Geological Sequestration of Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide in the

Western Canada Sedimentary Basin: Suitability Analysis

STEFAN BACHU and S. STEWART
Alberta Geological Survey
Alberta Energy and Utilities Board
Abstract
Geological sequestration of anthropogenic CO2 is a potential solution to the release into
the atmosphere of CO2, a greenhouse gas thought as significantly contributing to the
global warming trend observed since the beginning of the industrial revolution. Basically,
CO2 can be sequestered in geological media: 1) through enhanced oil recovery (EOR), 2)
by storage in depleted oil and gas reservoirs, 3) through replacement by CO2 of methane
in deep coal beds (ECBMR), 4) by injection into deep saline aquifers, and 5) by storage
in salt caverns. Criteria in assessing the suitability of a sedimentary basin for CO2
sequestration are: a) tectonism and geology, b) the flow of formation waters and
geothermal regime, and c) the existence of storage media (hydrocarbon reservoirs, coal
seams, deep aquifers and salt structures).
Generally, the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin is suitable for CO2 sequestration by
all means because it is tectonically stable, it has regional-scale aquifers confined by
aquitards or aquicludes, and has oil and gas reservoirs in various stages of depletion,
uneconomic coal seams, and extensive salt beds. However, various regions in the basin
have different degrees of suitability that range from not suitable along the eastern edge of
the basin, to extremely suitable in southwestern and central Alberta. Most major CO2
producers, such as power plants and refineries around Edmonton, are found in regions
that are suitable for CO2 sequestration in geological media; however, some, such as the
oil sands plants in the Athabasca area, are in regions that are not suitable. This analysis of
the suitability of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin for CO2 sequestration in
geological media should provide industry and governments with essential information
needed for developing plans and policies in response to climate change effects of
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere.
Introduction
Human activity since the industrial revolution had the effect of increasing atmospheric
concentrations of gases with a greenhouse effect, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and
methane (CH4), leading to climate warming and weather changes(1, 2). Because of its
relative abundance compared with the other greenhouse gases, CO2 is by far the most
important, being responsible for about 64% of the enhanced greenhouse effect(1). On a
sectoral basis, the energy sector contributes globally the most (45%) to anthropogenic
(produced by human activity) effects on climate change(3). The high use of fossil fuels
(85% of the worlds energy needs), foreseen to continue well into the future(2, 4), is the
major contributor to increased emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere. Thus, a major

challenge in mitigating anthropogenic (man-made) effects on climate change is the

reduction of these emissions.
Figure 1 shows Canadas profile in CO2 emissions by sector and by province. The profile
of CO2 emissions in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin is different from the national
and other regions profile because the basin is a major North American producer of fossil
fuels. In addition, because of the abundance of cheap fossil fuels, mainly coal, the power
generation in Alberta and Saskatchewan is thermally based, unlike in the rest of Canada
where it is mainly nuclear or hydroelectric. The major CO2 producers in the basin
(>100,000 t/yr) and their location are shown in Figure 2. These sources produce ~113
MtCO2/yr in Alberta, ~21 MtCO2/yr in Saskatchewan, ~4 MtCO2/yr in northeastern BC,
and ~2 MtCO2/yr in Manitoba (2000 figures).
No single category of mitigation measures is sufficient and many of them are mutually
dependent, including both a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and the enhancement
of greenhouse gas sinks(5). More costly mitigation approaches need to be considered,
foremost among them being CO2 capture and sequestration, whose costs are comparable
to those for nuclear or renewable energy options(6). In this context, sequestration is the
removal of CO2, either directly from anthropogenic sources, or from the
atmosphere, and disposing of it either permanently or for geologically-significant
time periods. For landlocked regions, such as the Canadian Prairies, CO2 sequestration
in geological media is the best option currently available for the long-term sequestration
of CO2(7). Since fossil fuels and power generation are linked with sedimentary basins(8),
geological sequestration has the added advantage of lower overall transportation costs.
The technology for gas and oil storage and of deep injection of acid gas and industrial
liquid waste is well developed and practiced mainly by the energy industry. Depending
on the type of CO2 disposal and trapping mechanism, the residence time may be up to
several million years(9, 10). Cost, local environmental issues and public perception may
need addressing for large-scale implementation of CO2 sequestration, but these are issues
common to all mid- to long-term CO2 sequestration technologies.
Geological Sinks for CO2
At normal atmospheric conditions, CO2 is a very stable gas heavier than air. For
temperatures >31.1 oC and pressures >7.38 MPa (critical point), CO2 is in a supercritical
state, behaving like a gas by filling all the available volume and having a liquid density
that increases with pressure from 200 to more than 1000 kg/m3 (Figure 3). For conditions
below the critical point, CO2 is either a gas or a liquid, depending on temperature and
pressure (Figure 3). Thus, knowledge of the geothermal and pressure regimes in a basin is
critical for establishing the physical state and density of CO2 at in-situ conditions(11). For
depths below both the 31.1oC isotherm and 7.38 MPa isobar, CO2 will be in super-critical
state. For shallower depths, CO2 will be in either liquid or gaseous phase, depending on
temperature and pressure. Other relevant properties are CO2 solubility in water, which
decreases with increasing water salinity, and CO2 affinity to coal, which is almost twice
as high as that of methane, a gas abundantly found in coal beds. These properties of CO2

