Design, Build and Testing of a

Pneumatic Artificial Muscle

Andrew Kavanagh
ME4 12449652

April 2016

Andrew Kavanagh
ME4 12449652

Fourth Year Engineering Project Report

Title:

Design, Build and Testing of a

Pneumatic Artificial Muscle

Supervisor: Jerimiah Murphy

Date:

Fri. 8th April 2016

Abstract:

This report outlines the design and building of a

Pneumatic Artificial Muscle (PAM) actuator using
sourced materials and also reports on the
experiments conducted to explore the mechanical
properties of its operation such as how changes in
its length, radial expansion, pressure & tensile
forces are related.

Andrew Kavanagh ME4

FYP Report DCU

Declaration
I declare that this material, which I now submit for assessment, is entirely my own work
and has not been taken from the work of others, save and to the extent that such work has
been cited and acknowledged within the text of my work. I understand that plagiarism,
collusion, or copying is a grave and serious offence in the university and accept the
penalties that would be imposed should I engage in plagiarism, collusion, or copying. I
have read and understood the Assignment Regulations set out in the module
documentation. I have identified and included the source of all facts, ideas, opinions,
viewpoints of others in the assignment references. Direct quotations from books, journal
articles, Internet sources, module text, or any other source whatsoever are acknowledged
and the source cited are identified in the report references. This report, or any part of it,
has not been previously submitted by me or any other person for assessment on this or
any other course of study. I have read and understood the referencing guidelines
recommended in the Fourth Year Engineering Project Guidelines.

Signed: ____________________________

Date:____________

Signed: ANDREW KAVANAGH

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FYP Report DCU

Acknowledgments
I would like to take this opportunity to thank my supervisor, Jerry Murphy, for his help &
guidance throughout this project and the technical staff involved for their contributions.
I would also like to thank my parents for their support & inspiration.

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Contents
Declaration ............................................................................................................................ i
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................... ii
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... vi
Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction & Background ................................................................................................. 1
Literature Review ................................................................................................................ 5
Design ............................................................................................................................... 5
Measurement & Modelling .............................................................................................. 7
Applications...................................................................................................................... 9
Project Development ......................................................................................................... 10
Design ................................................................................................................................ 13
Tubes .............................................................................................................................. 13
Mesh ............................................................................................................................... 14
End clamp attachments ................................................................................................... 16
PAM assembly ............................................................................................................... 18
Pneumatic Control & Regulation ................................................................................... 18
Test Rig & Safety Cage .................................................................................................. 20
Full Setup Assembly ...................................................................................................... 21
Testing ............................................................................................................................... 22
Design of Experiments ................................................................................................... 22
Method............................................................................................................................ 23
Results & Discussion ......................................................................................................... 27
Observations ................................................................................................................... 27
Pressure .......................................................................................................................... 28
Weight ............................................................................................................................ 29

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Contraction & Expansion ............................................................................................... 29
Diameter ......................................................................................................................... 31
Length ............................................................................................................................. 32
Thickness ........................................................................................................................ 33
Mesh ............................................................................................................................... 34
Material .......................................................................................................................... 35
Fatigue ............................................................................................................................ 35
Application Example ......................................................................................................... 36
Ethics and Responsible Engineering ................................................................................. 38
Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 41
Recommendations for Future Work .................................................................................. 41
References.......................................................................................................................... 42
Appendix............................................................................................................................ 44
Materials List .................................................................................................................. 44
Drawings ........................................................................................................................ 46
Sample Results Data ....................................................................................................... 49
Video links ..................................................................................................................... 50

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List of Figures
Figure 1- Pneumatic Cylinder operation: (a) retracted, (b) extended .................................. 1
Figure 2 - PAM operation: (a) relaxed & non pressurized, (b) contracted & pressurized .. 2
Figure 3 - Antagonistic set up .............................................................................................. 3
Figure 4 - Tondu PAM Design (a) relaxed (b) contracted................................................... 5
Figure 5 - Colbrunn et al. PAM design ............................................................................... 5
Figure 6 - Ferris et al. PAM design ..................................................................................... 6
Figure 7 - Pleated Designs ................................................................................................... 6
Figure 8 - Klute analysis (a) output force vs. length (b) output force vs. velocity .............. 7
Figure 9 - Tondu braid angle analysis ................................................................................. 8
Figure 10 - Chou Analysis ................................................................................................... 8
Figure 11 - (a) The human arm, (b) xray images of Airic's arm .......................................... 9
Figure 12 - Tube selection (inter alia) ............................................................................... 14
Figure 13 (a) Flexo PET product (b) & (c) uses ............................................................. 15
Figure 14 - End Clamp Attachment Subassembly (a) exploded view (b) assembled ....... 16
Figure 15 - Clevis (a) drawings (b) manufactured component .......................................... 17
Figure 16 - PAM Assembly (a) exploded view (b) assembled .......................................... 18
Figure 17- Pneumatic (a) Circuit Diagram & (b) Components ........................................ 19
Figure 18 - (a) thread adapter (b) presta valve (c) bicycle pump ...................................... 19
Figure 19 - (a) Test Rig (b) Safety Cage ........................................................................... 20
Figure 20 - Full Assembly ................................................................................................. 21
Figure 21 - Method ............................................................................................................ 25
Figure 22 Pressure .......................................................................................................... 28
Figure 23 - Weight ............................................................................................................. 29
Figure 24 - Contraction vs. Expansion at (a) 0N (b) 10N (c) 20N (d) 50N (e) 100N ....... 30
Figure 25 - Diameter .......................................................................................................... 31
Figure 26 Length............................................................................................................. 32
Figure 27 - Thickness ........................................................................................................ 33
Figure 28 - Mesh ................................................................................................................ 34
Figure 29 - Material ........................................................................................................... 35
Figure 30 - Hip Flexion ..................................................................................................... 36
Figure 31 - Elbow Flexion ................................................................................................. 37
Figure 32 - Knee Flexion ................................................................................................... 37

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List of Tables
Table 1 - Project Development (a) Tasks (b) Admin ........................................................ 10
Table 2 - Project Schedule (Semester #1).......................................................................... 11
Table 3- Project Schedule (Semester #2)........................................................................... 12
Table 4 - Flexo PET Properties ......................................................................................... 15
Table 5 - Testing Tube Details .......................................................................................... 26
Table 6 - Life Cycle Assessment ....................................................................................... 38
Table 7 - Risk Assessment................................................................................................. 39

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Design, Build and Testing of a

Pneumatic Artificial Muscle
-Andrew KavanaghAbstract
This report outlines the design and building of a Pneumatic Artificial Muscle (PAM)
actuator using sourced materials and also reports on the experiments conducted to explore
the mechanical properties of its operation such as how changes in length, radial
expansion, pressure & tensile forces are related.
Keywords: robotics, actuator, pneumatic artificial muscle, PAM, McKibben muscle,
braided pneumatic actuator, soft robotics

Introduction & Background

Actuators can refer to any moving mechanical device that is externally controlled by a
source of energy which is converted into linear/rotary motion and used to hold, stop or
move an object [1] in applications such as automated industrial assembly or robotics [2].
Actuators generally fall into one of three categories [2], defined by the source of energy
used:

Electric such as servo/stepper motors, solenoid valves, etc.

