pattern. Diagram B shows the arrangement of the atoms
after gliding. Layers of atoms have slid to the right one interatomic dis
tanoe relative to the layers beneath. The shape of the figure as a whole

9.
9

9.
9,

9,

9,

J
A

.,

9,

Fig. 11. Twin-gliding. A. Arrangement of atoms before gliding. B. Arrange_

ment of atoms after gliding on glide planes f}lQl, q~(j2, (l3(]3, and g4(]f..

has been changed. The lattice, however, is unchanged; the same diamond
shaped pattern is maintained as before. The distance between planes of
gliding differs with the substance. In gold the distance is 0.00045 milli
meter, in zinc 0.00080 millimeter.
In twin-gliding the layers of atoms slide a fraction of an interatomic
distance relative to the adjacent layers (Fig. 17). Figure 17A shows the
distribution of the atoms prior to defurmation and Fig. 17B shows the
distribution of the atoms after deformation. In this way the lattice of
the displaced part of the orystal is symmetrioally altered with respect to

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

31

lbe lower, undispJaced part. In the terminology of mineralogy, the dis

placed part bears a twinned relation to the undisplaccd part.
The sheets of atoms cannot slip along the glide planes in any direc
tion. There are a limited number of line8 pa.rallel to which the movement
can take place, and these lines are known as the gl1:de directions. The
number "nd position of the glide planes and the glide direction depend
upon the mineral. Aluminum, for examplc has fOUf glide planes and
three glide directions; altogether, therefore, there are twelve possible
movements in this mineral.
A rock is an aggregate of minerah:. Because the individual grains
comprising the roek can be permanently deformed through gliding, the
shape of the entire body of rock can be changed.
l

Fig. 18.

Cir(']f' ehangrd into ellipse by mO\'cmcnt along glide planes.

Figure 18 illustrates in a two-dimensional model the dcfOImation of

a circle into an ellipse by gliding. One set of horizontal glide planes il:i
present. and along these each sueces~ively higher sheet has moved
toward the right. In the diagram the resulting ellipse is cluuucterized
by jagged edges, but in minerals the glide planes are so close thut such
irregularities are not detectable.
Recrystallization
Recrystallization IS another mechanism aiding plastic deformation.
Rocks can crystallize without any change in shape, as is shown by lime
stone altered to marble near igneous intrusions. The number of cI)'stals
per unit volume decreases, but the size of the individual crystal, in
creases.
Under conditions of differential pressure, however, solution and
recrystallization may proceed in such a way that the rock is shortened
nl one direction and lengthened in anotj-lCr. The process may be explained

32

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

by the Riecke principle." According to this principle the solutions in the

pore spaces of the rocks dissolve that portion of the crystal under great
est stress. At the same time there is precipitation on that portion of the
crystal suhjected to the least stress. In this way the grain changes i'-hape.
If nIl the crystals in a hody of rock are sirnilarly affedrrl, the mass as
a whole changes shape.
It is obvious from ohservations in the field that plastic deformation
and recrystallization have uften been simult.RllcOUS) and we lllLL~t accept
the principle that rccrystallization greatly fueilitutes IJla~tie deformation.
DEFORMATION IN THE OUTER SHELL OF THE EARTH

The rocks in the outer shell of the earth arc affected by all three of
the major types of deformation: elastic, pla.stic, and l'UptUl'l'.
Tidal stresses and the passage of earthquake waves eanse elastic
strain; but ~inee no peIn1an~nt effect is recorded) it cannot bE' obtierved hy
the structural ~eolo~ist,
Plastic deformation is involved in folding, in the development of
certain kinds of cleavage~ and in maf"S changes in the shape of rock
bodies. Horizontal strata arc permanently deformed by folding; although
folding involves thl' \':liding of bens past one another, curh stratmil und('l'
goes pla~tjc deformation. The origin of rlravage is a cuntrm;ersial .:::ub
Jed, but that variety knu\vll as flm\' cleavage i:-; g(lneraJly ron~ider('d
to be the result of pla,tie def1Jl1l1ation. As will be manifested later, solid
rocks may flow from the limbs of fold~ and way eOlH'entrate Ileal' the
axe!':. Even large bodies of ::-olid granite, if ~ubjected to ~ufli{'i('nt l'tl'C.5S,
may change shapp through plastic deformation. Rock salt, under the
influence of gravity or tprtonie forces, lllay 1110ve as a pla~tic body to
form salt domes.
Rupture is involved in the formation of joint::;, faults, and '30111e
varieties of ch'avagc. In some instances the walls visibly sline past eaeh
other to produce faults, but if there is no obvious differential movement,
the fracture~ aro called joints or cleavage.
Although it might Seelrl lllost logical to consider the re-:::ults of plastic
deformation fir~t, and to follo\\' this hy a e{Jn~i\t('ration of the results of
ruptul'c l such a treatment is not fea::-ihlc bE'cau~c sOllie type:::; of clcl'tvage
are plastic in origin and othcr~ aro due to rupture. It SCPll1S better: thrre
iore: to utilize a geological cla~siflCation and eon;'ltler folds, joints,
fauJts, and cloavage in that sequeneo. The subsequent chapters are there
foro organizod accordingly.
lC'Turnpr. F. J .. nnd J. V(>rhoogen, JUJlcov.s and Jlcttlllwrphic Pc/ml(){JfJ. PI). 394
395. l\pw York: 1\'1f~Graw-Hil1 Book Compiwy. In('., 1951.
Ramberg, Hans, The Olviglll 0./ Melrunol'ph'ic (wd AJetasomalic Rocks) p. 110.
Chicago: UniHl'sity of Chicago PrCi;S, 1952.