and various other criteria play a role in the selection of the appropriate means and sites
for CO2 disposal and sequestration in geological media.
Carbon dioxide is currently used worldwide in more than 70 tertiary enhanced oil
recovery (EOR) operations to increase oil mobility and to displace up to 40 % of the
residual oil left after primary production and water flooding(12), but the total amount that
can ultimately be sequestered in EOR operations is very small compared with CO2
sources(13). Injecting CO2 into coal beds that are too deep or uneconomic for coal mining
presents the additional advantage of producing methane (14), as in the San Juan basin(15).
Hydrocarbon reservoirs in structural and stratigraphic traps have demonstrated good
storage and sealing characteristics over geological time, thus they can be used for CO2
sequestration once a reservoir is depleted and no longer producing. Closed depleted gas
reservoirs represent the most straightforward case of CO2 sequestration in geological
media, as primary recovery usually removes as much as 95% of the original gas in place
and CO2 can be used to re-pressurize the reservoir to its original pressure. However,
increasing the pressure beyond the original reservoir pressure could pose problems of
reservoir integrity and safety(16).
Carbon dioxide can be hydrodynamically trapped(9) in deep aquifers for geological
periods of time. This is because of slow spreading away from the injection well and of
hydrodynamic dispersion in the aquifer once outside the well radius of influence(17), and
of extremely long residence time due to the very low velocity of formation waters(9).
Some of the injected CO2 will dissolve in the water and the rest will form a plume that
will override at the top of the aquifer(9, 17, 18). Iinjection of CO2 in local flow systems is
not recommended because these are shallow, have a relatively short travel time, and have
temperatures and pressures at which CO2 is in gaseous phase. Under these conditions,
CO2 will most probably override at the top of the aquifers and may escape into the
atmosphere at outcrop. In addition, the injected CO2 may contaminate shallow
groundwater resources. Sequestration of CO2 by injection into intermediate flow systems
is not recommended either because these systems are located at shallow-to-intermediate
depths and CO2 will most probably be unstable (may change phase from liquid or
supercritical to gas) and may easily override and escape into local flow systems,
particularly in areas of cross-formational flow and mixing along unconformities. The
injection since 1989 of acid gas, a mixture of CO2 and H2S, into deep saline aquifers and
depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs in western Canada(19) represents an example of
successful disposal of gases in sedimentary basins.
Carbon dioxide could be permanently sequestered in deep aquifers by mineral
immobilization, although extremely long periods of time are needed for sequestration
through geochemical reactions(9). Storage in salt caverns could also provide a very longterm solution to CO2 sequestration in geological media(20). The technology has already
been developed and applied for underground storage of petroleum, natural gas and
compressed air(21) or for salt mining. Currently, single salt caverns are up to 5x105 m3 in
volume and can store fluids at pressures up to 80% of the fracturing threshold.

Basin Characteristics with Respect to CO2 Sequestration

Several criteria have to be considered when analyzing the suitability of a sedimentary
basin for CO2 sequestration(11, 22), which relate to basin tectonism and geology,
geothermal and hydrogeological regimes, hydrocarbon potential and basin maturity, and
basin infrastructure. The Western Canada Sedimentary Basin is actually comprised of the
foreland Alberta basin and of the Canadian part of the intracratonic Williston basin
(Figure 2). Both are tectonically and geologically suitable for CO2 sequestration(22)
because they are underlain by a stable Precambrian platform, far from areas of tectonic
plate convergence characterized by earthquakes and volcanism, orogenic events and
extensive faulting. The Cambrian-to-Lower Jurassic succession was deposited during the
passive-margin stage of basin evolution and consists of mainly carbonate and evaporitic
strata, with a few intervening shales(23). The Upper Jurassic-to-Tertiary strata consist of a
succession of regional-scale thin sandstones and thick shales deposited during the
foreland stage of basin evolution(23).
Temperatures in the basin reach up to 200oC at its deepest in the southwest. The basin is
cold in the south and warm in the north, with corresponding effects on CO2sequestration suitability and capacity(24). Multi-annual ground-surface temperatures vary
from 7oC in the south to <5oC in the north and along the thrust and fold belt(25).
Geothermal gradients vary between <20oC/km in southern Alberta (cold basin) and
>50oC/km in northern Alberta (warm basin). Accordingly, the depth to the 31.1oC
isotherm varies in the basin from more than 1200-1400 m in southern Alberta to less than
700 m in northern Alberta (Figure 4). Because of local anomalies in basement heat flow
and of variations in lithology(26), the depth to the 31.1oC isotherm deviates locally from
the basin-scale north-south trend of decreasing depth. Along the eastern basin edge,
where the basin is shallow, the 31.1oC isotherm is found below the Precambrian
crystalline basement (Figure 4). Thus:

the drilling depth for CO2 sequestration in super-critical state is significantly greater
in southern and central Alberta and in Saskatchewan than in northern Alberta and
northeastern British Columbia, and
CO2 cannot attain the super-critical state within the shallow sedimentary succession
along the eastern edge of the basin in an area that runs from Great Slave Lake in the
north, to Fort McMurray, Cold Lake, Saskatoon and Winnipeg in the southeast.