Hydraulic powered by non-compressible liquids (such as oil) at high pressures

Pneumatic operated using compressed air

The most common type of linear pneumatic actuators are pneumatic cylinders (Figure 1)
which are used over hydraulic actuators because the energy source (air) is more easily
gathered, infinitely available and does not cause environmental pollution when exhausted
to atmosphere [2]. They also used in areas where electric actuators arent suitable such as
spark-free combustible environments [2] or underwater.

(a)

(b)

Figure 1- Pneumatic Cylinder operation: (a) retracted, (b) extended

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However, pneumatic cylinders can be expensive to manufacture, are non-flexible and
sensitive to side impacts/loads. A possible solution to issues such as these is addressed by
what can be described as Pneumatic Artificial Muscles or PAMs.
PAMs are a type of linear tensile actuator made from an inflatable inner tube or bladder
contained within a braided mesh and clamped at either end. This mesh forms double
helical weave around the bladder and causes it to contract lengthwise when expanded
radially due to each overlap in the mesh acting as a scissors linkage [3]. The radial
expansion is caused by pressurizing the inner bladder using compressed air (see Figure 2):

(a)

(b)

Figure 2 - PAM operation: (a) relaxed & non pressurized, (b) contracted & pressurized

The inner bladder is generally made of thin walled rubber; silicon or latex tubes clamped
at either end and contained with a polymer, PET or wire mesh. These materials are widely
available and low in cost and can be purchased easily & cheaply from sources such as
independent manufactures (such as McMaster-Carr) or even Amazon.com.
Many sources cite Joseph Laws McKibben with originally developing pneumatic
actuators that operate in this fashion. McKibben, a nuclear physicist famed for his work
on controlling the speed & power of the chain reaction in the first atomic bomb during the
Manhattan Project, developed pneumatic muscles to use as an orthotic device for his
daughter who had been paralysed by polio [4].
The reasons McKibben may have chosen pneumatic muscles for this application may
have been their mechanical similarity to human muscle behaviour, both of which exhibit
similar load/length curves [3].
There are many more advantages of PAMs over other standard & traditional linear
actuators, such as pneumatic cylinders, the most significant of which is their low powerto-weight ratio. PAMs are extremely lightweight and produce high tensile forces during
operation [5].
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They are also inherently compliant due to the compressibility of air. This results in a
spring-like effect under loaded conditions [5]. This compliance makes man-machine
interaction safer and also allows PAM-based soft systems to carry out delicate
operations on fragile objects; such as picking and packing eggs, screwing in glass light
bulbs and other delicate tasks such as these.
Similarly, the elasticity of the materials used in the tubes and mesh make PAMs flexible,
meaning they are not rigidly constrained to where they can be attached in a system and
are not sensitive to side impacts or loads.
Pneumatic muscles are also low cost, easy to manufacture and generally operate with
little to no hazard [5].
However, there are some disadvantages associated with these properties. PAMs suffer
from a relatively short stroke length when compared with pneumatic cylinders and only
generate tensile forces, i.e. they can only pull, never push unless the movement is
redirected by mechanical means, such as the antagonistic set up proposed by Daerden et
al.[5] in Figure 3. Hysteresis may also occur during operation mainly due to mesh/tube
friction and extra energy taken to expand the bladder walls [4]. Compliance can lead to
inaccuracies in placement. Also, the life expectancy of a pneumatic muscle not very high
but this can be justified by their low cost & ease of manufacture/replacement.

Figure 3 - Antagonistic set up

The efficiency of a PAM is largely based on the wall thickness but also on the initial braid
angle, i.e. at what angle the fibres in the mesh overlap when at rest [4].
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It is mechanical properties such as these (as well as length, diameter, wall thickness,
material and mesh size) that are investigated in this report, which has been organised as
follows:

Literature Review is conducted to give an overview of this particular area of study

as it currently exists by examining what has been done by others and how that
may apply to this project.

The project is developed by outlining the major tasks associated with it and
determining a schedule for completion.

The design process is discussed in terms of the various components to be

purchased, manufactured and assembled.

Design of experiments for testing and methods of measurements outlined.

Results of testing exhibited and discussed.

An example of application shown.

Project discussed in terms of ethics and responsible engineering.

Conclusions stated and recommendations for future work made.

References & appendices listed.

Note that PAMs have been referred to in other literature as Pneumatic Artificial Muscles
(PAMs) [5], McKibben artificial muscles [4], braided pneumatic actuators (BPAs) [6],
rubbertuators [7] or some combination of these terms but will be referred to simply as
PAMs for the purpose of this report.

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Literature Review
In terms of outlining the current state of knowledge in this area of study and how the
work of others has inspired the development of this project, a series of major contributing
sources are discussed below in terms of their approaches towards: design, measurement &
modelling and application.
Design
While many step-by-step tutorials are available online, it proved difficult to find reputable
sources (such as textbooks, research papers, journal & conference articles) that dealt
directly with the detailed design and construction of PAMs, as the research tended to
focus more on mechanical modelling and only provided brief descriptions of how the
device was constructed and out of what materials they were made. Examples of these
descriptions can be seen below.
Bertrand Tondu mentions that the inner tubes are generally made out of thin walled
rubber/silicon/elastomer tubes and the mesh is made of nylon/PET/wire braided into a
double helix pattern. This can be seen in Figure 4 below [4].

Figure 4 - Tondu PAM Design (a) relaxed (b) contracted

Colbrunn et al. [6] suggests placing a latex tube inside braided electrical conduit,
plugging the ends of tube then folding it over and clamping it - forming a loop at either
end. A hole is then drilled in one plug for an air supply hose (see Figure 5 - Colbrunn et
al. PAM design).

Figure 5 - Colbrunn et al. PAM design

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Similarly Ferris et al. [8] provided a more comprehensive list of parts used in their for
their PAM powered Ankle-Foot Orthosis device (Figure 6):

latex tubing for the inner bladder

braided polyester sleeving for the muscle shell

plastic pneumatic fittings for the endcaps and nozzles

double ear hose clamps to seal the ends

Figure 6 - Ferris et al. PAM design

The descriptions above and their associated images were used in conjunction with the
technical specifications of commercially available PAM-based products (such as those
sold by the Shadow Robot Company in London: [9] and [10]) to provide a basis for the
final design used in this project, which is discussed in further detail in the Design section
of this report.
Increasingly complex PAM designs can be seen in [11] where Ellen T. Roche et al. use a
3D printed mould to cast inner tubes from elastomer to be embedded in elastomeric
matrix in effort to replicate biological soft tissue, as well as in [5] where Daerden &
Lefeber discuss pleated designs (Figure 7) which are used to control the orientation of
expansion/contraction and provide movement that is not only linear & tensile.

