ASSIGNMENT:1

1.

What is called Engineering plastics?

Engineering plastics are a group of plastic materials that exhibit superior mechanical and thermal
properties in a wide range of conditions over and above more commonly used commodity plastics.
The term usually refers to thermoplastic materials rather than thermosetting ones. Engineering plastics
are used for parts rather than containers and packaging.

2. Write some of the Engineering plastics.

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) Polycarbonates (PC) Polyamides (PA) Polybutylene terephthalate
(PBT) Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

3. Describe the polycarbonate engineering plastics?

They are a particular group of thermoplastic polymers. They are easily worked, moulded, and thermoformed;
as such, these plastics are very widely used in the modern chemical industry.
Their interesting features (temperature resistance, impact resistance and
optical properties) position them between commodity plastics and engineering
plastics. Polycarbonates do not have a unique plastic identification code and
are identified as Other, 7.

4. How the polymers used in electrical and electronics industry?

of

Molding for Electronics Flame-Retardancy Needs Plastics in circuit board Enhancing performance Flexible
plastic displays
Typical electronics applications include connectors and chip capacitor bases, which are attached to the surface
printed circuit boards, and components for mobile phones and CD lens support structures

5. Describe about electro conducting polymers.

Conductive polymers are organic polymers that conduct electricity. Such compounds may be true metallic
conductors or semiconductors. It is generally accepted that metals conduct electricity well and that organic
compounds are insulating, but this class of materials combines the properties of both.
6. Mention few the conducting polymers.
structures of various conductive organic polymers. Clockwise; polyacetylene, polyphenylenevinylene,
polypyrrole (X = NH), and polythiophene (X = S), polyaniline (X = N, NH) and polyphenylene sulfide (X = S).
7. How is conductive polymers synthesised ?
Many methods for the synthesis of conductive polymers have been developed. Most conductive polymers
are prepared by oxidative coupling of monocyclic precursors. Such reactions entail dehydrogenation:
n H-[X]-H H-[X]n-H + 2(n-1) H+ + 2(n-1) e One challenge is usually the low solubility of the polymer. However, in some cases, the molecular weight
need not be high to achieve the desired properties.

8. Write the conducting polymers applications?

Conductive polymers enjoy few large-scale applications due to their poor processability. They have been
known to have promise in antistatic materials and they have been incorporated into commercial displays and
batteries, but there have had limitations due to the manufacturing costs, material inconsistencies, toxicity, poor
solubility in solvents, and inability to directly melt process.
9. Define electrets with types .
A solid dielectric with a quasi-permanent electric moment. Electrets may be classified as real-charge
electrets and dipolar-charge electrets
10. what are the materials used for electrets?
Electret materials are quite common in nature. Quartz and other forms of silicon dioxide, for example, are
naturally occurring electrets. Today, most electrets are made from synthetic polymers, e.g. fluoropolymers,
polypropylene, polyethyleneterephthalate, etc.
11. what are the methods used for manufacturing the electrets?
Electrets can also be manufactured by embedding excess negative charge within a dielectric using a particle
accelerator, or by stranding charges on, or near, the surface using high voltage corona discharges, a process called
corona charging. Excess charge within an electret decays exponentially.
12. Write some of the applications of electret?

Electret materials have recently found commercial and technical interest. For example, they are used in
electret microphones and in copy machines. They are also used in some types of air filters, for electrostatic collection
of dust particles, and in electret ion chambers for measuring ionizing radiation or radon.
13. What is called piezeoelectric materials?
These materials are usually ceramics with a perovskite structure The perovskite structure exists in two
crystallographic forms
14. Write some of the applications of ferroelectric materials?

Capacitors

Non-volatile memory

Piezoelectrics for ultrasound imaging and actuators

Electro-optic materials for data storage applications

15. Define the photoconductive polymers?
Photoconductive polymer is a polymer, which exhibits a relatively high electrical conductivity when irradiated
with visible or ultraviolet light. Such polymers are of interest as forming the basis of electro imaging processes such
as xerography, and in other photoelectric devices.

ASSIGNMENT:2
1. what are the classification of high performance of polymers?
Classification of high performance polymers (compounds):

1.

hardwearing. 2.high temperature resistant and high mechanical strength.

2. what are the high performance polymers? Give example

High Performance polymers have a thermal resistance >150C. Examples of hard wearing high performance
polymers are:

PEEK - Polyetheretherketon PES - Polyethersulfon

PI - Polyimide

3. What is called fluropolymers?

Fluoropolymers are fluorinated plastics. Most plastics are chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen or other atoms
attached to them. In fluoropolymers, fluorine atoms replace some or all of the hydrogen atoms. Substituting fluorine
for hydrogen creates a high binding energy among atoms within the plastic molecules, making the plastics highly
stable and giving them unique and valuable properties
4. write the applications of fluropolymers?
They have extraordinary properties, and are woven into our way of life from fluoropolymer coated
cookware, sports clothing, extreme weather military uniforms, food handling equipment, medical equipment, silicon
chip manufacturing, pharmaceutical
5. give examples for fluropolymers?
PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene),
FEP
(fluorinated
polyethylenetetrafluoroethylene(Tefzel), PVF polyvinylfluoride Tedlar

ethylene-propylene),

ETFE

6. Describe the PVdF fluropolymers?

PVdF is a homopolymer of vinylidene fluoride having the formula [CH2-CF2]n PVdF polymers melt at 160 C, are
melt processable, and are supplied in the form of powder, pellets, and dispersions. Some grades of PVdF may contain
other fluorinated monomers eg a copolymer of vinylidene fluoride and hexafluoropropylene having the formula
[CF(CF3)-(CF2)x(CH2-CF2 )y]n.
7. Write about THV fluropolymers?
THV is a terpolymer of tetrafluoroethylene, hexafluoropropylene, and vinylidene fluoride with the formula
[CF(CF3 )-CF2 )x(CF2- CF2)V(CF2- CF2)z]n. THV is melt processable with melting points from 120 to 230 C
depending on grade. It is available as pellets, agglomerates or aqueous dispersions.
8. what is called aromatic polymer?
Aromatic Polymer - A polymer with aromatic ring structures, typically benzene rings, in its polymer chain. Many
aromatic polymers are resistant to high temperatures
9. which aromatic polymer used in aerospace application?
A generic name for an aromatic polymer containing 52% by volume of continuous carbon fiber reinforcement in
polyetherether ketone (Victrex). APC-1 is used as a thermoplastic composite for aerospace applications
10. Write few heterocyclic polymers?

polyimides, polybenzimidazoles, and polybenzothiazoles.

11. what are the polymes used as building materials ?
Bulk polymers are used in applications such as pipes and conduit, wire and cable, foundations, fittings, roofing,
flooring and insulation, The major use of polymers in the European construction sector is in rigid PVC window profiles
12. why FRP materials are used in construction?
Fibre reinforced polymeric materials are gaining market share from traditional construction materials due to
their low weight combined with high strength. Mechanical properties can be tailor-made by careful selection of fibre
and direction of reinforcement.
13. Define aramid fibers?
Aramid fibers are a class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers. They are used in aerospace and
military applications, for ballistic rated body armor fabric, in bicycle tyres, and as an asbestos substitute.
14. How is aramid fiber is prepared?
Aramids are generally prepared by the reaction between an amine group and a carboxylic acid halide group.
Simple AB homopolymers may look like:
nNH2-Ar-COCl -(NH-Ar-CO)n- + nHCl
The most well-known aramids (Nomex
15. What are the major uses of aramid fiber?
flame-resistant clothing heat protective clothing and helmets body armor, competing with PE based fiber
products such as Dyneema and Spectra