All units from the Devonian to the Upper Cretaceous contain gas and oil reservoirs that,
once depleted, can be used for CO2 sequestration. The Cretaceous Mannville, Belly
River, Horseshoe Canyon and Scollard strata contain uneconomic coal seams of variable
thickness, maturity and quality(27). Coal seams vary in rank with depth from lignitic to
bituminous(28, 29), reach up to 6 m in thickness and have a gas content that varies between
2 and 15 m3/t(28). These coals can be used for coalbed methane production and CO2
sequestration(14).
Hydrostratigraphically, the carbonate and sandstone units are aquifers, the shales are
aquitards and the evaporitic strata are aquicludes. Most deep aquifers are overlain by

competent, thick, regionally-extensive aquicludes and aquitards such as the Prairie,

Ireton, Exshaw-Banff, Colorado and Lea Park, and can be used, depending on location,
for CO2 sequestration. Two deep, long-range flow systems are driven in the Alberta basin
by basin-scale topography, one north-northwestward from recharge south of Albertas
border to discharge at the Peace River, and the other northeastward from recharge in
northeast British Columbia, across northern Alberta, toward discharge at Great Slave
Lake(30) (Figure 5). Past tectonic compression drives the northeastward flow across
Alberta in deep Devonian aquifers(30). The flow in deep Paleozoic aquifers in the
Williston basin is driven by topography from recharge at outcrop in Montana and South
Dakota, to discharge in southwestern Manitoba east of the Manitoba escarpment(31)
(Figure 5). The salinity of formation waters increases with depth, reaching up to 350 g/l
in the vicinity of salt beds(31-33). The flow of formation waters in Cretaceous aquifers in
southwestern Alberta, such as Viking and Cardium, is driven southwestward, downdip,
inward, by erosional rebound of the thick intervening shales(29, 32) (Figure 5). The thick
intervening shales of the Colorado Group combine with the downdip flow of formation
waters to form a powerful hydrodynamic trap for the injected CO2(32). The flow velocity
in these systems is of the order of 10 km/My. Pressures in the basin reach up to 60 MPa
in the southwest near the thrust and fold belt.
The extensive Middle Devonian salt beds in the basin, used currently for salt mining and
LPG storage (Figure 6), can also be used for CO2 sequestration(20). The thick Lower and
Upper Lotsberg salts, found in east-central Alberta at depths that range from >2100 m in
the west to <500 m in the east, have a purity >90%. The thinner Cold Lake Formation in
central-eastern Alberta is found at depths that range from 1600 m in the southwest to
<600 m in the northeast south of Fort McMurray. Unlike the Lotsberg and Cold Lake
salts, the salt content and purity in the Prairie Formation is highly variable, decreasing
westward from as high as >90% along the dissolution edge in northeastern Alberta and
central-northern Saskatchewan, to <20% along the western depositional edge. The depth
to the top of the Prairie Formation in the area where the salt content is between 40% and
90% (Figure 6) ranges from 2200 m in southwestern Alberta to >200 m in northeastern
Alberta. The thickness of the formation varies between <25 m in the south-southwest to
>275 m in the north near the salt dissolution edge, where it decreases rapidly to zero
along the salt escarpment. The vertical stress induced in these salt beds by the overburden
varies, depending on depth, between >50 MPa in the south-southwest, to ~10 MPa in the
northeast. Salt caverns are currently used in Alberta and Saskatchewan for LPG and gas
storage(34) and for salt production (Figure 6).
The density of the liquid and supercritical CO2 at in-situ reservoir or aquifer conditions
was calculated based on its dependence on pressure and temperature (Figure 3) for each
one of the major 27 stratigraphic units in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin(23). As a
result, the geological space of the basin, defined by strata geometry, temperature and
pressure, was transformed into a CO2 space defined by location (geographic coordinates
and depth), CO2 state and density(24). Injection of CO2 at depths close to temperature and
pressure conditions corresponding to the CO2 phase change will induce the transition to
the gaseous phase if it reaches slightly shallower depths. If this occurs, in the absence of

stratigraphic or structural traps, gas bouyancy will lead to the rapid CO2 raise or flow
through the sedimentary column and escape to the surface.
In the Alberta basin (Alberta and British Columbia) the position of the 31.1oC isotherm
and of the 7.38 MPa isobar shifts westward as a result of basin dip from the northeast to
the southwest, until both disappear from the basin in the post-Colorado strata. As
expected, the 31.1oC isotherm and the 7.38 MPa isobar generally run approximately
parallel to the deformation front in all the units, with local deviations from this trend
caused by basement heat flow anomalies and by underpressuring. In any particular unit,
west of both the isotherm and isobar, T >31.1oC and p >7.38 MPa, and the injected CO2
will be in supercritical state. In regions between the two where the 31.1oC isotherm is
located west of the 7.38 MPa isobar, the injected CO2 will be in a liquid state (T <31.1oC
and p >7.38 MPa). In regions east of the isobar (p <7.38 MPa), the injected CO2 will be a
gas or a liquid, depending on temperature and pressure, but mostly a gas. In the Williston
basin (Saskatchewan and Manitoba), the position of the 31.1oC isotherm and of the 7.38
MPa isobar shifts concentrically southtward until they disappear from the basin in postColorado strata. The state of the injected CO2 is similarly dictated by the positions of the
31.1oC isotherm and the 7.38 MPa isobar.
Basin Suitability for CO2 Sequestration
The basin has reached a mature stage of exploration and production, and generally meets
all the conditions for CO2 sequestration in geological media(11, 22). However, it exhibits
geographic and stratigraphic differential suitability for CO2 sequestration as a result of
the interplay between various basin characteristics.
Based on the geological, geothermal and hydrodynamic characteristics of the basin and
on the distribution of hydrocarbon reservoirs and of coal and salt beds, the Western
Canada Sedimentary Basin can be divided into six different regions (Figure 7) in terms of
suitability for and characteristics of CO2 sequestration.
Eastern Shallow Edge
This region is defined as a broad band along the eastern edge of the basin at the Canadian
Shield (Figure 7), and comprises the eastern part of the basins portion in the Northwest
Territories, northeastern Alberta, central Saskatchewan and most of the basin in
Manitoba. This region is not suitable for CO2 sequestration in geological media for the
following reasons.
1. Because of the shallow depth, in-situ temperatures are less than or close to 31.1oC and
pressures are <7.38 MPa. Thus, CO2 will always be in gaseous phase in this region.
2. The flow of meteoric water is in shallow, local groundwater flow systems, and that of
connate water is in intermediate and local flow systems, which all discharge along
river valleys and along the Precambrian Shield. Thus, CO2 cannot be injected and
sequestered in aquifers because of the high potential of the gaseous CO2 overriding at
the top of the aquifer and escaping into the atmosphere.