Figure 7 - Pleated Designs

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Measurement & Modelling
The work of others in this particular area of study helped to determine what mechanical
properties of a PAM should be tested as part of this project, as well as ideas on how to
test them. The experiments that were carried out are discussed in detail in the Testing
section of this report. Multiple sources also provided equations that characterised the
mechanical operation of PAMs (based on theoretical, simulated or empirical data) which
provided a baseline to compare the results of the mechanical testing carried out during
this project to. Significant work has been done on the measurement & modelling of PAMs
by Klute et al.[3], Tondu et al.[4], and Chou et al.[12]. Their contributions are discussed
below.
Klute et al. [3] compare their results to the Hill muscle model that characterizes the
output force of biological muscles with the equation (1) below:
[ + ][ + ] = [, + ]

(1)

where Fm is the muscle force, Vm is the muscle velocity, Fm,o is the muscle force at resting
length (lm,o) and the constants a & b are dependent on not only the species of interest but
also the type of muscle fibre.
For PAMs at a constant internal pressure, Klute et al.[3] plotted the relationships between
the output force vs. length and output force vs. velocity for multiple species and models,
using a tensile testing machine (Figure 8).

(a)

(b)

Figure 8 - Klute analysis (a) output force vs. length (b) output force vs. velocity

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FYP Report DCU
In this way they concluded that Hills muscle model could be used to design biorobotic
actuators, provided a hydraulic damper is placed in parallel with the artificial muscle.
Tondu [4] discusses how the initial braid angle of the mesh contributes majorly to the
efficacy of PAMs (Figure 9).

Figure 9 - Tondu braid angle analysis

Chou et al. [12] showed how the linear displacement of a PAM is related to changes in
pressure, for a constant tensile force. They investigate these relationships for multiple
designs of PAMs such as a one with a nylon mesh vs. one with a fiberglass mesh
(Figure 10).

Figure 10 - Chou Analysis

End effects mean that a PAM cant be modelled entirely as a cylinder. These effects are
reduced by increasing the length to diameter ratio to at least 14 according to Klute et al.
in [3].
Using the above information it was determined that this project would investigate how
linear contraction and radial expansion are related to varying degrees of pressure and
tensile forces for PAMs of different lengths, diameters and wall thicknesses - seen in
further detail in the Testing section of this report.
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Applications
The low power-to-weight ratio, natural compliance and mechanical similarity to
biological muscular skeletal system make PAMs an ideal actuator to use in robotics
applications that are attempting to replicate humanoid physical behaviours such as
walking, running and jumping. This idea of biomimicry can be seen Airics Arm (see
Figure 11 below), an anthropomorphic robot arm developed by Festo Corporate in
Germany [13].

(a)

(b)

Figure 11 - (a) The human arm, (b) xray images of Airic's arm

This product fits 30 pneumatic muscles onto artificial humanoid skeletal structure that
forms a shoulder, elbow and wrist joint assembly ending in an extremely dextrous hand.
They hope to use this technology in areas & environments that are deemed hazardous to
human health but still need the compliance & dexterity of a humans touch.
Another company developing commercially available PAM-based products are the
Shadow Robot Company based in London. They sell a PAM based dextrous hand [10] as
well as individual muscles [9]. This idea of biomimicry in relation to PAMs has been
discussed a book called Adaptive Motion of Animals and Machines [14] and replicated
in the form of bio-inspired PAM-based robots such as the bipedal robot, Lucy, from [15]
and the cockroach robot in [16]. This type of actuator has potential for surgical
applications or even artificial organ replacement, as seen in [17], [11] and [18].

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Project Development
The aim of this project is to design and build a PAM using sourced materials and conduct
experiments to explore the mechanical properties of its operation. It may also be
developed to show a possible application of this type of device. To achieve this, the
project was broken down into a series of major tasks, outlined in Table 1a and discussed
in further detail in the sections to follow. As well as the major tasks to complete, the
project was also subject to administrative milestones such as those included in Table 1b.

Tasks

Admin

Design

Material sourcing

Form submissions

Construction

Major assessments:

Testing

Meetings

o Status Report

o Design of Experiments

o Performance Assessment

o Measurements

o Interim Presentation

o Evaluation

o Final Report
o Oral Examination

Application example

o Poster Expo
(a)

(b)

Table 1 - Project Development (a) Tasks (b) Admin

The schedule for this project, as organised over the two semesters of the Dublin City
University academic calendar, is defined in Table 2 and Table 3:

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Semester #1

Week

Task

Detail

01
02
03

Project Selection and

Allocation

04
05

Supervisor Meeting
Background Reading

06

Introduction Chapter
written

07
08

Material Source
Initial Design Form
Equipment/Services
Requirement Form
Risk Assessment Form

09

Lead Time

10

Status Report Write

11
12

Status Report Due

Status Meeting
Performance

Available projects shortlisted to approx. 10, meetings

set up with supervisors to discuss in detail, weighed
against potential project from INTRA placement, final
project chosen & allocate
To discuss expectations, deadlines, etc.
Read-through of 10-15 reputable journals dealing with
FYP subject (cited at end of this document)
aim of the project, reason it was undertaken, main
activities/tasks, introduce the reader to the subject, how
the idea of the project had occurred, how the project is
related to other activities
Parts for prototype sourced online
Form signed off by supervisor & technicians and
submitted
Form signed off by supervisor & technicians and
submitted
Form signed off by supervisor & technicians and
submitted
Waiting for material to arrive (background research
continues)
Introduce project to reader, critical review of
background theory, possible solutions, project
plan/schedule, references & citations.
Status report submitted
Meeting with supervisor to discuss progress during
Semester #1 and plans for Semester #2
Student performance assessed by supervisor

Assessment
Material source

Various sizes and materials for mechanical testing in

Semester #2

Table 2 - Project Schedule (Semester #1)

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Semester #2

Week

Task

02
05

Interim
Presentation
Finalised Design
Due
Lead Time
Build

06
09

Testing
Analysis

01

Detail

Oral presentation of work to date and plan for completion

Form to be submitted
Waiting for material to arrive
Construction of parts (various sizes and materials) to be
tested for mechanical analysis
Mechanical testing starts (results gathered for report)
Data gathered from testing is analysed, using Pivot Table &
Pivot Charts.