ASSIGNMENT:3
1. what is called polymer blend?
Mixture of chemically different polymers and a copolymers with no covalent bonding between them
2. Define polymer alloys?
A class of polymer blends, heterogeneous in nature with modified controlled interfacial properties and (or
morphology
3. Write the classification of polymer blends?
Homologous Miscible Immiscible Partially Miscible Compatible
4. Define IPN?
IPN are combination of two or more polymers in network form. At least one of the polymer is
synthesized and to crosslinked in the presence of the others
5. What are the classification of IPN?
Full, sequential, simultaneous IPN
6. What is called thermoplastic IPN?
Two polymer IPN in which the individual polymers are thermoplastic polymers may contain
physical crosslinking.
7. What are Liquid Crystals?
Liquid crystal materials generally have several common characteristics. Among these are a rod-like molecular
structure, rigidness of the long axis, and strong dipoles and/or easily polarizable substituents
8. Define the nematic phases?
The nematic liquid crystal phase is characterized by molecules that have no positional order but tend to point
in the same direction (along the director).
9. what is called smatic phase?
The word "smectic" is derived from the Greek word for soap. This seemingly ambiguous origin is explained by
the fact that the thick, slippery substance often found at the bottom of a soap dish is actually a type of smectic liquid
crystal.
10. write the classification of lyotropic
Liquid crystals come in two basic classifications: thermotropic and lyotropic . The phase transitions of thermotropic
liquid crystals depend on temperature, while those of lyotropic liquid crystals depend on both temperature and
concentration

11. write the structure of lytropic liquid crystal?

Lyotropic liquid crystal molecules belong to a class of substances called amphiphilic compounds.
12. how is main chain LCP formed?
Main chain polymer liquid crystals are formed when rigid elements are incorporated into the backbone of normally
flexible polymers.
13. how is side chain LCP formed?
It has been demonstrated that main chain polymer liquid crystals often cannot show mesogenic behavior over a
wide temperature range. These materials are formed when mesogenic units are attached to the polymer as side
chains.
14. Define the mesogen?
the mesogen is made up of a rigid core of two or more aromatic rings joined together by a functional group.
15. Define the ablative plastics?
A term applied to any polymer or resin with low thermal conductivity which pyrolyzes layer-by-layer
when its surface is heated, leaving a heat-resisting layer of charred material which eventually breaks away to expose
virgin material.

UNIT IV
POLYMERS IN LITHOGRAPHY AND WATER TREATMENT
Topics:Polymers in lithography photoresist positive resists negative resists solution
inhibition resists image reversal process Ion exchange resins polymer membrane polymer
complexes for water treatment.

1. POLYMERS IN LITHOGRAPHY
Introduction
Integrated circuits are arguably amongst the most important products of the modern
electronics industry.
They are built up from various arrangements of transistors, diodes, capacitors and
resisters, and by metallization of the paths linking the active circuit elements.
The patterns defining these regions and the linking pathways must first be drawn by a
lithographic process on a layer of resist material, and then transferred onto the
substrate by an etching process.
The lithographic process is the art of making precise designs on thin films of resist
material by exposing them to a suitable form of patterned radiation, e.g. UV, electron
beam, X-ray, or ion beam, with the formation of a latent image on the resist that can
subsequently be developed by treatment with solvents or plasma.
The resist is a material, usually polymeric, that is sensitive to, and those properties are
changed by, exposure to the electromagnetic radiation used. It must also be resistant,
after development, to the etching process, and protect the areas it still covers while
allowing the exposed regions of the substrate to be attached.
Lithographic Process
Step 1:
Step 2:

If the substrate chip is silicon, it is first oxidized to produce a thin surface layer
of SiO2.
A solution of the polymer resist is then spun evenly onto this surface and baked
to remove the solvent and form a thin film of the resist (~0.5 to 2 m thick).

Step 3:

Exposure of the resist to electromagnetic radiation either through a

patterned mask or by direct writing if the radiation source is an
electron beam.
Positive resist: the exposed regions are rendered soluble because the polymer
is degraded.
Negative resist: the exposed regions become insoluble because the polymer is
crosslinked.

Step 4:

Step 5:

Step 6:

A positive or negative pattern can be developed by treatment with solvents that

dissolve the exposed regions in the positive resist or the unexposed regions in
the case of the negative acting resist. So producing the template for the pattern
that is to be etched onto the substrate.
Etching can be achieved by treatment with buffered HF or by using dry plasma
etching methods. In either case, the polymer must protect the regions of the
chip it still covers while allowing the exposed areas of the substrate to be
attached.
Once the pattern is transferred in this way, the remaining resist is stripped off
and discarded.

Polymer Resists
There are certain criteria that the prospective resist should meet:

adequate sensitivity to the radiation used,

the ability to adhere to the substrate and easily removed after etching,

possession of a high Tg, particularly if it is a positive working resist, to prevent flow

and distortion of developed patterns, and

resistance to etching reagents.

Sensitivity
Sensitivity can be defined as the amount of incident energy required to effect enough chemical
change in the resist to ensure that after development the desired relief image is
obtained.
Measured by plotting the log of the radiation dose, D, against the normalized film thickness
after development.
Sensitivity increases as the dose required to produce the image decreases, i.e. the lower the
dose required to produce the desired image, the greater the sensitivity.
Resolution
(a) For positive resists, resolution p is a function of both the rate of degradation and the
rate of change of solubility of the resist on exposure.
(b) For a negative resist, resolution n is a function of the rate of gel formation.
(c) Numerical values are obtained from the slope of the liner portion of the response curve.

p = 1/[log(Dp/Dp)]
n = 1/[log(Dg/Dgi)]

where

Dp: the dose required to effect complete solubility in the exposed regions while
leaving the unexposed region insoluble.
Dgo: the dose required to produce 100 percent initial film thickness.
Dgi: the onset of gel formation.

Photolithography
Many polymers are altered on exposure to ultraviolet radiation and this has led to the
development of photolithographic techniques using conventional UV radiation from a
mercury vapor lamp with an emission spectrum in the near-UV wavelength range of
430, 405, and 365 nm.
There are a number of types of photoresist which function by a variety of mechanisms.
Some typical examples are:

crosslinking of a linear polymer backbone by light induced decomposition of a

photosensitizer to generate active species,
crosslinking of a polymer containing photosensitive groups within its own structure,
polymerization of a monomeric material to yield a reduced solubility higher molecular
weight polymer,
enhancement of solubility by a photoinduced molecular rearrangement, and
enhancement of solubility by reduction in molecular weight by bond scission.

2. Positive Photoresists
(a) Positive photoresist has become increasingly important because of its higher resolution
capability and better thermal stability.
(b) At the typical UV wavelengths used in the near-UV, it is not possible to enhance
solubility by photoinduced bond scission because the light is not energetic enough.
(c) Positive resists usually comprise a large photoactive molecule that is insoluble in basic
solvents and also sufficiently bulk to inhibit dissolution of a base soluble polymer.
(d) During exposure, the photoactive compound breaks down to yield a base soluble
product and the exposed region can be developed out using a basic solvent.
(e) The base soluble polymeric component is typically a Novolac resin of relatively low
molecular weight.
(f) Novolac resins are inherently soluble in alkaline solutions. In resists their dissolution is
inhibited by the presence of the photoactive compound which is normally a
naphthoquinone diazide derivative.
(g) On exposure to UV this compound loses one molecule of nitrogen followed by a Wolff
rearrangement, after which the presence of small amount of water in the resist
completes the conversion of the ketene to the acid.
(h) After exposure to produce the carboxylic acid, the area readily dissolves in solution of
metallic or quaternary ammonium hydroxide.
(i) In the unexposed areas, dissolution of the Novolacs is prevented by the hydrophobic
nature of the naphthoquinone diazide that often takes the form of a large
polyfunctional derivative.
(j) Novolacs tend to absorb too strongly in the deep UV region (~250 nm) but other
systems have been developed specifically for this purpose.