3. There are no coals in the area except for the very shallow and discontinuous
Mannville coals at Firebag near Ft. McMurray that have been mined until recently.
4. There are no hydrocarbon reservoirs, except for the Athabasca area, where bitumen
and shallow gas of biogenic origin are found in Mannville strata, and where a few oil
reservoirs are found in Devonian Woodbend reefs. Depleted gas reservoirs in the
Athabasca area may serve for CO2 sequestration and reservoir repressuring, although
the potential in terms of volumes may be small.
Only the Cold Lake and Prairie formation salts in northeastern Alberta, where salt was
mined in the past at Ft. McMurray, could serve for cavern sequestration of CO2.
The oil sands plants in northeastern Alberta, with current emissions >16 MtCO2/yr, have
very limited options for CO2 sequestration, such as:
injection of CO2 in the carbonate Winnipegosis aquifer, which is overlain by regional
shaly aquitards and the Prairie aquiclude west of the salt dissolution edge;
storage of CO2 as a liquid at high pressure in mined salt caverns; and
storage of gaseous CO2 in depleted shallow oil and gas reservoirs in the Woodbend,
Winterburn and Mannville groups.
Northern and Southeastern Inner Regions
The northern inner region is defined as a broad northwest-southeast trending band
immediately west of the Eastern Shallow Edge in northern Alberta (Figure 7), from the
Tathlina High to the western part of the Athabasca area. The southeastern inner region is
defined as a northwest-southeast trending band from central Saskatchewan to the USManitoba border. These regions are characterized by a limited suitability for CO2
sequestration in geological media for the following reasons.
1. The basin is relatively shallow. As a result, temperatures in all Cretaceous strata and
most of the Devonian are <31.1oC, while pressures are generally <7.38 MPa. Thus,
CO2 injected in these strata will be mostly in gaseous state.
2. Because of pre-Cretaceous erosion, all deep Devonian aquifers, except for the
Winnipegosis, subcrop at the unconformity below the Mannville Group. Thus, CO2
injected in these aquifers will override at the top of the aquifer, and will flow updip
and upwards into the Mannville Group, where it will probably be trapped by the
regional-scale Colorado aquitard.
3. Major oil reservoirs are in the Devonian in Alberta (e.g., Red Earth) and in the
Carboniferous in southwestern Manitoba.
4. Prairie and Cold Lake salt beds are present.
Carbon dioxide could be sequestered in oil and gas reservoirs in northern Alberta and
southwestern Manitoba, in the deep Winnipegosis aquifer below the confining Prairie salt
aquiclude, and in salt caverns.

Central Inner Region

This region covers east-central Alberta and west-central Saskatchewan, and encompasses
basically the oil sands and heavy oil belt around the Lloydminster area (Figure 7). This
region is reasonably suitable for CO2 sequestration in geological media. The main
characteristics are similar to those of the Northern and Southeastern Inner regions (basin
shallowness, aquifer characteristics and salt beds). In addition:
1. Oil, heavy oil and gas reservoirs, such as Provost, are abundantly found in the area,
particularly in the Mannville and Viking strata.
2. Mannville coals are present in central-eastern Alberta. Although they are relatively
shallow, they may not have great potential for CO2 injection and CBM production
because of low gas content(28) and low permeability, having been buried to more than
2 km depth at the peak of the Laramide orogeny. Upper Cretaceous Belly River coals
in central-eastern Alberta are too shallow, close to the surface, and are mined for
power generation, so they cannot be considered for CO2 injection.
3. All Devonian salt beds, including the Lotsberg, are present in the area.
The best targets for CO2 sequestration are in EOR operations and in depleted oil and gas
reservoirs. Aquifer sequestration would be recommended only for the deep Basal
Cambrian Sandstone and Winnipegosis aquifers, which are overlain by thick, regionalscale shaly aquitards and halite aquicludes. Injection in Upper Devonian and Cretaceous
aquifers is not recommended as long as there are better options available, although it
remains a possibility for the future. Storage in salt caverns is also possible. Carbon
dioxide storage in coal beds has probably very limited potential.
Northwestern Region
This region is located north of 55oN (Figure 7) in northwestern Alberta, northeastern
British Columbia and the western part of the basins portion in the Northwest Territories,
covering basically the northwestern part of the Alberta basin. The region is suitable for
CO2 sequestration in geological media as a result of the following characteristics.
1. The basin is deep enough, and geothermal gradients are high, such that the 31.1oC
isotherm and the 7.38 MPa isobar are reached at medium depths. All the deep
Paleozoic aquifers are confined by shaly aquitards and overlain by the thick Colorado
shales. The flow of formation waters in these aquifers is part of a long-range basinscale system(30).
2. Major oil and gas fields are found in Devonian carbonate reefs, such as Rainbow and
Zama in the Elk Point Group, and in Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic platform
carbonates.
3. The northern Cold Lake salt is present in the northwest, and the Prairie salt is present
in the east.