10
11

Application
Example
Final Report Due
Oral Examination

12

Poster & Expo

Using data from testing, actuator is developed into working

example (e.g. robotic arm)
Submission of Final Report
Oral report of completed work and project/subject as a
whole
Presentation of project in brief and coherent way, in the
form of a poster for exhibition
Table 3- Project Schedule (Semester #2)

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Design
The design used for a PAM in this project was largely inspired by and based on those
seen in the Literature Review section of this report, in which an expandable inner tube is
contained within a braided mesh and clamped at either end. Methods of filling the inner
tube with compressed air, end clamp attachments, a test rig and safety screen also had to
be designed.
The design considerations and material sourcing of each of the major components are
discussed below. Please note a full list of components purchased and the technical
drawings of parts manufactured are included as an appendix to this report.
Tubes
The first component to be considered in terms of the design of a PAM were the tubes used
as the inner bladder. These are generally made of silicon, rubber or latex as long as the
material used is thin walled and expandable by compressed air in the region 0 - 100psi.
Other properties to be considered when selecting the inner tubes were:

Diameter

Wall thickness

Length

Material

The mechanical testing & analysis aspect of this project involved investigating various
values of the above parameters, meaning that the ideal supplier would have a large
selection of sizes/strengths available.
Materials considered included polyethylene plastic tubing (used in water treatment and
transport) and food/medical grade natural latex tubing. However, these proved to be
difficult to source in small quantities as most suppliers only sold bulk lengths for
industrial applications (100ft+) and also had a limited selection of the properties listed
above.
An American supplier, McMaster-Carr, was found to have a large selection of High
Temperature Silicon Tubing [19] - in various diameters and wall thicknesses as well as
appropriate lengths of 2 5ft. These were selected and purchased (Figure 12), the details
of which are available in the Appendix section of this report.

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Figure 12 - Tube selection (inter alia)

In effort to vary the tube material used during testing, domestically available solutions
were also purchased, such as bicycle inner tubes which are made of butyl rubber.
Note that the measurements used by the manufacture for both the tubes and meshes used
in this project were expressed using the Imperial standard (inches), but are represented in
Metric (mm) for the purposes of this report.
Mesh
The second component to be considered was the braided mesh, used to encase the inner
tube. This mesh forms double helical weave around the bladder and causes it to contract
lengthwise when expanded radially due to each overlap in the mesh acting as a scissors
linkage.
This braided mesh sleeve seemed to be commercially available in the form of flexible
electrical wiring conduits (or cable-tidy kits) for industrial and domestic use. One
product considered was the expandable sleeving sold by McMaster-Carr, which was made
from either polyester [20] or nylon [21].
However, a more cost efficient solution was found in the Flexo PET product sold by
Techflex Inc. which can be seen in Figure 13 below [22]. It is described as a versatile
bundling and protection solutionused in electronics, automotive, marine and industrial
wire harnessing applications where cost efficiency and durability are critical. [22]

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(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 13 (a) Flexo PET product (b) & (c) uses

The physical properties of this product, braided from 10mil* polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) monofilament yarns, can be seen below in Table 4. This and further details can be
found on the Flexo PET product specification page located at [22].
*mil = unit of length equal to one thousandth (103) of an inch or 0.0254mm
Physical Properties

Values

Monofilament Thickness (ASTM D-204)

0.10

Flammability Rating

UL-94

Recommended Cutting

Hot knife

Colours available

28

Wall Thickness

0.025

Tensile Strength - Yarn (ASTM D-2265) 7.5

lbs.
Abrasion Resistance

Medium

Specific Gravity

1.38

Moisture Absorption % (ASTM D-570)

0.1 0.2

Table 4 - Flexo PET Properties

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This product was available in a wide range of colours, sizes and expansion ranges. The
nominal mesh diameters (i.e. at rest or unexpanded) were selected & purchased to match
the outer diameters of the tubes used as the inner bladder of the PAM, ensuring a tight fit
and efficient energy transfer. The mesh could easily be cut to a desired length using a hot
knife to prevent fraying.
End clamp attachments
Once the tube has been placed inside the mesh, they have to be clamped at either end and
have some method of pumping compressed air into the inner bladder. This was achieved
using the End Clamp Attachment Subassembly seen in Figure 14:

T-piece

Push-in

Hosetail

Clevis

(a)

(b)
Figure 14 - End Clamp Attachment Subassembly (a) exploded view (b) assembled

The end clamp attachments use standard pneumatic fittings purchased from floMAX Ltd
[23], where the tube/mesh is secured over the barbed ribbed insert of a hosetail using a
jubilee clip (or hose clamp) to ensure it withstands the high pressures it will be subjected
to during testing. At one end, a simple t-piece connects the hosetail to a pneumatic pushin fitting where a 6mm pipe can be used to connect the PAM assembly to an industrial
compressed air supply.

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The sizes of the pneumatic fittings used were selected so that the hosetail would fit the
tube/mesh pair with the largest nominal/unexpanded diameter. This meant that any of the
other smaller tube/mesh pairs could be stretched over the same hosetail without the risk of
it slipping off under high pressure. This multifunctional modular design reduced costs by
being able to build only one pair of end clamp attachments that multiple sizes of
tube/mesh pairs could be fitted onto and tested.
A fork clevis is also fitted at either end of the PAM assembly. This is similar to the end
effectors that would be included at the rod-end of a standard pneumatic cylinder, allowing
this PAM design to be easily attached to various applications that standard pneumatic
cylinders would have been used in. This clevis had to be machined in-house however, as
even though it is a relatively standard component, there was an issue with matching
thread types. The only clevises available for purchase online seemed to have a UNF
(Unified National Fine) thread standard whereas the other pneumatic fittings were BSP
(British Standard Pipe) thread type. Therefore, a simple fork clevis was designed (Figure
15a) & manufactured (Figure 15b) with a BSP female thread, for which the technical
drawings are included as an appendix to this report.

(a)

(b)

Figure 15 - Clevis (a) drawings (b) manufactured component

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PAM assembly
The assembled PAM can be seen here, in Figure 16:

Mesh

Tube

End Clamp

Jubilee clip

(a)

(b)
Figure 16 - PAM Assembly (a) exploded view (b) assembled

Pneumatic Control & Regulation

The set up used to control & regulate the flow & pressure of the industrial compressed air
supply for this project can be seen in the pneumatic circuit diagram below in Figure 17a.
This was achieved using, the following components (Figure 17b), again purchased from
floMAX [23]:

AS3 Pressure Regulator with 1/2inch ports and pressure gauge capable of
regulating pressures up to 10bar (or 145psi)

Manually operated Hand Slide Valve with Vent and 1/2inch female threads

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(a)

(b)

Figure 17- Pneumatic (a) Circuit Diagram & (b) Components

A simple thread adapter (Figure18a) was also designed using a 6mm Presta valve from
the inner tube of a racer type road bicycle (Figure18b) that allowed the PAM to be
manually operated by a standard commercially available bicycle pump (Figure18c)
which was capable of generating pressures of up to 100psi. This meant that experiments
could be replicated without access to industrial air supply.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 18 - (a) thread adapter (b) presta valve (c) bicycle pump

However, this method proved to be ineffective for accurate testing as without a regular
compressed air supply, small leakages in the system meant that the internal pressure of
the PAM couldnt be held constant for prolonged periods of time. It was useful, however
for proof-of-concept presentations in locations where an industrial air supply wasnt
available.
Thread seal tape was used at all connection points to minimize leaks.