(k) A base-soluble poly(methyl methacrylate-stat-methacrylic acid) copolymer that is

transparent in the deep UV, can be mixed with a photosensitive, base-insoluble,
dissolution inhibitor o-nitrobenzyl cholate.
(l) Exposure to deep UV photolyses the ester to produce cholic acid.
(m)
This system functions in the same way as the Novolac resist and gives a positive
tone pattern.
(n) Poly(methyl methacrylate) can be used as a positive resist, as can several of its
derivatives. In each case the carbonyl groups absorb at 215 nm, and this leads to
chain scission and degradation.

3. Negative Photoresists
This type of resist has been the mainstay of the microelectronics industry when
resolution to 2 m is adequate, but is not so useful for finer work.
A typical negative working photoresist is based on a cyclized or partially cyclized
rubber.
Cis-1,4-polyisoprene has a low glass transition temperature and is too soft for use in
lithography so partial cyclization is performed to yield a polymer with good adhesion
and film-forming properties.
The azide type photosensitizers used with this type of resist have good thermal stability
and decompose efficiently upon irradiation to give highly reactive intermediates known
as nitrenes.
Mercury lamps are used to provide the ultraviolet exposure and the azides can be
tailored molecularly to have absorbance maxima at or near the mercury lamp emission
lines.
The nitrenes generated by the UV exposure undergo insertion reaction with carbonhydrogen bonds to yield secondary amines and carbon-carbon double bonds to produce
aziridines.
The overall effect of the nitrene formation is to provide a cross-linked, reduced
solubility matrix.
A second system makes use of the potential for poly(vinyl cinnamate) to form
crosslinks upon radiation.
A negative tone resist can be obtained by using an image reversal technique with the
Novolacnaphthoquinone diazide system.
The procedure makes use of the normal steps for creating a positive resist, but on
treating with base and baking at temperature 350 K, a base-catalyzed decarboxylation
of the indene carboxylic acid occurs, forming an indene derivative which is a photoinsensitive dissolution inhibitor.
The complex resist is now subjected to a flood exposure of all areas by the UV source
and this converts the naphthoquinone diazide in the previously unexpected regions into
the acid form.
This renders these regions soluble, and development produces the negative tone
pattern.

4. Solution inhibition resists

The increasing sophistication and degree of integration required in semiconductor
fabrication calls for features of 1-m width or less to be produced.

 The ability to resolve such small dimensions is related to the wavelength of the
radiation used and it is generally agreed that current near-UV lithography is becoming
resolution-limited by its relatively long wavelength.
By going to shorter wavelength submicron resolution is more readily achievable and
there is currently much interest in using not only deep UV but also X-rays, ion beams,
and electron beams for exposing resists.
The inherent limitations of photolithography, caused by diffraction problems when
resolutions of <1 m are required, is overcome, at least in part, by turning to electron
beam and X-ray lithography with much shorter wavelength of the order 0.5 to 5 nm.
Exposure of the resist can be performed with a beam of electrons whose position is
controlled by a computer driven beam deflector, obviating the need for a mark.
As the photon energy of an electron beam is high enough to break virtually all the
bonds likely to be found in a polymer resist, the reactions involved are much less
selective than those encountered in some of the photoresists.
Both degradation and crosslinking may take place in the same polymer on exposure to
an electron beam, and the behavior of the resist as a positive or negative working
system will depend on which of these processes dominates.
This may be a function of the exposure time and intensity of the radiation such that a
positive acting resist may begin to crosslink and transform into a negative acting resist
on prolonged exposure.
Positive E-Beam Resists
Most polymers that are positive resists tend to depolymerize via monomer unzipping action
when degraded, and PMMA is typical of this type.
Unfortunately the sensitivity of PMMA to E-beam radiation is low.
PMMA derivatives have been prepared by replacing the -methyl group with more polar
electron withdrawing substituents, e.g. Cl, CN and CF3, to assist electron capture.
Modification of the ester group has also been a strategy.
The presence of the quaternary carbon atom is perhaps the single most important feature for
the resist to be a positive working system, because of its susceptibility to chain
scission.
Poly(alkene sulphone)s are also very sensitive positive resists, prepared by an alternating
copolymerization reaction between sulfur dioxide and an appropriate alkene.
Exposure to an electron beam cleaves the polymer chains at the weak C-S bond with liberation
of SO2.
In certain case such as poly(2-methylpentene sulphone) there is almost complete vaporization
of the exposed regions when a 20 kV electron beam is used.
The major limitation of this group of resists is their poor resistance to dry etching.
Negative E-Beam Resists
In general, negative acting resists tend to give poorer resolution, but are faster and
tougher than positive working resists.
This difference in speed arises from the fact that, although only a few crosslinks will
make a polymer insoluble, a positive resist may require extensive fragmentation before
it can be developed successfully.
Good negative working resists should have crosslinking sites such as double bonds,
epoxy groups, and possibly phenyl rings to delocalized and absorb the energy of the
electron beam, thereby protecting the chain from scission.
Halogenated aromatic polymers form another group of interest, where the introduction
of a halogen atom increases the sensitivity of structures based on polystyrene.

5. Image reversal process

Definition:
The image reversal process reverses the action of positive resist so negative images
can be formed with the same resolution and processing ease that a positive resist
allows. Whats more, image reversal allows variations of the slope of the photoresist
sidewall for higher resolution and/or lift off profiles
Process:
Image Reversal reverses the action of positive resist so that negative images can be
formed. This allows negative imaging with the resolution and ease of processing that
positive resist allows.
It also allows variations of the slope of the photo resist side wall for higher resolution
and or lift off profiles.
Silylation is the chemical act of implanting a silicon rich molecule in the top layers of
exposed positive photo resist.
This allows deep U.V. exposure that has a small depth of focus to expose only the top
layer, say the top 3,000 Angstroms of photo resist.
After exposure the silylation implants silicon in the top 3,000 Angstroms. A low
pressure, 5 to 10 milliliter Oxygen plasma creates a silicon dioxide layer about 50 to
200 Angstroms thick on the top of the exposed resist layer.
The oxygen plasma eats the unexposed resist and the process engineer has the ability
to use higher resolution deep U.V. and also have plasma developable positive resist
Image reversal resists can either be processed positive or negative. If the latter is
required, an image reversal bake followed by a flood exposure makes the areas
exposed in the first step inert in developer
Benefits
Allows variations of the slope of the photoresist sidewall for higher resolution and
improved lift off.
Replaces use of harsh chemicals or plasma "metal etch processes.
Using image reversal on two or more layer resist levels can eliminate residual
photoresist along the sidewalls, preventing "shorts" from level to level without reducing
line width.
Image reversal done with dark or light fields eliminates standing waves; this allows
steep and straight profiles, repeatable results, and excellent chemical deposition
uniformity.
Image reversal achieves excellent results for rework problems; underlying substrate is
protected (for a double metal process), so unwanted metal can be stripped away
without "pitting" or eroding the underlying level

6. Ion exchange resins

An ion-exchange resin or ion-exchange polymer is an insoluble matrix (or support
structure) normally in the form of small (12 mm diameter) beads, usually white or
yellowish, fabricated from an organic polymer substrate.
The material has highly developed structure of pores on the surface of which are sites
with easily trapped and released ions.
The trapping of ions takes place only with simultaneous releasing of other ions; thus
the process is called ion-exchange.