In terms of CO2 sequestration, the best targets are in depleted oil and gas reservoirs, and
in EOR operations in Devonian to Triassic reservoirs. Aquifer sequestration is possible in
Devonian-to-Carboniferous carbonate aquifers.
Southern Region
This region covers the southern area of the Canadian part of the Williston basin (Figure
7). It is defined from the US border to approximately 51.5oN, and from 112oW in the
southeastern corner of Alberta, across southern Saskatchewan, to the US-Manitoba
border. This region is suitable for CO2 sequestration in geological media. The main
characteristics are as follows.
1. Geothermal gradients in the area are low, such that the 31.1 oC isotherm is reached at
greater depths than in other parts of the basin.
2. The Cambrian and Devonian aquifers are confined by regional-scale, thick aquitards.
Upper Devonian aquifers, such as Winterburn and Wabamun, subcrop at the preCretaceous unconformity north of this region. Carboniferous, Mannville and Viking
aquifers are confined by thick Colorado shaly aquitards.
3. Oil reservoirs are found mainly in Carboniferous strata in southeastern Saskatchewan,
(e.g., Weyburn and Midale), and in Jurassic and Mannville strata in southwestern
Saskatchewan and southeastern Alberta, while gas reservoirs are found mainly in
Alberta in the Mannville Group and Viking and Milk River formations.
4. Coal is found in Mannville strata, although not well delineated, and in very shallow
Belly River strata in southern Saskatchewan, where it is mined for power generation.
5. High salt content (> 40%) is found in the Prairie Formation.
The best targets for CO2 sequestration are EOR operations and in depleted oil and gas
reservoirs. Aquifer sequestration is possible in the deep Basal Cambrian Sandstone,
Winnipegosis, Beaverhill Lake and Winterburn aquifers. Injection in the Carboniferous,
Mannville and Viking aquifers is also possible, but this option should be used after the
other options are exhausted. Storage in coal beds and salt caverns does not seem to be a
viable option.
Southwestern Region
This region covers the southwestern part of the Alberta basin from the US border in the
south to 55oN in the north, and from the Thrust and Fold Belt in the west to 111-114oW
in the east (Figure 7). This region is extremely suitable for CO2 sequestration in
geological media for the following reasons.
1.
2.

It comprises the basin foredeep, where the greatest depths, more than 5 km, are
attained. Thus, a large thickness of the sedimentary succession is available below
the 31.1oC isotherm and the 7.38 MPa isobar.
All the aquifers from the basement to the Upper Cretaceous Lea Park Formation
shales are confined by regional-scale competent aquitards. The flow of formation
waters is driven in long-range regional-scale systems in Cambrian to Lower

3.
4.
5.

Cretaceous Mannville aquifers. In the western part, the flow in the Viking and
Cardium aquifers is driven by erosional rebound in the intervening shales,
forming a hydrodynamic trap.
There are many oil and gas reservoirs in various stages of depletion. The great
majority is at depths for which CO2 would be in supercritical state.
Extensive Lower and Upper Cretaceous coals beds are found in Mannville, Belly
River, Edmonton and Scollard strata at depths that make them unmineable, with
promising potential for CO2 sequestration and CBM production.
Salt beds are present in the northeastern part of the region, with salt being mined
from the Upper Lotsberg at Fort Saskatchewan.

Most large industrial and energy producers in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin are
located in this region (Figure 2). Fortunately, all means of CO2 sequestration in
geological media are available and all are good options with large capacity.
Sequestration of CO2 in EOR operations and in depleted oil and gas reservoirs is possible
for reservoirs found in the entire sedimentary succession. Sequestration in coal beds and
CBM production are possible in Upper Cretaceous-Tertiary coals (Mannville coals are
probably too deep and with very low permeability to constitute a sequestration target).
Carbon dioxide sequestration is possible in supercritical state in deep Paleozoic aquifers,
and in supercritical state, as a liquid or as a gas, depending on depth and location, in the
Mannville, Viking and Cardium aquifers. Sequestration in salt caverns is also possible.
There are a few CO2 producers that are located in the Rocky Mountain Foothills, west of
the deformation front: the cement plants at Exshaw and Waterton, the Jumping Pond and
Wildcat Hills gas plants, the pulp mill in Hinton and the power plant in Grand Cache
(Figure 2). The geology and hydrodynamic conditions at these sites may or may not be
suitable for CO2 sequestration in geological media. Chances are that most probably they
are not, because faults and fractures constitute potential flow paths for the injected CO2.
Nevertheless, in the case of these CO2 producers, site-specific studies need to be carried
out. If no potential for CO2 sequestration is identified at these sites, then the produced
CO2 will have to be captured and transported eastward to a suitable injection site in the
undeformed part of the basin.
Conclusions
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reached the conclusion that the
balance of evidence suggests a discernible human impact on the global climate caused
by anthropogenic greenhouse emissions into the atmosphere, of which CO2 is the most
important. Carbon dioxide emissions in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin increased
since 1990 as a result of population growth, economic development and increased
activity in the energy sector. Large CO2 producers are the coal-based power generation
industry, fossil fuel producers such as oil sands plants, industrial fuel users, the petrochemical industry, the upstream oil and gas industry, pulp and newsprint mills, and
cement and lime plants. These producers constitute major point sources where CO2 can
be captured and separated from other combustion gases. Geographically, the major CO2
sources in the basin are found along the foothills (cement and gas plants), near Fort