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Test Rig & Safety Cage
The test rig designed for this experiment can be seen in Figure 19a, for which the
technical drawings are included as an appendix to this report.
It consists of a rectangular baseplate with two upright bars connected by a horizontal
brace. The PAM would be suspended vertically from the brace, where weights could be
hung from the opposite end and dimensional measurements taken as the pressure is
varied. Further detail on the design of these experiments can be seen in the Testing
section of this report.
The 400mm x 250mm baseplate was tapped with a series of M10 threaded holes, meaning
the width of the two upright bars could be changed if required. These uprights were made
out of lengths of M10 threaded bar, meaning the height of the brace from which the PAM
was suspended could be altered also. These variable dimension design choice allowed for
a certain freedom of movement in the test rig to accommodate multiple sizes of PAM
designs and catered for potential changes to future testing.

(a)

(b)
Figure 19 - (a) Test Rig (b) Safety Cage

There are inherent risks when using industrial compressed air and operating prototype
designs at high pressures - these risks are discussed in further detail in the Ethics &
Responsible Engineering section of this report. To minimize these risks, a safety cage
(Figure 19b) was constructed from a wooden frame with perspex screens designed to fit
over the entire test rig to protect the operator from any potential catastrophic failures at
high pressures. A sheet of perspex on one side was removed to allow measurements to be
taken.
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Full Setup Assembly
The fully assembled PAM & test rig can be seen below, in Figure 20:

Figure 20 - Full Assembly

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Testing
Design of Experiments
The mechanical tests carried out during this project investigated how various physical
properties of the tube/mesh used affected the operating behaviour of the PAM.
The tests carried out investigated the impact of the following PAM properties:

Original outer diameter of tube

Original length of tube

Wall thickness of tube

Size of mesh

Material from which tube was made

The operating behaviour of the PAM was measured by recording its linear contraction
and radial expansion for various combinations of internal pressures and applied load.
In simpler terms, this test set up showed how various tube properties affected what
distance different weights were lifted by the muscle when it was pumped to different
pressures and by how much this action caused the muscle to expand.
The test rig used (Figure 20) consisted of a rectangular baseplate with two upright bars
connected by a horizontal brace. The PAM would be suspended vertically from the brace,
where weights could be hung from the opposite end and dimensional measurements taken
as the pressure is varied.
The linear contraction and radial expansion were measured using a digital Vernier
callipers and expressed as a percentage of the original length/diameters. The load/applied
weight was determined using calibrated newton weights hung from the free hanging end
of the PAM. Pressure was read from the gauge of the regulator.
Comparing the effect of the material from which the tube was made was done by carrying
out these tests on PAMs with bladders made from the inner tubes of bicycles to show how
a simple, cheap and domestically available solution compares. This experiment will be
referred to as a Material test from this point forth, as the bicycle tubes are made from
butyl rubber and not silicon.

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A basic fatigue test was also carried out where by the maximum weight available was
applied, PAM was pumped to maximum safe pressure and left overnight to see the
effects.
It is predicted that the combination of the above properties that would result in the best
PAM behaviour (i.e. maximum tensile/lifting force generated for a minimum input
pressure) would be a tube thin walls, an original length to width ratio of at least 14 that
would make the end effects negligible [3] and a mesh that was tightly fitting when fully
relaxed.
Method
The test process involved for investigating changes to original diameter are outlined
below (see Figure 21 for reference):
1. Three tubes of different diameter but the same length, wall thickness and material
are selected to use as the inner bladder of the PAM.
2. Tube with diameter value #1 is inserted into the appropriately fitting mesh and
tightly secured to end effector attachments using jubilee clips.
3. The assembled PAM is now set up in the test rig with no weights hung from it, i.e.
unloaded.
4. The following safety checks are performed before connecting air supply to PAM:
a. Air supply wall outlet valve is closed
b. Pressure regulator is turned all the way down (0psi)
c. Exhaust valve is open
5. PAM is now connected to air supply, using 6mm tubing and push-in fitting at top
of PAM.
6. With safety cage placed over entire test rig and safety glasses worn, the wall outlet
valve opened and exhaust valve closed.
7. With pressure at 0psi, the length and diameter of the muscle is recorded.
8. Pressure is increased to 10psi and new length/diameter is recorded.
9. Step (8) is repeated for incrementally increasing values of pressure, in increments
of 10psi, until muscle is seen to no longer be contracting between increments or
50psi is reached.
10. At this point pressure is reduced to 0psi, exhaust valve opened and wall outlet
closed. PAM should now return to original relaxed position.
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11. A weight is now hung from the free hanging end of the PAM and Steps (6) (10)
are repeated under loaded condition.
12. Steps (6) (11) are repeated for various degrees of applied weight.
13. Steps (2) (12) are repeated for the tubes with diameter values #2 and #3,
ensuring

the

outlined

safety

precautions

are

taken

when

disconnecting/reconnecting PAM

(Step #1)

(Step #4) - Regulator

(Step #2)

(Step #4) Air supply

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(Step #3)

(Step #4) Exhaust

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(Step #5)

(Step #6) Safety Cage

(Step #6) Air Supply

(Step #6) Exhaust

(Step #8)

(Step #6) Glasses

(Step #7)

(Step #11)
Figure 21 - Method

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Note that the above process is the same when investigating changes to the following
properties:

Original length - three tubes of different length but equal diameter, wall thickness
and mesh covering are selected.

Wall thickness two tubes of different wall thickness but equal diameter, length
and mesh covering are selected.

Mesh - two meshes of different relaxed diameters are selected and used to cover
tubes of equal diameter, length and wall thickness.

As mentioned before, this process was also repeated on PAMs with bladders made from
the inner tubes of bicycles. The tubes used in this experiment were the standard 26inch
Mountain Bike (MTB) inner tubes and 700c racer-type road tire inner tubes. The details
of all of the tubes used in each experiment are outlined below in Table 5, including a
unique identifying code used for data collection and record keeping purposes and also
the size of the mesh used in the PAM assembly:
Test

Diameter

Length

Thickness

Mesh

Material

Code

Diam.

Length

Thick.

Tube

Mesh

(mm)

(mm)

(mm)

Material

(mm)

5236K531

31.625

200

6.35

Silicon

31.75

5236K528

25.3

200

6.35

Silicon

31.75

5236K524

18.975

200

6.35

Silicon

31.75

5236K525

18.975

100

3.175

Silicon

31.75

5236K525

18.975

200

3.175

Silicon

31.75

5236K525

18.975

300

3.175

Silicon

31.75

5236K524

18.975

200

3.175

Silicon

31.75

5236K525

18.975

200

1.5875

Silicon

31.75

5236K525

18.975

200

1.5875

Silicon

31.75

5236K525

18.975

200

1.5875

Silicon

25.4

26inch MTB

Butyl rubber

31.75

700c Road

Butyl rubber

31.75

Table 5 - Testing Tube Details

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Results & Discussion

Observations
A number of observations were made during testing, these include:

Failure at high pressure was always due the tube/mesh slipping from the end
clamps rather than rupture.