 There are multiple different types of ion-exchange resin which are fabricated to
selectively prefer one or several different types of ions.
Polymer with ions in a solution that is passed through them. This ability is also seen in
various natural systems such as soils and living cells. The synthetic resins are used
primarily for purifying water, but also for various other applications including separating
out some elements.
In water purification the aim is usually either to soften the water or to remove the
mineral content altogether.
The water is softened by using a resin containing Na+ cations but which binds Ca2+
and Mg2+ more strongly than Na+.
As the water passes through the resin the resin takes up Ca2+ and Mg2+ and releases
Na+ making for a softer water.
If the water needs to have the mineral content entirely removed it is passed through a
resin containing H+ (which replaces all the cations) and then through a second resin
containing OH- (which replaces all the anions).
The H+ and OH- then react together to give more water. The process has some
disadvantages in that there are substances occuring in some water (such as organic
matter or Fe3+ ions) which can foul the resin, but in general the advantages of the
process (long life of resins, cheap maintainance etc.) outweigh the disadvantages.
In addition, the process is very environmentally friendly because it deals only with
substances already occurring in water.

Working procedure:
The resins are prepared
as spherical beads 0.5 to
1.0 mm in diameter.
These appear solid even
under the microscope,
but on a molecular scale
the structure is quite
open, Figure .
This
means
that
a
solution passed down a
resin
bed
can
flow
through the crosslinked
polymer, bringing it into
intimate contact with the
exchange sites.
The affinity of sulphonic acid resins for cations varies with the ionic size and charge of
the cation.
Generally the affinity is greatest for large ions with high valency. For dilute solutions the

order of affinity for some common cations is approximately:

A corresponding list for amine based anion exchangers is:

Suppose a resin has greater affinity for ion B than for ion A. If the resin contains ion A and
ion B is dissolved in the water passing through it, then the following exchange takes
place, the reaction proceeding to the right (R represents the resin):

Uses:
A bed of resin can be used either to remove unwanted ions from a solution passed
through itor to accumulate a valuable mineral from the water which can later be
recovered from the resin. Examples of the removal of unwanted ions are the removal of
heavy metals from metal trade wastes, the demineralistion of the whey used to
manufacture specialized dairy products and the removal of salts from fruit juices.
Strong cation resins in the hydrogen form are used for the hydrolysis of starch and
sucrose.
Resins also find many uses in the laboratory where the chemist.s ingenuity is less
constrained by economic considerations. They can be used to remove interfering ions
during analysis or to accumulate trace quantities of ions from dilute solutions after
which they can be concentrated into a small volume by elution.
A cation resin in the hydrogen form can be used to determine the total concentration of
ions in a mixture of salts. The sample passing through a column is converted to the
equivalent quantity of acid and the amount readily found by titration.
One of the earliest applications of ion exchange was the separation of rare earth
elements during the 1940.s.
Detection of resin exhaustion:
A resin is considered to be exhausted when the ions in the resin have mostly been
replaced by the ions that are being removed from the solution.
Exhaustion of demineraliser is usually detected by an electrical conductivity cell
installed at the outlet.
When the conductivity rises to indicate ionic break through, a regeneration cycle can
be initiated automatically.
With small units it is possible to incorporate a pH indicator on the anion resin of a
mixed bed cartridge.
Exhaustion can be followed down the side of a transparent cartridge as the alkaline
anion resin is converted to the neutralised salt form.
Regeneration of ion exchange resin:
Regeneration is important because reducing the regenerant level lowers water quality
by allowing a small proportion of the ions which are being taken up by the resin to slip
through without exchange.
For example, with twin bed deionisers, incomplete regeneration of the cation resin to
the hydrogen form allows leakage of some sodium (the least held of the cations
commonly found in natural supplies) into water passing to the anion exchange vessel.
Consequently the water leaving the anion unit still contains this sodium in the form of a
sodium hydroxide solutions usually of pH 8 to 9.
However, the excessive amounts of regenerant required for complete regeneration
means that this is rarely practical.
In practice a compromise is usually reached, and commonly resins are regenerated to
about two thirds of the total capacity.
In addition, for many uses total purification is not necessary. For example, the water
with a pH of 8 to 9 mentioned earlier is highly suitable for use in boilers, as they
require slightly alkaline water.

7. POLYMER MEMBRANE
As far as important industrial applications were concerned, a breakthrough was
achieved in membrane technology by improving production methods to make
membranes with higher flow rates and more uniform pore sizes.
In particular, asymmetric membranes were produced, consisting of a very thin dense
top layer (skin <0.5 m) supported by a porous sublayer (50 to 200 m). Because
the permeation rate is inversely proportional to the thickness of the actual barrier layer,
asymmetric membranes showed a higher permeation rate than homogeneous
membranes of equal thickness.
Also, membranes made of materials other than cellulose nitrate appeared (cellulose
acetate, 1962; polyvinyl chloride and polyamide, 1963; polycarbonate, 1963;
polypropylene, 1970; polytetrafluoroethylene, 1970; polysulfone, 1979; polyvinylidene
fluoride 1980; polyester, 1981).
Of all the advances of separation technology, the development of membranes has
occupied the major research attention over the last quarter of the 20th century.
The great majority of the membranes used (90%) is polymeric; this is due to the low
cost of the starting materials, the ease of fabrication of asymmetric membranes, the
possibility to make different configurations (flat sheet, tubular, or capillary membranes
and hollow fibers), the modular nature of membrane separations that can fit any
desired plant size, and the favorable energetic efficiency of the separation processes
The porosity of polymer membranes, considered a bulk property, was determined by
functional tests, such as the bubble point method and the time lag permeation
technique.
On the other hand, porous membranes could be characterized by microscopic analysis
of their surface or cross sections. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is the most
popular technique, but atomic force microscopy (AFM), providing resolution at the
nanometric scale, developed now as the most powerful imaging technique.
This method can be used in a liquid environment, particularly under water, which is the
universal biological solvent.
Therefore, AFM became a useful method for appreciating the interaction of water with
polymeric biomaterials and the role of surface chemistry in the biological response to
materials
The principal uses of polymer membranes are certainly in the fields of industrial
filtration and separation and purification processes (wastewater treatment, seawater
desalination, gas separation, blood serum treatment, etc.).
However, interesting biomedical and biotechnological applications have emerged over
the last decades, such as soft contact lenses, guided tissue regeneration supports,
hemocompatible membranes, biosensors, and substrata for the in vitro cultivation of
mammalian cells.
Recently, the inclusion of guest species into the nanopores of track-etched membranes
has opened new opportunities in the field of nanotechnologies with the template
synthesis of either organic or metal nanomaterials, as hollow or filled tubules. Future
developments in electronics and optics are expected.

8. Polymer complexes for water treatment

WATER TREATMENT
Far more resin is used for water purification than for any other purpose. It is therefore
appropriate to discuss water treatment examples when outlining the application of the
principles of ion exchange technology. Industrial ion exchange units are produced in

sizes ranging from a few litres up to vessels holding several tonnes of resin. Service
runs between regenerations usually range from 12 to 48 hours.
The two major types of treatment applied to water are water softening - the replacement
of hard ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ by Na+ - and demineralisation - the complete
removal of dissolved minerals. Both of these treatments are outlined below.
Water softening
In water softening a cation resin in the sodium form is used to remove hard metal ions
(calcium and magnesium) from the water along with troublesome traces of iron and
manganese, which are also often present. These ions are replaced by an equivalent
quantity of sodium, so that the total dissolved solids content of the water remains
unchanged as does the pH and anionic content. At regular time intervals the resin is
cleaned .
This involves passing influent water back up through the resin to remove suspended
solids, passing a regenerant solution down through the resin to replace the ions that
have bound to the resin and then rinsing again with water to remove the regenerant
solution. In water softening the regenerant is a strong solution of sodium chloride.
Demineralisation
Virtually all the dissolved matter in natural water supplies is in the form of charged
ions.
Complete deionization (i.e. demineralisation) can be achieved by using two resins. The
water is first passed through a bed of cation exchange resin contained in a vessel
similar to that described for softeners.
This is in the hydrogen ion form brought about by the use of a strong acid regenerant
(either hydrochloric or sulphuric). During service, cations in the water are taken up by
the resin while hydrogen ions are released.
Thus the effluent consists of a very weak mixture of acids. The water now passes
through
a
second
vessel
containing
anion exchange resin
in the hydroxide form
for
which
sodium
hydroxide is used as
the regenerant.
Here the anions are
exchanged
for
hydroxide ions, which
react
with
the
hydrogen
ions
to
form water.
Such twin bed units
will reduce the total
solids
content
to
approximately
1-2
mg L-1.
With larger units it is
usual to pass water
leaving the cation unit through a degassing tower.
This removes most of the carbonic acid produced from carbon dioxide and bicarbonate
in the feed water and reduces the load on the anion unit.
Without degassing the carbonic acid would be taken up by the anion bed after
conversion to carbonate.