10

McMurray (oil sands plants), in the Lloydminster-Cold Lake area (heavy oil and power
plants), in the Edmonton area (refineries, industrial, and petro-chemical, cement and
power plants), in southern Saskatchewan (power plants), and in major population centres.
A decrease of CO2 emissions can be achieved by a variety of means, first and foremost by
improving energy efficiency and conservation. Switching to renewable forms of energy,
particularly for power generation, is not an option with a significant impact and future in
the Prairie Provinces, while nuclear power generation has no public acceptance.
Retrofitting existing plants to use gas instead of coal is very expensive. Thus, CO2 capture
and sequestration is probably the best short-to-medium term solution for the reduction of
CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. Since ocean sequestration is not an option for the
Prairie Provinces, and biomass fixation is uncertain at best, geological disposal of CO2
seems to be the best available option for long-term CO2 sequestration.
Carbon dioxide can be sequestered in geological media by utilization in enhanced oil
recovery (EOR) operations, displacement of methane in coal beds (ECBMR), storage in
depleted oil and gas reservoirs, injection into deep saline aquifers, and storage in salt
caverns. Generally, the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin meets the CO2-sequestration
criteria related to tectonic setting and geology, geothermal and hydrodynamic regimes,
and hydrocarbon potential and maturity. However, the suitability for CO2 sequestration
varies in the basin depending on the specific conditions of a particular region.
Based on the geological, geothermal and hydrodynamic characteristics of the Western
Canada Sedimentary Basin, and on the distribution of hydrocarbon reservoirs and of coal
and salt beds, the basin can be divided into seven different regions, each being
characterized by specific possibilities in terms of CO2 sequestration in geological media.
1. The Eastern Shallow Edge, running along the Canadian Shield, is not suitable for
CO2 sequestration in geological media because of shallow depth. Very limited
possibilities exist for CO2 sequestration in gaseous phase in northeastern Alberta in
the Winnipegosis aquifer, in shallow depleted gas reservoirs, and in salt caverns.
2. The Northern and Southern Inner Regions, in northern Alberta and in eastern
Saskatchewan-southwestern Manitoba, respectively, have limited suitability because
the basin is still relatively shallow with limited hydrocarbon reservoirs and no coal
beds. Sequestration options are mainly in Devonian and Carboniferous oil reservoirs.
3. The Central Inner Region, around Lloydminster, is reasonably suitable for CO2
sequestration, mostly as a gas, in EOR operations, in depleted oil and gas reservoirs,
in coal beds, and in salt caverns.
4. The Northwestern Region is suitable for CO2 sequestration, mostly in supercritical
state, in depleted oil and gas reservoirs and in deep aquifers.
5. The Southern Region, in southeastern Alberta-southern Saskatchewan, is suitable for
CO2 sequestration, mostly as a gas, but also as a liquid and in supercritical state, in
EOR operations, in depleted oil and gas reservoirs, in coal beds, and in deep aquifers.
6. The Southwestern Region, along the thrust and fold belt in Alberta and including the
Edmonton area, is extremely suitable for CO2 sequestration in gaseous, liquid or

11

supercritical state in EOR operations, depleted oil and gas reservoirs, coal beds, deep
aquifers and salt caverns.
In terms of the major CO2 producers in the Prairie Provinces, it seems that all but the oil
sands plants in northeastern Alberta, the pulp mill in Prince Albert and the CO2 producers
in Manitoba, have at their disposal a number of options for CO2 sequestration in
geological media. The analysis presented herein is based on the basin-scale
characteristics of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin and represents only the first,
suitability assessment step(24) on the road toward site selection and operational
implementation of CO2 sequestration in geological media in western Canada. The next
broad steps in the geoscience-based selection of sequestration sites are: inventory, safety
assessment, and capacity determination(24). At the end of this process, industry will be
in the position to select specific sequestration sites in the basin, and proceed with
engineering design, construction, operation and monitoring of sequestration safety.

12

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R.J.H., Deep coalbed methane in Alberta, Canada: A fuel resource with the potential
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S217-S222, 1997.
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13