Failure would happen at lower pressures when higher weight was applied.

Failure would happen at lower pressures for tubes with smaller diameters as it was
difficult to stretch tube over hosetail which meant there was less tube in contact
with hosetail to generate friction to prevent grip slip failure.

An upper limit of 50-60psi was implemented for safety after a small number of
failures were observed above these pressures.

Hysteresis was observed. Different levels of linear contraction & radial expansion
were seen depending on whether pressure was increased or decreased, i.e. values
of length/width measured at 30psi when preceded by 20psi were different than the
length/width values measured at 30psi when preceded by 40psi.
The following analysis investigates how changing various PAM design parameters
affected its performance. Performance was determined by measuring the linear
contraction of the muscle (as a percentage if its original length) as it was pressurized and
required to lift different weights.
The analysis was done using Pivot Tables & Pivot Charts within Microsoft Excel, which
are tools that can quickly summarize & graph large amounts of data by allowing you to
compare multiple column/row headings against each other in an intuitive drag-and-drop
graphical interface.
A sample set of results is included as an appendix to this report.

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Pressure
Figure 22 below shows how the internal pressure of the PAM relates to the average
change in length for various applied weights, thus showing how pressure affects PAM
performance.

Effect of Pressure
30

Change in Legnth (cm)

25
20
0N
9.81 N

15

20 N
10

50 N
100 N

0
0

10

20
Pressure (psi)

30

40

Figure 22 Pressure

It shows that the greatest change in distance occurs between 10 and 20psi. Because of
this, any analysis to follow is limited to 40psi which will aid comparison.
Increasing the pressure beyond maximum contraction no longer affects the tensile force
generated but seems to increase the stiffness of the static muscle i.e. the spring-like
elastic compliance is reduced and the load doesnt bounce as much. This could be useful
if the PAM is required to hold a load in a steady position.
The graph also shows that the PAM was very capable of lifting any weight up to 100N, as
there was very little difference in performance between 0N and 100N. This investigated
in further detail below.

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Weight
The graph in Figure 23 below shows how the performance of multiple PAM designs are
affected by weight they are required to lift. The average result can been seen as the black
dotted line, which shows on average a PAM will contract approx. 23% of its original
length when zero newtons are applied and this value will drop to approx. 17% when
100N is applied.

Effect of Weight
small diameter
med diameter
large diamter
short length
med length
long length
thin wall
thick wall
small mesh
big mesh
26inch MTB
700c Road
average

28
26

Contraction (%)

24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10

20

40
60
Applied Weight (N)

80

100

Figure 23 - Weight

Contraction & Expansion

The graphs in Figure 24 below (continued on next page) shows that linear contraction
(blue) and radial expansion (red) are directly related, for all values of applied weight.
0N
25

40

35
30
25

15

20
10

15
10

0
0

10

20
Pressure (psi)

(a)
29

30

40

Expansion (%)

COntraction (%)

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15
10
5

0
10

20
Pressure (psi)

30

15
10
5
0

40

10

20

30

40

Pressure (psi)

(b)

(c)

50 N

100 N

20

45

20

45
40

40
35

30

25
20

15

Contraction (%)

30
10

10
0

-5

10

20

30

Pressure (psi)

25

10

20

15

10
5

5
0

35

15

Expansion

Contraction (%)

15

Expansion (%)

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5

20

Contraction (%)

Contraction (%)

20

25

Expansion ()%

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10

40 0

-5

-5

(d)

10

20

30

40

Pressure (psi)

0
-5
-10

(e)

Figure 24 - Contraction vs. Expansion at (a) 0N (b) 10N (c) 20N (d) 50N (e) 100N

The greatest percentage contraction achieved by any PAM design tested at 40psi was
done by a 239mm long PAM with a bladder made from 26inch MTB bicycle tube that
contracted 26.78% of its original length when lifting zero newtons, closely followed by
26.67% from a 300mm long PAM with a silicon bladder of wall thickness 1.5875mm and
diameter 18.975mm again unloaded.

30

Expansion (%)

20 N

10 N
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Diameter
In this test three tubes of different diameter but the same length, wall thickness, mesh
covering and material were selected to use as the inner bladder of the PAM. The results
can be seen in Figure 25 where the average* percentage contraction for each diameter
value is shown for incrementally increasing pressures. The diameter values that the graph
refers to are: small = 18.975mm, medium = 25.3mm, large = 31.625mm
*Note: the average here refers to the average percentage contraction @ each pressure
Weight (N)for different applied weights.
value
Average of small Average of med Average of large

Effect of Diameter

Contraction (%)

25
20
15
10
5
0
0

10

20

30

Average of small

40

10

20

30

Average of med

40

10

20

30

40

Average of large

Values Pressure (psi)

Figure 25 - Diameter

It shows that the best performing diameter value was 25.3mm - as for values of 20, 30 and
40psi it resulted in greater percentage contraction that the other two diameter values. This
was consistent over all applied weights. It also shows that the percentage contraction
generally increases as pressure increases and confirms that the greatest percentage
contraction occurs between 10 and 20psi.

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Length
In this test three tubes of different length but equal diameter, wall thickness, mesh and
material were tested. The results can be seen in Figure 26, where the length values tested
were: short = 123mm, medium = 215mm, long = 315mm. The negative contraction values
refer to the linear extension observed when a weight is applied, causing the PAM to
stretch downwards.

Weight (N)

Average of short Average of med Average of long

Effect of Length
25

Contraction (%)

20
15

10
5
0
-5

10

20

30

Average of short

40

10

20

30

Average of med

40

10

20

30

40

Average of long

Values Pressure (psi)

Figure 26 Length

Figure 26 also shows that the longest muscle performs marginally better than the muscle
of medium length and definitely better than the shortest. This could be due to end effects
being more significant for the shorter muscle, meaning it cant be accurately modelled as
a cylinder with straight walls and therefore the angle of overlap of the braids cant
effectively change to cause contraction. The marginal difference between medium and
long muscles show that there is a limit to how much the cylindrical modelling can be
improved by length meaning beyond a certain length, there wont be any more
improvement in percentage contraction performance.

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Thickness
In this test two tubes of different wall thickness but equal diameter, length, mesh and
material were selected. The results can be seen in Figure 27 where the thinner walls were
1.5875mm and the thicker walls were 3.175mm.
This shows clearly that tubes with thin walls perform much better in PAMs as the
maximum percentage contraction for thin walls is approx. 24% when compared with 15%
for thick walls.
This is due to energy being lost in inflating the tube itself because the thicker walls make
it stiffer and provides greater resistance to inflation meaning there is a less direct transfer
Weight (N)

of energy between the inflating tube and the mesh.