UNIT V
POLYMERS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS
Topics : Polymer for biomedical applications polymers in dentistry tissue
adhesives
dialysis membrane blood oxygenators bone cement prostheses biodegradable sutures
control drug delivery systems.

1. Introduction: Polymer for biomedical applications

Polymers are applied for a large number of medical applications : as medical
supplies, as support or replacement of malfunctioning body parts or as a drug
reservoir providing a local therapeutic effect.
The specifications for the selected material strongly depend on the application. For
temporary applications, biodegradable polymers may be the preferred
candidate.
In the past 3 decades, a large range of biodegradable polymers have been developed,
tested and applied for a wide variety of medical applications.
A recent development in biomaterial science is the use of polymers as scaffolds for
tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
Biodegradable polymers are the preferred candidates for making such constructs. In
addition there is the growing need to provide biodegradable polymers which also
interact in a favourable way with the external biological environment as to stimulate
cell ingrowth and tissue regeneration.
This can be achieved by loading the scaffold with bioactive molecules or by surface
modification of the scaffold.

Biodegradable hydrogels
Hydrogels are interesting materials for medical application, including drug delivery
systems and matrices for cell culture.
Designing polymers for biomedical applications
Traditionally, advances in the biomaterials field have relied heavily on materials
developed for non-biomedical applications.
More recently, the development of materials designed for specific biomedical
applications has helped fuel enormous growth in the health care industry.
For example, sales of controlled-release pharmaceutical formulations alone, which
depend heavily on development of functional, biocompatible materials, now
exceed $20 billion per year.

2. POLYMERS IN DENTISTRY
Polymers in everyday things dentistry
(Background information)
Polymers are a part of everyday life and examples can be found almost anywhere.
Many people think of polymers simply as plastics used for packaging, in
household objects and for making fibres, but this is just the tip of the iceberg.
Polymers are used in all sorts of applications you might not have thought much about
before. Polymers and composites (materials made by combining two or more materials)
are vital to modern dentistry, for example.
Teeth
Bones and teeth, the hard tissues in the human body, are made partly of organic
and partly of inorganic material.
The inorganic component mainly consists of a substance called hydroxyapatite.
The simplest formula of hydroxyapatite is Ca5(PO4)3(OH).
The outer layer of your teeth is the hardest material in your body and is called
enamel. Enamel consists of approximately 92% hydroxyapatite.
Enamel is a ceramic material. Beneath the enamel, the bulk of a tooth is made of
dentin. This is a composite material and contains a mixture of hydroxyapatite,
collagen, water, and salts. Collagen is an organic substance.
Teeth function in one of the most inhospitable environments in the human body. They
are subject to larger temperature variations than most other body parts and can cope
with exposure to ice at 0 C and to hot tea and coffee.
Teeth also encounter pH changes in the range 0.5 to 8, as well as large mechanical
stresses during chewing. Tooth decay, called caries, occurs when teeth are frequently
exposed to foods containing carbohydrates (starches and sugars).
These foods include milk, some soft drinks, ice cream, cakes and even some fruits,
vegetables and juices. Bacteria that live in the mouth form plaque. Plaque is a film
on the teeth where bacteria reproduce.
The plaque interacts with deposits left on your teeth from sugary and starchy foods to
produce acids. Over time, these acids damage tooth enamel because they dissolve the
hydroxyapatite present in your teeth.

 The acids formed by plaque can be partly counteracted by saliva in your mouth. The
acids in plaque can eventually dissolve the enamel surface of the tooth and
create holes (cavities) in the tooth.
Cavities are usually painless until they grow very large and destroy the nerve and
blood vessels inside the tooth. It is important that any holes that form in our teeth are
filled as soon as possible.
Fillings
Amalgam fillings
When we visit the dentist for a filling, he or she may use a material that looks like a
silvery metal to fill up the tooth cavity.
This filling material is often called amalgam. Dental amalgam is an alloy of mercury
(50%), silver (30%), tin, copper and zinc.
It is made by dissolving the solid metals in the liquid mercury. Amalgam has been used
to fill teeth for about 160 years.
The table shows some of the advantages and disadvantages of amalgam fillings.
Advantages
Reasonably priced and cost
Effective
Strong, resistant to wear and
durable
Dependable
Least time consuming kind of
filling for a dentist to perform
Average lifetime of amalgam
fillings is about 15 years

Disadvantages
Silver colour is no longer considered aesthetically
acceptable (it is thought to look unpleasant)
Does not stick to the tooth, which means the dentist
has to make a large undercut cavity to keep the
filling in place
Conducts heat too well, which results in some
people with amalgam fillings experiencing pain
when they eat hot or cold foods
Contains
mercury (mercury compounds
are
poisonous)
Getting rid of millions of potentially environmentally
hazardous old fillings is a substantial disposal
problem

Used for more than a century

with good results
White fillings
White fillings are routinely used on front teeth and are increasingly being used on back
teeth.
There are two main types of white filling materials currently used by dentists:
composite fillings and glass ionomer cements.
Composite fillings
Composites used for filling teeth are generally made of silica or glass particles
bound with a polymer resin.
The polymers that are used as the resin in composites for fillings are based on a
monomer called methacrylic acid.
The polymer resin is usually filled with between 35 to 85% glass filler. The
procedure used to place a composite filling in a tooth involves several steps.
First, the tooth must be prepared. It is etched with acid to remove debris and an
adhesive is applied.
The solvent in the adhesive is then evaporated. Next, the cavity is filled with a layer of
composite. This layer is hardened by shining a light on it a process called
photocuring.

 The light causes the monomer molecules to react with one another and link together to
form a solid resin.
The resin shrinks a little during polymerisation so several successive composite
layers are added and photocured. Photocuring is useful because it allows the dentist
time to work with the material, building and shaping it correctly before it is exposed to
light. When the dentist is ready, the filling can be hardened immediately by shining
light on it.
Finally, the filling is polished. Composite fillings have advantages and disadvantages.
The table below summarises these.
Glass ionomer fillings
Glass ionomer fillings are similar to composite fillings because they also use a polymer
resin.
However, the filling material contains strontium, phosphate and fluoride ions.
The big advantage of this filling material is that it interacts with the enamel and dentin
in the tooth and forms an excellent seal between the filling and the tooth.
A true biological and chemical link is formed with the tooth and this reduces the
sensitivity of the filled tooth.
Another advantage of glass ionomers is that the fluoride ions from the filling
material are continually released by reaction with saliva.
These fluoride ions are next to the teeth and can react with the enamel. This helps
strengthen the teeth and prevent further decay.
The disadvantages of glass ionomer materials are that they are not as aesthetic as
composites and they are weak under normal chewing forces.