Gas Control Technologies, (eds. B. Eliasson, P.W.F. Riemer and A. Wokaun),

Pergamon, Elsevier Science Ltd., Amsterdam, pp. 175-180, 1999.
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Conversion and Management, Vol. 34, pp. 959-966, 1993.
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disposal in deep aquifers in the Alberta sedimentary basin; Energy Conversion and
Management, Vol. 37, pp. 1167-1174, 1996.
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Hydrodynamics of CO2 disposal in a deep saline formation in the midwestern United
States; Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies (GHGT-4) (eds. B. Eliasson, P.W.F.
Riemer and A. Wokaun), Pergamon, Elsevier Science Ltd., Amsterdam, pp. 157-162,
1999.
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expense; Oil and Gas Journal, Vol. 95(17), pp. 67-72, 1997.
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in Alberta salt solution caverns; Solution Mining Research Institute, Fall 2001
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Gas Emissions in the U.S. Vol. 1, Report to the US Congress, US DOE, 1991.
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sedimentary basins, with application to the Alberta basin; Greenhouse Gas Control
Technologies (GHGT-4) (eds. B. Eliasson, B., P.W.F. Riemer and A. Wokaun),
Pergamon, Elsevier Science Ltd., Amsterdam, p 195-200, 1999.
23. MOSSOP, G.D., and SHETSEN, I., Geological Atlas of the Western Canada
Sedimentary Basin, Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists and Alberta Research
Council, Calgary, 514 p., 1994.
24. BACHU, S., Sequestration of CO2 in geological media in response to climate change:
Roadmap for site selection using the transform of the geological space into the CO2phase space; Energy Conversion and Management, Vol. 42, pp. xx-yy, 2001.
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regime in the Western Canada sedimentary basin; Geothermics, Vol. 20, pp. 387-407,
1991.
26. BACHU, S., Basement heat flow in the Western Canada sedimentary basin;
Tectonophysics, Vol. 222, pp.119-133, 1993.
27. SMITH, G.G., CAMERON, A.R., and BUSTIN, R.M., Coal resources of the Western
Canada Sedimentary basin; Geological Atlas of the Western Canada Sedimentary
Basin (comp. G.D. Mossop and I. Shetsen), Canadian Society of Petroleum
Geologists and Alberta Research Council, Calgary, p. 471-481, 1994.
28. DAWSON, F.M., Coalbed Methane: A Comparison Between Canada and the United
States; Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin 489, Ottawa, 60 p., 1995.
29. BUSTIN, R.M., Organic maturation of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin,
International Journal of Coal Geology, Vol. 19, pp. 319-358, 1991.
30. BACHU, S., Flow systems in the Alberta Basin: patterns, types and driving
mechanisms; Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology, Vol. 47, pp. 455-474, 1999.

14

31. BACHU, S., and HITCHON, B., Regional-scale flow of formation waters in the
Williston basin; American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, Vol. 80, pp.
248-264, 1996.
32. BACHU, S., Synthesis and model of formation water flow in the Alberta basin,
Canada; American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, Vol. 79, pp. 11591178, 1995.
33. BACHU, S., Flow of formation waters, aquifer characteristics, and their relation to
hydrocarbon accumulations in the northern part of the Alberta basin; American
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, Vol. 81, pp. 712-733, 1997.
34. CROSSLEY, N.G., Conversion of LPG salt caverns to natural gas storage A
Transgas experience; Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, Vol. 37(12), pp.
37-47, 1998.

15

List of Figures
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.

Canadas 1997 profile of CO2 emissions: a) by sector, and b) by province.

Main characteristics of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin and
location of major CO2 producers.
Relevant CO2 characteristics: a) phase diagram, b) density variation.
Depth to the 31.1oC isotherm in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin.
Diagrammatic representation of major flow systems in the Western
Canada Sedimentary Basin (after 30, 31).
Distribution of Devonian salts in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin
and location of salt mines and LPG storage caverns.
Suitability of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin for CO2
sequestration in geological media.

16

a)

b)
Mt
300

Mt
250

250

200

200

150

150
100

100

50

50

0
Residential Commercial Industrial
1990

2000

2010

Transportation

Fossil Electricity Agroeco- Wastes/

Fuel Generation systems Others
Industries

Atlantic
1990

Quebec
2000

Ontario

Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta

British
Columbia

2010
Source: Canada's Emissions Outlook: An Update. 1999

Figure 1. Canadas 1997 profile of CO2 emissions: a) by sector, and b) by province.

126
62

124

98

122

120

60

118

Mac
kenz
ie R

61

116

114

112

106

108

110

104

96W N
62

100

102

61

iver

Great
Slave
Lake

UT
NUNAV

YUKO
N

NORTHWEST

60

TERRITORIES

59

59

of
Edge

Fort Nelson

ALBERTA

asin
ed B
eform
the D

58

57

Carbon Dioxide Sources

Lake
Athabasca

58
Power Generation
Fossil Energy Producers
(oil sands, gas, compressors)
57
Refining and Petrochemicals
Newsprint and Pulp Mills
Cement or Lime 56

Rainbow

SASKATCHEWAN
Muskeg River
Mackay River

56

McMahon

CANADIAN PRECAMBRIAN
SHIELD

Fort McMurray

Poplar Hill
Peace River

Pine River

Ba
si n

55

Chetwynd

Grande Prairie

Christina Lake

Slave Lake

Foster Creek
54

OBA
MANIT

Bou
nda
ry

55

54

Sturgeon
Boyle

BRITISH
COLUM
BIA

53

Grande
Cache

Y
CK
RO

52

Primose

Cold Lake

Windfall
Kaybob

Redwater
Whitecourt
MorinFort Saskatchewan
Wabamun
Scotford
Sundance ville
Hinton Prentice
Edmonton
Keephills Genesee
Hanlan
Homeglen
Ram River
Battle River
Joffre
Irma
Caroline Red Deer
Harmattan
Burnt Timber
Sheerness
Crossfield
Wildcat Hills
Cochrane Jumping Pound

NS
AI
NT
OU
M

51

50

Exshaw
Calgary

Vancouver
0
49
126

100

200

Strathmore

53

Lake
Winnipeg

Prince Albert

Lloydminster

Cory
Saskatoon
Landis
Kerrobert
Loreburn

Selkirk

Belle Plaine

Rocanville

Brandon

Estlin

98

Coronach

Waterton
114

Winnipeg

Ile de Chenes

Alameda

122
116

112

110

50

Minnedosa

Regina

Medicine Hat

Coleman
118

51

Lanigan

Burstall

Vulcan

200 miles

124
120

52

Empress

Princess

Carseland

300 kilometres

100

Meadow Lake

Edson

108

106

Shand

Estevan

100

102

104

U.S.A.