Average of thin Average of thick

Effect of Thickness
25

Contraction (%)

20

15
10
5

0
0
-5

10

20

30

40

Average of thin

10

20

30

Average of thick

Values Pressure (psi)

Figure 27 - Thickness

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Mesh
A test was carried out to see if using a bigger mesh for the same tube had any effect on
performance, the results of which can be seen in Figure 28 where the bigger mesh had a
Weight (N)

nominal diameter of 31.75mm and the smaller mesh was 25.4mm

Average of small Average of big

Effect of Mesh
30

Contraction (%)

25
20
15
10

5
0

-5

10

20

30

40

Average of small

10

20

30

40

Average of big

Values Pressure (psi)

Figure 28 - Mesh

This shows that there was no significant difference in linear contraction or weight lifting
abilities between bigger and smaller meshes. However, there was greater radial
expansion. Therefore, using a bigger mesh can be considered a disimprovement because a
smaller mesh could do the same job in a smaller space and less have energy loss between
tube and mesh, i.e. lost by tube expanding before effective contact with mesh.

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Material
PAMs with bladders made from the inner tubes of bicycles were then tested. The tubes
used in this experiment were the standard 26inch Mountain Bike (MTB) inner tubes and
700c racer-type road tire inner tubes. Figure 29 shows that when compared with the
closest silicon tube the 700c was a disimprovement but not only did the MTB match its
performance at 40psi, it performed better at lower pressures.
This was due to its slightly thinner walls and different material (butyl rubber) making the
MTB tube more flexible and less resistant to inflation.
MTB tube was also the least expensive option as it was recycled from punctured bicycle
Weight (N)

tubing.

Average of Silicon Average of 26inch MTB Average of 700c Road

Effect of Material
25

Contraction (%)

20
15
10
5
0
0

-5

10

20

30

Average of Silicon

40

10

20

30

40

Average of 26inch MTB

10

20

30

40

Average of 700c Road

Values Pressure (psi)

Figure 29 - Material

Fatigue
A 200mm long PAM with 26inch MTB inner tube was subjected to a weight of 100N and
pressurized to 50psi. The length/width values were measured and it was then left
overnight for a total period of 16hrs, after which the length/width values were measured
again. The result was zero dimensional change, meaning that the pressurized PAM, even
when lifting the maximum weight available, was not affected by static fatigue.

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Application Example
To show how a PAM could be used to actuate simple mechanisms, a standard medical
anatomically-accurate skeleton with free moving joints was obtained from the Clinical
Education Centre in DCU School of Nursing. PAMs were mounted to it with jubilee clips
(tightened over rubber spacers, made from scrap tubing, to prevent damage to skeleton)
and used as basic biological muscle analogues operate various joints around the body. A
series of musculoskeletal actions were performed using the PAM and are outlined below.
Note that the medical terminology used and associated images were taken from the
original anatomical textbook, Gray's Anatomy : The Anatomical Basis of Clinical
Practice by Henry Gray [24].

Action:

Hip Flexion

Description:

Lifting leg in front of body (Figure 30b and Figure 30c)

Muscles involved: Quadriceps, focus on rectus femoris and illiopsoas (Figure 30a)

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 30 - Hip Flexion (a) representative muscle (b) PAM relaxed (c) PAM contracted

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Action:

Elbow flexion

Description:

Bending of elbow (Figure 31b and Figure 31c)

Muscles involved: Biceps brachii (Figure 31a)

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 31 - Elbow Flexion (a) representative muscle (b) PAM relaxed (c) PAM contracted

Action:

Knee Flexion

Description:

Bending of knee (Figure 32b and Figure 32c)

Muscles involved: Hamstrings, focus on biceps femoris (Figure 32a)

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 32 - Knee Flexion (a) representative muscle (b) PAM relaxed (c) PAM contracted

Please note that a link to videos of this demonstration (and other basic PAM operations
carried out during this project) is included as an appendix to this report.
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Ethics and Responsible Engineering

The impact of the technology used in this project in relation to society and the
environment is discussed below. A structured risk analysis of the health & safety
concerns of this project is also included.
PAMs use compressed air (CA) as an energy source. This is an ethically responsible
choice as CA is easily gathered, infinitely available and does not cause pollution when
exhausted to atmosphere [2]. Therefore, using CA as an energy source can be considered
environmentally friendly. However if CA was considered in terms of a Life Cycle
Assessment, as defined in [25] and [26], the environmental impact of each stage of the
products life cycle would have to be assessed described as cradle-to-grave analysis.
Using this method, each stage of the production/usage of CA and its effect on the
environment is briefly discussed in Table 6:
Life Cycle Stage

Impact

Raw Material Extraction

Air is infinitely available to be gathered but energy is

required to compress it before use.

Processing/Manufacture

Main environmental impact of using CA comes from the

method used to compress it; therefore the efficiency of
industrial air compressors is important.

Distribution

Once air is compressed to desire pressure, it requires little

energy to distribute.

Use

Tight seals prevent unwanted leakage.

Repair/Maintenance

When

pneumatic

appliance

requires

repair

or

maintenance, the air supply to that section can be shut off

and therefore there will be little to no wastage or energy
loss.
Disposal/Recycling

CA can be vented to atmosphere without causing pollution.

Table 6 - Life Cycle Assessment

Therefore, CA can only be considered an ethically responsible energy source if the

compression methods used are efficient and pollutant free.
With regards to societal impact, pneumatic actuation can applied areas where electricity
isnt suitable, such as spark-free combustible environments [2] or underwater, making
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these areas safer to work in for human operators and reducing the risk of personal or
property damage due to failure. The use of PAMs in particular, over other types of
pneumatic equipment, contribute to a safe workplace environment as the inherent
compliance of the device tends to increase user safety and also reduces noise. However,
there may be increased risks when using PAMs also, largely based around pneumatic
failure from puncture or tube/mesh slipping from clamps when under pressure - the latter
of which was as observed in this project. A risk analysis of these and other hazards is
included below in Table 7 which identifies/categorizes the risk, assesses its likelihood
and suggests an action required to minimize it.
Hazard

Consequences

Likelihood

Action required

High pressure failure

High

Medium

Perspex safety cage constructed

due to
puncture/tearing

Safety glasses worn

Pressure limit of 50psi

High pressure failure

Medium

Medium

implemented when testing

due to clamp slip

Pressure regulation & control
included redundancy to ensure
pressure is never accidentally
left on:
1. Air supply wall outlet
valve is closed
2. Pressure regulator is
turned all the way down
(0psi)
3. Exhaust valve is open

Trip hazard due to

Low

Low

pneumatic tubing

Tubing lengths kept to

minimum, tracked neatly and
above foot level.