3. TISSUE ADHESIVES
Dermabond is a cyanoacrylate tissue adhesive that forms a strong bond across
apposed wound edges, allowing normal healing to occur below.
It is marketed to replace sutures that are 5-0 or smaller in diameter for incisional or
laceration repair. This adhesive has been shown to save time during wound repair, to
provide a flexible water-resistant protective coating and to eliminate the need for
suture removal.
The long-term cosmetic outcome with Dermabond is comparable to that of traditional
methods of repair.
Best suited for small, superficial lacerations, it may also be used with confidence on
larger wounds where subcutaneous sutures are needed.
Physicians have long sought an efficient method of wound repair that requires little
time and minimizes discomfort for their patients, yet produces a good cosmetic
outcome.
Cyanoacrylate tissue adhesives
It combine cyanoacetate and formaldehyde in a heat vacuum along with a base to
form a liquid monomer.

When the monomer comes into contact with moisture on the skin's surface, it
chemically changes into a polymer that binds to the top epithelial layer.
This polymer forms a cyanoacrylate bridge, binding the two wound edges together
and allowing normal healing to occur below.
The conversion from monomer to polymer occurs rapidly, preventing seepage of the
adhesive below the wound margins as long as the edges are well apposed. Heat is
often generated during the change from monomer to polymer, and this heat may be felt
on occasion by patients during application to the skin.

 Cyanoacrylates have also been shown to have antimicrobial properties.

Cyanoacrylates were first manufactured in 1949.
How to use:
Properly selected wounds on the face, extremities and torso may be closed with the
adhesive.
The use of adhesive rather than sutures is solely up to the discretion of the physician and
will reflect his or her level of comfort and experience.
Extremity and torso wounds tend to heal better when subcutaneous sutures are placed
first.
If adhesive is chosen by the physician to be used on areas of high tension or mobility
(such as joints), this area should be immobilized in a splint to prevent premature peeling of
the adhesive .
Scalp wounds may be closed with adhesive using meticulous care so as not to allow
excess adhesive to run through the hair.
Dermabond must be kept dry in this area for at least five days for normal healing. This
tissue adhesive should not be used on animal bites, severely contaminated wounds, ulcers,
puncture wounds, mucous membranes (including mucocutaneous junctions) or areas of
high moisture content, such as the groin or axillae
The adhesive may be used on selected hand, foot and joint wounds if these areas
are kept dry and immobilized.
Action of Tissue adhesives
The adhesive acts as its own water-resistant bandage, and no added coverings are
needed. Patients may shower normally and pat the area dry.
The adhesive will spontaneously peel off in five to 10 days. No topical antibiotics
should be applied to the closed wound because this would break down the adhesive and
cause early peeling.
In active children, a bandage may be recommended to prevent them from picking at their
wound or reinjuring themselves in the same location.
Children should not take baths, because excessive exposure to water may loosen the top
epithelial layer of skin and cause premature peeling or wound dehiscence.
Precaution:
Suspected infection below the adhesive may be treated with oral antibiotics.
Purulence from a true infection generally pushes the dried polymer away from the skin.

In these rare cases, the adhesive should be removed and standard wound care
measures should be initiated. Reapplication of adhesive in such cases is not
recommended.
Cyanoacrylates are used for corneal perforations and are not harmful to the eye

4. DIALYSIS MEMBRANE
Definition: Dialysis is a simple process in which small solutes diffuse from a
high concentration solution to a low concentration solution across a semi
permeable membrane until equilibrium is reached.
Since the porous membrane selectively allows smaller solutes to pass while retaining
larger species, dialysis can effectively be used as a separation process based on
size rejection.
The conditions of dialysis can be controlled or manipulated to produce desired results
for a variety of dialysis applications.

 The application depicts which Molecular Weight Cut Off (MWCO) yields the preferred
molecular separation
Dialysis Applications
Macromolecular Purification , Protein Concentration , Solute Fractionation, Contaminant
removal pH Change, Desalting, Buffer Exchange, Binding Studies, Electro-elution
Dialysis Tubing
It is a type of semi- or partially permeable membrane tubing made from regenerated
cellulose or cellophane.
It is used for diffusion, or more accurately osmosis. Osmosis is when materials pass
through a semi-permeable layer to reach equillibrium.
It allows the passage of small molecules but not larger ones. It is used in clinical
circumstances to ensure a filtered flow of molecules, preventing the flow of larger
solute molecules.
Small molecules can be "washed" out of a solution which is pumped through the tubing
into a solvent, usually water, which surrounds it and in which they can be flushed away.
It is also a filter for the kidney.
Dialysis tubing is permeable to glucose, for example, but not to any starches or
proteins.
This is because the polymeric protein and starch molecules are too large to pass through
the semi-permeable dialysis tubing.
This same process mimics the function of a cell, which selectively, sometimes through
passive transportation or active transportation, allows some molecules to pass through
the membrane.
demonstrations of semi-permeable membranes, a solution containing several types of
molecules, usually glucose and starch, is placed into a semi-permeable dialysis
bag, such as a cellulose membrane with pores, and the bag is sealed.
The sealed dialysis bag is placed in a container of a different solution, or water.
Molecules small enough to pass through the tubing (water, salts, monosaccharides, and
other small molecules) tend to move into or out of the dialysis bag in the direction of
decreasing concentration, therefore displaying diffusion.
Larger molecules (such as proteins, or polysaccharides) that have dimensions significantly
greater than the pore diameter are retained inside the dialysis bag.
A hypotonic solution crosses the semi-permeable membrane into the hypertonic
solution in an attempt to reach equilibrium.
Factors affecting the Dialysis rate:
Factors that affect the completeness of dialysis include (1) dialysis buffer volume, (2)
buffer composition, (3) the number of buffer changes, (4) time, (5)
temperature and (6) particle size vs. pore size. Substances

5. Blood oxygenators
An oxygenator is a medical device that is capable of exchanging oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the blood of human patient in surgical procedures that may necessitate
the interruption or cessation of blood flow in the body, a critical organ or great blood
vessel.
These organs can be the heart, lungs or liver, while the great vessels can be the aorta,
pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins or vena cava.
An oxygenator is typically utilized by a perfusionist in cardiac surgery in
conjunction with the heart-lung machine.
However, oxygenators can also be utilized in extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in
neonatal intensive care units by nurses.

For most cardiac operations such as coronary artery bypass grafting, the cardiopulmonary
bypass is performed using a heart-lung machine (or cardiopulmonary bypass machine).
The heart-lung machine serves to replace the work of the heart during the open bypass
surgery. The machine replaces both the heart's pumping action and the lungs'
gas exchange function.
Since the heart is stopped during the operation, this permits the surgeon to operate on a
bloodless, stationary heart.
One component of the heart-lung machine is the oxygenator. The oxygenator
component serves as the lung, and is designed to expose the blood to oxygen and
remove carbon dioxide.
It is disposable and contains about 2-4 m of a membrane permeable to gas but
impermeable to blood, in the form of hollow fibers. Blood flows on the outside of the
hollow fibers, while oxygen flows in the opposite direction on the inside of the fibers.
As the blood passes through the oxygenator, the blood comes into intimate contact with
the fine surfaces of the device itself.
Gas containing oxygen and medical air is delivered to the interface between the blood
and the device, permitting the blood cells to absorb oxygen molecules directly.
Heparin-coated blood oxygenator
Operations which involve uncoated CPB circuits require a high dose of systemic heparin.
Although the effects of heparin are reversible by administering protamine, there are a
number of side effects associated with this.
Side
effects
can
include
allergic
reaction to heparin resulting
in
thrombocytopenia, various reactions to the administration of protamine and postoperative hemorrhage due to inadequate reversal of the anticoagulation.
Systemic heparin does not completely prevent clotting or the activation of complement,
neutrophils, and monocytes, which are the principal mediators of the inflammatory
response.
his response produces a wide range of cytotoxins, and cell-signaling proteins that
circulate throughout the patient's body during surgery and disrupt homeostasis. The
inflammatory responses can produce microembolic particles.
A greater source of such microemboli are caused by the suction of surgical debris
and lipids into the CPB circuit.
Microparticles obstruct arterioles that supply small nests of cells throughout the body
and, together with cytotoxins, damage organs and tissues and temporarily disturb
organ function.
All aspects of cardiopulmonary bypass, including manipulation of the aorta by the
surgeon, may be associated with neurological symptoms following perfusion.
Physicians refer to such temporary neurological deficits as pumphead syndrome.
Heparin-coated blood oxygenators are one option available to a surgeon and a
perfusionist to decrease morbidity associated with CPB to a limited degree.
Heparin-coated oxygenators are thought to:
Improve overall biocompatibility and host homeostasis
Mimic the natural endothelial lining of the vasculature
Reduce the need for systemic anticoagulation
Better maintain platelet count
Reduce adhesion of plasma proteins
Prevent denaturation and activation of adhered proteins and blood cells
Avoid complications resulting from an abnormal pressure gradient across the
oxygenator