Figure 2. Main characteristics of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin and location of
major CO2 producers.

49N
96W

a)

b)
1400

Super
Critical
Phase

Liquid

20
10
8
6
4
3
2

1.0
.8
.6
.4
.3
.2

Critical
Point

Pressure (MPa)

1200

Density (kg/m3)

Pressure (MPa)

100
80
60
40
30

101.0
60.0
35.0

1000
800

20.0

600
400

10.0
7.1

200

Solid

Gas

20

Temperature (oC)

40

30

50

Temperature

Triple
Point

.1
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20

10

60

Figure 3. Relevant CO2 characteristics: a) phase diagram, b) density variation.

70
o
( C)

90

126
62

124

122

120

118

Mac
kenz
ie R

61

Tathlina High

116

114

104

106

108

110

112

98

100

102

96W N
62

61

iver

Great
Slave
Lake

Isotherm below the

Precambrian basement

750

60

60

59

59

Lake
Athabasca

58

58

75
0

CANADIAN PRECAMBRIAN
SHIELD
57

10

00

57

56

56

Ba
si n

100

55

100

54

55

Bou
nda
ry

54

53

12

50

100

200

300 kilometres

100

00
10

50

200 miles

52

500

d
an
Isl

1500 1750
1250

51

1000
50

1000
1000

Bo
w

49
126

00

Arch

51

10

750

NS
AI
NT
OU
M

sin
Ba
ed
rm
fo
De
the
of
ge
Ed

Y
CK
RO

52

10

00

53

Lake
Winnipeg

49N
96W

124

98

122

120

100
118

102
116

114

112

110

108

106

104

U.S.A.

Figure 4. Depth to the 31.1 C isotherm in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin.

126
62

124

98

122

120

118

Mac
kenz
ie R

61

Tathlina High

116

114

112

106

108

110

104

96W N
62

100

102

61

iver

Great
Slave
Lake

Basin-scale flow

60

60

Deep flow systems in Paleozoic strata

Inward flow in Cretaceous strata

59

59

Lake
Athabasca
58

58

57

57

CANADIAN PRECAMBRIAN
SHIELD
56

56

ALBERTA BASIN

Ba
si n

55

55

Bou
nda
ry
54

54

53

53

52

Arch

Y
CK
RO

Saskatoon
51

51

Edmonton

sin
Ba
ed
rm
fo
De
NS
the
AI
of
NT
ge
Ed
OU

52

Lake
Winnipeg

50

d
an
Isl

Calgary

50

100

300 kilometres

200
100

Bo
w

49
126

Winnipeg

Regina

Vancouver
200 miles

WILLISTON
BASIN

49N
96W

124

98

122

120

100

118

102
116

114

112

110

108

106

104

U.S.A.

Figure 5. Diagrammatic representation of major flow systems in the Western Canada

Sedimentary Basin (after 30, 31).

126
62

124

122

120

118

Mac
kenz
ie R

61

Tathlina High

116

114

106

108

110

112

104

98

100

102

96W N
62

61

iver

Great
Slave
Lake

Lower Lotsberg
Upper Lotsberg

60

60

Cold Lake
Prairie Salts >40%

59

Lake
Athabasca

59

Salt Mining
LPG Storage

58

58

57

57

CANADIAN PRECAMBRIAN
SHIELD
56

56

Ft. McMurray
Ba
si n

55

55

Bou
nda
ry
54

54

Redwater

Y
CK
RO

52

sin
Ba
ed
rm
fo
De
NS
the
AI
of
NT
ge
Ed
OU

Ft. Saskatchewan

Duvernay Lindberg

52

Hardisty

50
0

100
100

49
126

200

Hughenden

Unity

Saskatoon

d
an
Isl

51

50

Esterhazy

300 kilometres

Bo
w

51

53

Lake
Winnipeg

Bruderheim

Arch

53

200 miles

49N
96W

124

98

122
120

100
118

102

116

114

112

110

108

106

104

U.S.A.

Figure 6. Distribution of Devonian salts in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin and
location of salt mines and LPG storage caverns.

126
62

124

122

120

118

Mac
kenz
ie R

61

Tathlina High
60

116

114

112

106

108

110

104

98

100

102

96W N
62

61

iver

Great
Slave
Lake

UT
NUNAV

YUKO
N

60

S
NORTHWEST TERRITORIE

59

59

56

ALBERTA

58

57

CANADIAN PRECAMBRIAN
SHIELD
56

ON
EGI

55

BA
MANITO

SASKATCHEWAN

R
ER
INN

NORTHW
ESTERN
REGION

57

ERN
RTH
NO

58

Lake
Athabasca

Ba
si n

55

Bou
nda
ry
54

54

EASTERN
SHALLOW EDGE

SOUTHWES
TERN
REGION

53

sin
Ba
ed
rm
fo
De
the
of
ge
Ed

Edmonton

50

CENTRAL
INNER
REGION

52

Saskatoon
51

NS
AI
NT
OU
M

51

Y
CK
RO

BRITISH
COLUM
BIA

52

53

Lake
Winnipeg

SOUT
H
INNE EASTER
R RE
N
GION
Regina

Calgary

Vancouver
0
49
126

100

300 kilometres

200
100

50

Winnipeg

SOUTHERN
REGION

200 miles

124

49N
96W

98

122

120

100

118

102
116

114

112

110

108

106

104

U.S.A.

Figure 7.
Suitability of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin for CO2 sequestration in
geological media