Table 7 - Risk Assessment

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Note these risks stem from the use of compressed air and pneumatic testing in general.
Air stored at high pressure has high potential energy that is converted to kinetic energy if
catastrophic failure occurs. A small puncture or leak can quickly lead to major rupture
and a significant explosion. It is because of this that the above Risk Assessment must be
completed and followed. Also, if PAMs were to be developed for application, it would be
recommended to include a built-in high pressure release cut off valve that would prevent
catastrophic failures due to excessive pressures.
When considering the implications of Ethics & Responsible Engineering in relation to
this project the End of Life/Recyclability of materials used must be considered. Major
materials used in this project include: silicone & butyl rubber (tubes) and PET (mesh).
According to [27], less than 3% of silicone is released to the environment at end-of-life
with the rest being removed via adsorption onto sewage sludge during wastewater
treatment which has no adverse effects on terrestrial or aquatic organisms. Butyl rubber
does not degrade but is not considered an environmental concern by [28] as it is easily
recycled. In fact, the butyl rubber tubes used in this project were upcycled from
punctured bicycle inner tubes, making their use inherently environmentally friendly.
100% of PET plastic can be recycled and this is often done by soft drink companies
around the world, where they use PET for bottles, according to [29].
There are also ethical issues to be considered when writing the report for this project. The
data reported here is obtained from testing relatively small sample sizes meaning that they
wont necessarily reflect the behaviour of the entire population accurately and therefore
any conclusions drawn can only be made within a certain confidence. Plagiarism is also
avoided in this report by properly citing any work than isnt that of the author, in the
IEEE Citation & Referencing format. A full list of references is included.

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Conclusions
From the results of the mechanical testing, it can be concluded that the combination of
physical characteristics that would result in the best performing PAM design would be a
thin walled (less than 2mm) recycled butyl rubber tube of approx. 25mm diameter and
200-300mm length inserted in a mesh that would be tightly fitting when in relaxed
positon. This design would be capable of lifting 100N+ a distance equal to approx. 27%
of its original length at a pressure of 40psi (considered the upper limit for safety).

Recommendations for Future Work

The area of control could be explored in future work. Any functional application of PAMs
(robotics, industrial, biomedical, orthotics, etc.) requires control of their movement. The
elastic compliance of these devices makes accurate control and placement difficult.
However, a number of papers discuss suitable control methods & solutions including:

neural network control in [30], [31], [32]

Fuzzy control [33],[34]

Nonlinear PID control [35]

The musculoskeletal application example exhibited in this report is a simplification of

biological muscle movement for demonstration purposes only. More work could be done
using PAMs to accurately replicate human movement, strength and dexterity. For
example when bending the elbow to lift a weight, more than just the bicep is involved.
Larger back muscles contribute, as well other muscles that lock the wrist straight and
finger tendons that providing grip strength. Multiple muscles also help to contribute to
multiaxis flexibility, which would be implemented on PAM-based humanoid robot.
Biological muscles contract to approx. one third their original length. The PAMs in this
project were observed to contract to a maximum of 26%. More work could be done to
improve this contraction even beyond human capability. For example, in real muscles
contraction occurs along entire distance between insertion points (points at which muscle
attaches to bone), whereas PAMs have some ineffective (non-contracting) lengths in the
form of end clamp attachments and therefore some percentage contraction is lost in this
distance when mounted to a joint reducing the ineffective lengths in PAM could
contribute to a better overall contraction.

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References
[1]

A. Parr, Hydraulics and Pneumatics, 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.

[2]

E. Ponomareva, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators and their Application Areas,

Mechatronics-Foundations Appl., pp. 124, 2006.

[3]

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Available:

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Environmental

43

Chemistry.

Springer-Verlag,

Berlin:

Andrew Kavanagh ME4

FYP Report DCU

Appendix
Materials List
Group Item

MESH

TUBE

Code

Supplier

Cost

Quantity Total

TECHFLEX PTN1.25 FLEXO

PET (PT)

T
PTN125BK1

Hypex Ltd

2.97

5.94

TECHFLEX PTN1.00 FLEXO

PET (PT)

TPTN1BK

Hypex Ltd

2.17

2.17

TECHFLEX PTN0.75 FLEXO

PET (PT)

T
PTN0.75NG1

Hypex Ltd

2.17

2.17

TECHFLEX PTN0.63 FLEXO

PET (PT)

T
PTN0.63BK1

Hypex Ltd

2.17

2.17

High-Temperature Silicone
Rubber Tubing Very Soft, 1" ID,
1-1/4" OD

5236K531

McMasterCarr

14.22

14.22

High-Temperature Silicone
Rubber Tubing Very Soft, 3/4" ID,
1" OD

5236K528

McMasterCarr

11.14

11.14

High-Temperature Silicone
Rubber Tubing Very Soft, 1/2" ID,
3/4" OD,

5236K24

McMasterCarr

8.76

8.76

High-Temperature Silicone
Rubber Tubing Semisoft, 5/8" ID,
3/4" OD, Semi-Clear White

51135K48

McMasterCarr

11.35

11.35

High-Temperature Silicone
Rubber Tubing Soft, 5/8" ID, 3/4"
OD, Semi-Clear White

5236K48

McMasterCarr

10.40

10.40

High-Temperature Silicone
Rubber Tubing Very Soft, 5/8" ID,
3/4" OD,

5236K525

McMasterCarr

13.25

13.25

High-Temperature Silicone
Rubber Tubing Very Soft, 3/8" ID,
3/4" OD

5236K521

McMasterCarr

10.94

10.94

High-Temperature Silicone
Rubber Tubing Very Soft, 3/8" ID,
5/8" OD,

5236K519

McMasterCarr

17.50

17.50

(Continued on next page)

44

Andrew Kavanagh ME4

FYP Report DCU

Group

Item

Code

Supplier Cost

Quantity

Total

FITTINGS

Hose tail

HT121

floMAX

4.31

8.62

T-piece

ETFFM12

floMAX

6.99

13.98

Push-in Stem

APC6-04

floMAX

2.48

12.4

Blanking Plug

HPT12

floMAX

1.85

1.85

Pressure Regulator

R412007121

floMAX

59.60

59.60

Slide Exhaust

HSV12F

floMAX

15.58

15.58

Brace

n/a

DCU

n/a

n/a

Threaded Bar

n/a

DCU

n/a

n/a

Clevis

n/a

DCU

n/a

n/a

Baseplate

n/a

DCU

n/a

n/a

Thread Adapter

n/a

DCU

n/a

n/a

WORKSHOP

TOTAL: 222.04

45

Andrew Kavanagh ME4

FYP Report DCU
Drawings

46

Andrew Kavanagh ME4

FYP Report DCU

47

Andrew Kavanagh ME4

FYP Report DCU

48

Andrew Kavanagh ME4

FYP Report DCU
Sample Results Data

49

Andrew Kavanagh ME4

FYP Report DCU
Video links
Please follow the link below to view a playlist of videos from this project, listed here:
1. PAM basic operation, no load, fast
2. PAM basic operation, 50N load, fast
3. PAM basic operation, 50N, slow
4. Application Example, Skeleton, Elbow Flexion
5. Application Example, Skeleton, Hip Flexion
6. Application Example, Skeleton, Knee Flexion

LINK: http://tiny.cc/fyp

Andrew Kavanagh
ME4 12449652
andrew.kavanagh42@mail.dcu.ie

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