Many perfusionists and anesthesiologists are not aware of the danger of exposing
polycarbonate oxygenators to concentrated liquid anesthetics.
In addition, oxygenator and liquid anesthetic manufacturers currently do not label their
products with warnings about these harmful effects.

All personnel involved with heart-lung bypass surgery should be aware of the
consequences of exposing polycarbonate oxygenators to concentrated anesthetic
agents and should take steps to prevent such events.
Recommendations
Alert all perfusionists and anesthesia personnel to this report.
Never place an anesthesia vaporizer above or near an oxygenator or any other
polycarbonate device (e.g., blood filters, cardiotomy reservoirs).
Ensure that the vaporizer is adequately filled during setup to avoid refilling during the
bypass procedure.
Consider placing the following label on all heart-lung machine consoles:

6. BONE CEMENT
Definition: Bone cement is a substance commonly used to hold implants in bone.
Often cement is used for hip replacement and knee replacement surgery.
Cement is a misnomer, as most often the word.
Composition:
1. The ready bone cement is a compound consisting of 90 % of
polymethylmetacrylate, (PMM), the rest are mainly crystals of barium sulfate or
Zirconium oxide that make the resulting product radio-opaque).
2. Bone cement is used for fixation of the artificial joints to the skeleton. It acts, however,
not as a glue, it acts as a filler. The familiar materials Plexiglas or Lucite consist of
pure polymethylmetacrylate; Plexiglas is one of the strongest plastics.
3. The microscopic structure of bone cement is made by two substances
glued
together.
4. One
substance
are
the
small
particles
of
pre-polymerized
PMMA
(PolyMethylMetaAcrylate), so called "pearls. These pearls are supplied as a white
powder. The other substance is a liquid monomer of MMA(MethylMetacrylate). Both
substances are mixed together at the operation table with added catalyst that starts
the polymerization of the monomer fluid. The polymerizing fluid glues together the
pearls into a firm, strong, but brittle mass
Function of bone cement - filling the space between the skeleton and
the total joint device.
The surgeon uses the doughy bone cement when it is no longer sticky. The mass
cannot glue to the skeleton or to the total hip /joint device.
The goal is to press the doughy bone cement into all small openings and voids in the
spongy skeleton and fill all hollows on uneven surfaces.
The bone cement shall adhere closely to the surface of the total joint
Preparation of bone cement at the operation table
The surgeon's assistant prepares the bone cement directly at the operation table by
mixing manually a white polymer powder of PMM (PolyMethylMetacrylate) with
a nasty smelling monomer fluid.

 The resulting product is a doughy white mass which polymerizes to a hard and brittle
substance within ten minutes.
The polymerization is accompanied by development of heat so that the surface
temperature of a massive ball of polymerizing bone cement reaches temporarily 60 to
100 degrees Celsius.
A thin layer of polymerizing bone cement is cooled by the mass of the total joint
on one side and by the skeleton itself which is permeated with blood 37 degr C warm
on the other side. These conditions make that the surface temperature of bone cement
layer, fortunately, never reaches these high temperatures because the skeleton's cells
cannot survive temperatures over 47 degr C longer time.
When the surgeon presses the doughy bone cement into the prepared cavity in the
bone, small quantities of monomer fluid are still present in the product.
The toxic monomer fluid may leak into the circulation and cause sudden blood pressure
fall during the cementing of the total hip device.
The fully polymerized bone cement also contains air bubbles which were entrapped in
the product during the mixing procedure. These air bubbles diminish the strength of the
polymerized bone cement.
Manufacturers thus developed vacuum mixing systems that decrease the amount
of air bubbles in the ready bone cement.
The vacuum system also suctions out the vapors of the loose monomer hich
remained after imperfect mixing of the substances.
Drawbacks
Many commercial formulations of bone cement are now available on the market.
These products differ in chemical composition and physical properties as well as in the
mechanical strength and endurance of the product Statistics also demonstrated that
total hip replacements done with certain bone cement products (low viscosity bone
cement, Boneloc cement) have had increased rates of failures ( Thanner 1995)

The bone cement as prepared by the surgeon at the operation table is a material with
many drawbacks.
it is mechanically weak because it has entrapped impurities such as air and blood,
it is brittle, it has low endurance limit and is prone to fatigue failure.
it spawns small particles from its surface containing hard crystals of Barium sulfate
which scratch and damage the fine joint surfaces of the artificial joint.
small cement particles may cause osteolysis - "bone dissolving disease"
it has very large surface which may support colonization of bacteria and development
of postoperative infections
it may cause allergy and anaphylactic reaction during the operation
On the positive side:
The bone cement has a very long (>35 years) track record, none of the cementless
competitors have as long track record.
The surgeons are used to work with the bone cement
The operation technique with bone cement is more forgiving
Allergy to bone cement and plastics:
There are only few reports about a delayed allergy to bone cement or some of its
constituents in patients operated on with cemented total hips.
There are papers describing failures of cemented total hips caused by allergy to
these substances Dentists who used the same substance as bone cement have had
problems with the dental cements.

The substance caused allergic mouth sores and other allergic problems because of
leaking some of these compounds such as benzoyl peroxide.
Sensitivity to polymeric -polyethylene materials in patients with well- functioning
artificial joints has not been demonstrated as yet.

7. PROSTHESES
It is part of the field of biomechatronics, the science of using mechanical devices with
human muscle, skeleton, and nervous systems to assist or enhance motor control lost
by trauma, disease, or defect.
Prostheses are typically used to replace parts lost by injury (traumatic) or
missing from birth (congenital) or to supplement defective body parts. Inside
the body, artificial heart valves are in common use with artificial hearts and lungs
seeing less common use but under active technology development.
Other medical devices and aids that can be considered prosthetics include artificial
eyes, palatal obturator, gastric bands, and dentures.
History
The ancient Egyptians of the Third Intermediate Period developed this wood and
leather prosthetic toe to facilitate an amputee's ability to walkUse of prostheses is very
ancient.
Dental prostheses have been found in Roman tombs: a woman's body was found
showing the use of gold wire to keep artificial teeth in place, and another, older body,
dated to 2500 BC, has been found with bridgework in gold on the front teeth.
Roman bronze crowns have also been found, but their use could have been more
aesthetic than medical.

A famous and quite refined historical prosthetic arm was that of Gtz von
Berlichingen, made in the beginning of the 16th century.
Around the same time, Franois de la Noue is also reported to have had an iron hand,
as is, in the 17th century,
Lower extremity prosthetics
Lower extremity prosthetics describes artificially replaced limbs located at the hip level
or lower.
The two main subcategories of lower extremity prosthetic devices are 1.trans-tibial
(any amputation transecting the tibia bone or a congenital anomaly resulting in a tibial
deficiency) and 2.trans-femoral (any amputation transecting the femur bone or a
congenital anomaly resulting in a femural deficiency).

In the prosthetic industry a trans-tibial prosthetic leg is often referred to as a "BK" or

below the knee prosthesis while the trans-femoral prosthetic leg is often referred to as
an "AK" or above the knee prosthesis.Other, less prevalent lower extremity cases
include the following:

o Hip disarticulations - This usually refers to when an amputee or congenitally

challenged patient has either an amputation or anomaly at or in close
proximity to the hip joint.

o Knee disarticulations - This usually refers to an amputation through the knee

disarticulating the femur from the tibia.

o Symes - This is an ankle disarticulation while preserving the heel pad.

8. BIODEGRADABLE SUTURES
Shape Memory Polymers Biodegradable Sutures
Background
The technique of keyhole surgery minimises scarring, speeds healing and
reduces the risk of infection.
However, it is extremely difficult to carry out delicate surgical procedures accurately in
a confined space, such as implanting a bulky device or knotting a suture with the right
amount of tension.

In the latter case, if a knot is

pulled too tight, necrosis of the surrounding
tissue can occur, but if it is too loose, the incision wont heal properly and scar tissue
develops.
Innovative New Suture Material
That situation is about to change, thanks to an innovative shape shifting plastic that,
according to its developers, Dr Andreas Lendlein and Dr Robert Langer, could be
fashioned into novel medical devices such as smart surgical sutures that allow an
optimised tightening of the knot. This shape memory capability could also allow bulky
implants to be placed in the body through small incisions or perform complex
mechanical deformations automatically in a
confined space. In addition, these
polymers are biodegradable, which means they breakdown after a certain time period
when inserted into the body, eliminating the need for a second operation to remove
the sutures or implant.
These applications show significant progress in the medical treatment of human
beings, The introduction of such medical devices would benefit patients and allow for a
dramatic decrease in the overall cost of treatment.
Shape Memory Materials and Medicine
Shape memory materials, which take one form at a certain temperature and transform
into another shape when heated, are not new, but until now, no such plastics have
been used in medical devices or proved to be biodegradable.
As early as the 1930s, scientists discovered that certain metallic compounds exhibited
the shape memory effect when heated above a transition temperature. Since then
shape memory alloys (SMAs), such as the nickel-titanium alloy Nitinol, have found
uses in actuators and medical devices such as orthodontic wires that self-adjust and
stents for keeping blood vessels open.
However, despite their broad range of applications, SMAs
are expensive, nondegradable, and in many cases
lack biocompatibility and compliance, only
allowing for a deformation of about 8% for Ni-Ti alloys - this new material allows
deformations between permanent and temporary shape of up to 400%.
Composition of the Shape Memory Polymer
The biodegradable multiblockcopolymer
features two blockbuilding segments, a
hard segment and a switching segment, which are linked together in linear chains.
The higher-temperature shape is the plastics permanent form, which it assumes
after heating.
Shape Memory Capabilities
The plastic can be stretched or scrunched into temporary forms up to four times
larger or smaller than its permanent shape.
Independent of their actual temporary shape, these materials can
memorise a
second, permanent shape, says Lendlein.

They are automatically transformed into this permanent shape when exposed to a
suitable external stimulus, such as an increase in temperature.
Testing the Shape Memory Polymer
To test the feasibility of this concept, the researchers made sutures by heating fibres of
their shape shifting material to 50C. They were then stretched to three times their
length and cooled to room temperature.
These extended fibres were then used to loosely stitch a wound on a rat. When the
suture was heated to 41C (just above body temperature), the thread tightened and
closed the wound, applying just the right amount of pressure (0.1 N).
Later, after the wound is healed, the material is designed to dissolve and is harmlessly
absorbed by the body.
Shape Memory Polymer Stents
Only basic research with the material has been completed so far, and more detailed
studies are needed before the polymer-with-memory material can be tested in
humans.
The researchers have already demonstrated
the feasibility of this application by
getting a long fibre of the material to transform into a
corkscrew shape, typical of a
stent.
Such stems
could be compressed and fed through a tiny hole in the body into a
blocked artery. The bodys warmth would trigger the polymers expansion into its
original shape, and over time it would dissolve in the body.

9. CONTROL DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS.

For most of the industrys existence, pharmaceuticals have primarily consisted of
simple, fast-acting chemical compounds that are dispensed orally (as solid pills
and liquids) or as injectables.
During the past three decades, however, formulations that control the rate and
period of drug delivery (i.e., time-release medications) and target specific areas of
the body for treatment have become increasingly common and complex. Because
of researchers ever-evolving understanding of the human body and the explosion
of new and potential treatments resulting from discoveries of bioactive molecules
and gene therapies, pharmaceutical research hangs on the precipice of yet another
great advancement.

However, this next leap poses questions and challenges to not only the
development of new treatments but also the mechanisms with which to administer
them.
The current methods of drug delivery exhibit specific problems that scientists are
attempting to address.
For example, many drugs potencies and therapeutic effects are limited or
otherwise reduced because of the partial degradation that occurs before they
reach a desired target in the body.
Once ingested, time-release medications deliver treatment continuously, rather
than providing relief of symptoms and protection from adverse events solely when
necessary.
Further, injectable medications could be made less expensively and administered
more easily if they could simply be dosed orally.
However, this improvement cannot happen until methods are developed to safely
shepherd drugs through specific areas of the body, such as the stomach, where
low pH can destroy a medication, or through an area where healthy bone and
tissue might be adversely affected.

 The goal of all sophisticated drug delivery systems, therefore, is to deploy

medications intact to specifically targeted parts of the body through a medium
that can control the therapys administration by means of either a physiological or
chemical trigger.
To achieve this goal, researchers are turning to advances in the worlds of microand nanotechnology.
During the past decade, polymeric microspheres, polymer micelles, and hydrogeltype materials have all been shown to be effective in enhancing drug targeting
specificity, lowering systemic drug toxicity, improving treatment absorption rates,
and providing protection for pharmaceuticals against biochemical degradation.
In addition, several other experimental drug delivery systems show exciting signs
of promise, including those composed of biodegradable polymers, dendrimers (socalled star polymers), electroactive polymers, and modified C-60 fullerenes (also
known as buckyballs).
Chemists, biochemists, and chemical engineers are all looking beyond traditional
polymer networks to find other innovative drug transport systems.
Two of the more interesting cutting-edge technologies involve the use of
dendrimers (highly branched, globular, synthetic macromolecules) and
modified buckyballs to deploy medications capable of providing targeted
drug delivery.
Dendritic macromolecules make suitable carrier systems because their size
and structure can be controlled simply by synthetic means, and they can easily be
processed and made biocompatible and biodegradable.
In addition, while they can be used to encapsulate individual small drug molecules
in the manner of polymer micelles (a unimolecular nanocapsule, if you will), they
can also serve as hubs onto which large numbers of drug molecules can be
attached via covalent bonds.
The practical result of this latter ability, distinct from the micelle-based systems,
is that a single dendrimer may transport extremely high densities of drug
molecules.
To date, these delivery systems remain largely unexplored, but researchers have
demonstrated the usefulness of attaching the anticancer agents 5-fluorouracil to
polyaminoamine
dendrimers
and
methotrexate
to
hydrazide-terminated
dendrimers formed from poly(aryl ether).
The hoped-for result is an increased therapeutic potency and a decreased adverse
effect profile for radiation treatments.
Fullerenes, in fact, are ideally suited for this goal because of their size and
resistance to biochemical attack from within the body. Thus, radioactive atoms
may readily be transported within the balls, and any fear of stray radiation
damaging otherwise healthy tissue is minimized