SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2005, 33(5), 419-434

Society for Personality Research (Inc.)

SOCCER FANS MOTIVATION AS A PREDICTOR OF

PARTICIPATION IN SOCCER-RELATED ACTIVITIES: AN
EMPIRICAL EXAMINATION IN ISRAEL
AARON COHEN AND ANAT AVRAHAMI
University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
This study tested the applicability of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS) developed by
Wann (1995) in the Israeli soccer setting. The study examined whether the scale can be
applied to soccer specifically, not just to sport in general. It also tested the predictive validity
of the SFMS by developing a scale of participation in soccer activities and examined several
hypotheses regarding its relationship to the SFMS. The sample consisted of 327 high school
students in the north of Israel (an 86% response rate). The findings showed that the SFMS
predicted a significant amount of variance of participation in soccer activities. Results of
regression analyses showed that eustress (positive stress), self-esteem, group, and aesthetic
motivations were strongly related to active participation in soccer activities. Entertainment,
self-esteem, and economic motivations were strongly related to passive participation in soccer
activities. The findings are discussed in terms of their conceptual and practical contributions.

Sport has become a major attraction within the leisure and tourism industries.
Hence, studies of the motivation behind participation in sport and leisure
activities are of increasing interest to both sport professionals and members of the
tourist and leisure industries who are interested in sport and leisure planning and
marketing development (Recours, Souville, & Griffet, 2004). Social science
research on sport distinguishes three dimensions of sport involvement: the
behavioral dimension, the cognitive dimension, and the tendency dimension
(Snyder & Spreitzer, 1973). Each of these dimensions can include more than one
type of involvement. For example, the behavioral involvement in sport can take
two forms: 1) direct participation in sport activity, and 2) participation as a
spectator or a fan by reading about sport and watching games on television or at
the stadium. Earlier studies have shown that there are economic, social, and
Aaron Cohen and Anat Avrahami, Department of Political Science, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.
Appreciation is due to anonymous reviewers.
Please address correspondence and reprint requests to: Aaron Cohen, Department of Political Science,
University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel. Phone: (9724) 8240-041; Fax: (9724) 8257-785; Email:
<ACOHEN@POLI.HAIFA.AC.IL>

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MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS

psychological predispositions to these types of leisure time activities (Snyder &

Spreitzer, 1976).
This study focused on participation through the spectators role. Watching
sport represents a predominant form of leisure behavior in todays society. A
large number of people attend sporting events and think of themselves as sport
fans (James & Ridinger, 2002). Ascertaining the factors that motivate individuals
to watch sport is a theoretical and practical challenge for sport researchers and
practitioners (Armstrong, 2002). Many studies have dealt with the sport spectator
phenomenon and with behavior of fans and spectators. Some studies have
focused on the outcomes of spectatorship, examining the socialization processes
and motivation patterns that lie behind this form of leisure behavior (Gaskell &
Pearton, 1979; Zillman, Bryant, & Sapolsky, 1979). Other studies have focused
on the factors related to the sources and stability of spectators identification with
a particular team (Moody, 1997; Wann, 2000; Wann, Tucker, & Schrader, 1996;
Wann & Wilson, 1999a; Wann & Wilson, 1999b).
This study focused on a concept that has attracted much attention in sport
literature, namely fans motivations, and uses a scale developed by Wann (1995)
and validated by Wann, Schrader, and Wilson (1999). The scale has been widely
used in the attempts to better understand sport fan motivation. To that end, studies
have utilized various correlates of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS). Some
have examined how different demographic characteristics such as gender, race,
and marital status are related to sport fan motivation (Bilyeu & Wann, 2002;
James & Ridinger, 2002; Wann & Ensor, 2001; Wann, Lane, & Duncan, 1998;
Wann & Wilson, 1999a). Other research examined how sport fan motivation is
related to a preference for various types of sport (Wann, Schrader, & Wilson,
1999; Wann & Wilson, 1999a, 1999b).
This study, by examining soccer fan motivation is Israel, made two
contributions to research in the field. First, it applied the SFMS to one particular
sport rather than to sport in general. Second, it utilized and validated the scale in
a setting different from those used previously in North America and Europe, thus
enabling us to see whether concepts developed in the North American culture are
applicable to other cultures.
This study also examined the predictive validity of the scale. Studies
performed to date had not done this. This study examined whether and how the
soccer fan motivation scale is related to patterns of sport participation. While a
variety of correlates have been examined in relation to the SFMS, few studies
have examined what outcomes, such as participation in sport, might result from
this motivation. This study developed a scale to measure such participation and
examined its relationship to the soccer fan motivation scale. Finally,
demographic characteristics were also examined in relation to soccer
participation.

MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS

421

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

Based on an extensive review of the literature, Wann (1995) developed what he
termed the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS). His goal was to develop a
scientific tool with which to examine the motives of sport fans or spectators. By
better understanding the motives of sport fans, more practical steps for increasing
and directing this behavior can be taken. This 23-item Likert-type scale assesses
eight different motives of sport fans: (1) entertainment the desire to be
entertained by sports, (2) eustress the positive rush or stress release experienced
by individuals when they watch sport, (3) self-esteem the personal
enhancement individuals obtain from their sport consumption experiences, (4)
escape the opportunity to use sport consumption as a diversion from everyday
life, (5) group affiliation needs the identification offered by the contact or
association with other sport consumers, (6) economic gains the benefits offered
by activities such as wagering, (7) family motives the desire to spend time with
family members, (8) aesthetics the appreciation of the beauty and artistic characteristics of sport performances (Armstrong, 2002). The goal was to develop a
short and useful scale. An examination of the SFMS was performed by Wann
(1995) using a multistage investigation. The results indicated that the eight-factor
scale had statistically acceptable psychometric properties and was an internally
consistent, reliable, and valid measure of eight different motives (Armstrong,
2002).
Subsequent validation of the SFMS was provided by Wann, Schrader and
Wilson (1999), who reported that the psychometric structure remained intact
even when the tool was administered through telephone interviews to a more
heterogeneous sampling than in the first validation. The goal of this study is to
continue to examine the applicability of the SFMS as developed by Wann and
validated by Wann, Schrader, and Wilson and to determine if it applies equally
well to a single sport in this case, soccer.
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
The main hypothesis advanced here refers to the relationship between the
SFMS and participation in soccer activities. The motivation of fans has to be
demonstrated in relevant behaviors, in our case, participation in soccer activities.
We reasoned that these activities could be largely divided into active behaviors
and passive ones. Active behaviors include fans attending home games of their
favorite team or even traveling to see them play on the road. Passive participation
refers more to watching soccer games on television or reading soccer news in the
newspaper. Our hypotheses were based on the assumption that participation in
soccer activities is a multidimensional construct. This assumption was tested.

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MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS

Despite the exploratory nature of this study, several hypotheses were advanced
for testing the relationships between the SFMS and participation in soccer
activities. The main hypothesis expected that the SFMS would be related to
participation in soccer activities. The rationale for this hypothesis was explained
above. Thus:
Hypothesis 1: The SFMS will be related to participation in soccer activities
In addition to the main general hypothesis, we advanced several specific
hypotheses regarding the relationship between each of the motives and between
active and passive participation in soccer activities. Eight such hypotheses are
presented. The main rationale behind these hypotheses was the belief that some
of the motives are related to active participation in soccer activities rather than to
passive forms of participation.
The group motivation reflects the fans desire to be with other people. This
motive involves the fans need to belong. By becoming an active fan of a team
and attending games, an individual is able to share the experience with other fans
of the same team (Wann, Schrader, et al., 1999). We expected that those
individuals whose dominant motivation is the group motivation would tend to
demonstrate active soccer participation. In this way, they can become involved
with others like themselves, thereby satisfying their need to be with others and to
belong. Dressing in emblematic garb, such as a uniform or a scarf, and bringing
certain symbols to the field further strengthens the feeling of team belonging.
Thus:
Hypothesis 1a Soccer fans group motivation will be related to the active
forms of participation more than to the passive forms
The economic motivation for watching sports is based on a desire to gamble on
the events (Wann, Schrader, et al., 1999). We hypothesized that individuals
whose dominant motivation is the economic one will tend to demonstrate passive
forms of soccer participation. One whose main interest in soccer is based on
wagering can check the outcome of a game through a variety of media. Such
people will not necessarily go to the field to watch the game. Indeed, they would
prefer to be closer to the phone, radio and/or television because they can follow
the results of several games simultaneously if they have made several bets. Thus:
Hypothesis 1b Soccer fans economic motivation will be related to passive
forms of participation more than to active forms
Eustress is a positive form of stress that stimulates and energizes an individual.
Individuals motivated by eustress enjoy the excitement and anxieties that often
accompany watching sport (Wann, Schrader, et al., 1999). We expected that
individuals whose dominant motivation is the eustress motivation would tend to
demonstrate active forms of soccer participation. One whose main interest in
soccer stems from the need for a rush will find it on the field, in real games,
with all of the excitement of being in the field and experiencing the game directly.

MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS

423

Thus:
Hypothesis 1c Soccer fans eustress motivation will be related to active forms
of participation more than to passive forms
The self-esteem motivation is attributed to individuals who are motivated by a
desire to enhance their self-esteem. Being a sport fan helps many individuals
create and maintain a positive self-concept. When a fans team is successful, he
or she gains a feeling of achievement and accomplishment (Wann, Schrader, et
al., 1999). We expect that individuals whose dominant reason for watching sport
is their need to enhance their self-esteem will tend to demonstrate active forms
of soccer participation rather than passive ones. Such individuals can feel the
personal achievement and accomplishment most palpably in the field with their
team and with the fans. One would feel more like a winner and a part of the team
by actually being in the field and watching them win a match than by watching
the same event at home on television. Thus:
Hypothesis 1d Soccer fans self-esteem motivation will be related to active
forms of participation rather than to passive ones
The escape motive for fans means that fans who are dissatisfied or bored with
their life may be able to forget about their troubles temporarily by rooting for a
favorite team (Wann, Schrader, et al., 1999). We assumed that individuals who
are dominated by the escape motive would tend to demonstrate more active forms
of soccer participation. Experiencing games in real time and in the field can result
in total dissociation from daily troubles and from reality. On the other hand,
passive participation through communication media does not offer the same
escape value. For example, an individual who is having domestic problems can
escape from them only by going to the game, not by watching soccer on
television at home. Thus:
Hypothesis 1e Soccer fans escape motivation will be related to active forms
of participation more than to passive ones
The entertainment motive expresses the desire to be entertained by sports.
Some fans see watching sports as a pastime similar to watching movies or
television or listening to music (Wann, Schrader, et al., 1999). We assumed that
individuals whose dominant motivation is the entertainment motivation would
tend to be involved in passive forms of soccer participation. The entertainment
motive is satisfied by watching games on television or listening to them live on
the radio. Thus:
Hypothesis 1f Soccer fans entertainment motivation will be related to
passive forms more than to active forms of participation
The aesthetic motive is expressed in the beauty and artistic characteristics of
sport performances. Some fans are attracted to the beauty and grace found in
athletic performances (Wann, Schrader, et al., 1999). We hypothesized that
individuals whose dominant motivation is aesthetic would tend to demonstrate

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MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS

passive forms of soccer participation. Participation through communication

media is more aesthetic, as it removes the gritty and unpleasant aspects of
watching a live game. In addition, sometimes television cameras capture and
replay particularly fine performances that one might miss when watching the
game live. Indeed, improvements in technology have increased the aesthetic
value of their transmissions significantly. Thus:
Hypothesis 1g Soccer fans aesthetic motivation will be related more to
passive participation forms than to active ones
Finally, those who are motivated by the desire to spend time with their family
members will prefer the passive forms of participation over active ones. While
one can go to a game with family members, it is more likely that not everyone in
the family is a fan. Therefore, one who wants to spend time with his or her family
and watch soccer at the same time is more likely to stay at home and watch the
game on television. In that way, it is more likely that even those who are not fans
will join the family in watching the game. Thus:
Hypothesis 1h: Soccer fans family motivation will be related more to passive
participation forms than to active ones
DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
The demographic characteristics were integrated into this study mainly to
control the relationship between SFMS and the patterns of soccer participation.
Despite the homogeneity in age among the individuals surveyed here, it was
anticipated that there would be personal differences that might affect the
relationships between the conceptual research variables. The study needed to
control for these anticipated differences. The variables controlled in this study
were gender, income, and parents education. While the main reason for
controlling these variables was methodological in nature, conceptual arguments
are presented and hypotheses are formulated for their expected relationship to the
dependent variable, namely participation in soccer activities.
Naturally, the first variable that was controlled was gender. While soccer has
become an increasingly popular sport for both sexes, it is still considered,
particularly in Israel, a predominately male activity, in terms of both watching
and playing the game. The vast majority of soccer spectators in Israel,
particularly at live games, are males. Therefore, we hypothesized that male
students would participate in soccer activities, both the passive and active ones,
more than would females. Thus:
Hypothesis 2a Male active and passive participation in soccer will be greater
than female participation
The second control variable to be included in this study was parental income.
We hypothesized that students whose parents income is high are more likely to
attend live games because they can afford the ticket prices and can pay for the

MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS

425

travel costs if they choose to follow their team on the road to an international
tournament. Thus:
Hypothesis 3b Those whose families have a higher income will participate
more in active forms of soccer participation than will those with a lower family
income
Parents educational level might also be related to participation in soccer
activities. Soccer in Israel is still considered a lower and middle class sport,
particularly with regard to attending live matches The level of maintenance of
soccer stadiums in Israel is very low and may deter many upper-class soccer fans
from attending. Therefore, we hypothesized that those whose parents have a
higher level of education will have a lower level of active participation. Thus:
Hypothesis 3b Lower educational level of the father and/or the mother will
be related to active forms of soccer participation more than to passive forms.
RESEARCH DESIGN
SAMPLE
The participants in this study were 327 high school students (47% males; 53%
females) in a high school located in the north of Israel. The students were in the
last year of high school (seven classes were surveyed) and the second- to lastyear before graduation (six classes were surveyed). With the permission of the
local Ministry of Education, questionnaires were distributed in class to 379 high
school students in the 13 classes. With 327 usable questionnaires returned, we
had a response rate of 86%. The participants mean age was 17 years (SD=2.04).
With regard to the educational level of the subjects parents, 32.1% of the
participants mothers had obtained a high school degree, and 59.1% had obtained
an academic degree. Of the fathers, 33 had obtained a high school degree and
58.1% had obtained an academic degree. The income of participants parents was
reported as above average for 60.3% of the sample and below average for 19%.
RESEARCH VARIABLES
The scale for participation in soccer activities was developed for this study.
Twenty statements dealing with different aspects of participation in soccer
activities were devised, each scored from 1 = never to 5 = always. The items
included statements designed to measure passive participation in soccer activities
and active participation. The items are presented in Table 1. A principal
component factor analysis with varimax rotation of the 20 items of soccer
participation was performed. Results in Table 1 revealed two factors. Items with
factor loadings below .60 or those with a high loading on more than one factor
were omitted. Seven items of the first factor clearly represent what can be termed
passive participation in soccer activities. Seven items on the second factor

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MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS

clearly represent behaviors that can be defined as active participation in soccer

activities. The third factor includes only one item and is not interpretable.
TABLE 1
RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS OF PARTICIPATION IN SOCCER ACTIVITIES ITEMS
Items
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

Factor 1

I go to soccer games on the weekend

.52
I go to the home games of my favorite team
.40
Im also a fan of a foreign soccer team and follow their games .77
I listen to the radio show, Songs and Goals, every Saturday
.59
I watch live television broadcasts of the soccer games in Israel .75
During the game I cheer my team on by singing and shouting .56
I read the sports section of the daily newspaper
.77
I have seasons tickets to my teams games
I watch the television show, Sports News
.70
Im willing to confront the fans from the rival
team who insult my team
.43
I watch live television broadcasts of the soccer games
in Europe
.82
I check soccer websites on the Internet
.53
I buy accessories and products with my teams logo from
the teams store or from other stores
.37
I join in with the crowd when they jeer the rival team
and its players
.42
I watch European or South American soccer
.81
I go to Europe to watch soccer matches
I go to my teams away games
I support my team even when its not doing so well
.69
I prefer to make friends with those who are fans of my team
.30
I listen to radio shows about soccer
.62

Eigenvalue
% Common variance accounted for

6.61
33.09

Factor 2

Factor 3

.64
.77
.38
.65
.44
.66
.41
.77
.47

.44

.62

.51

.31
.35

.63

.34

.74

.71
.39
.54
.60
6.26
31.34

.36
.84
.42

2.05
10.26

Note: Only factor loading higher than .3 are shown

In the second step a confirmatory factor analysis using AMOS structural

equation modeling program was performed. Two different models were
examined. First, the hypothesized two-factor model (the model incorporating the
two hypothesized independent subscales) was tested. The results of confirmatory
factor analysis revealed that the data fitted the model well (2=519.86, df=76;
Comparative Fit Index [CFI] =.90; NFI=0.86; TLI=.88). In the second model that
was tested, all 20 items were loaded onto a single factor. The findings revealed a
2=936.01 (df=77), CFI =.81, NFI=.79, and TLI=.77. A comparison of the twofactor model with the single factor model revealed that the two-factor version
was superior to the one-factor model and fitted the data better. As for the internal

MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS

427

consistency of the scales, the findings show that the two seven-item scales were
highly reliable. The Cronbach alphas were .95 for the passive participation scale
and .92 for the active participation one. This result supports the multidimensionality of the soccer participation scales.
The measurements of the Soccer Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS) scale are based
on the approach suggested by Wann (1995). The original Sport Fan Motivation
Scale was used here. This scale includes eight dimensions reflecting the eight
motives advanced by Wann (1995). It should be mentioned that the original scale
was found to accurately reflect the hypothesized eight factors, be internally
consistent, to be reliable, and contain criterion validity (Wann et al., 1999; pp.
115-116). However, in this research we adjusted it to measure soccer fan
motivation instead of sport fan motivation by changing the phrasing of the items,
generally by replacing the word sport with soccer. The Soccer Fan
Motivation Scale was measured by a sum of agreements to 23 statements, each
scored from 1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree. As for the different
dimensions, following Wann (1995), each of the eight dimensions included three
items, except for the family one that included two items.
The demographic variables were coded as dichotomous variables. Gender
(0=female; 1=male), father and mothers education (0=not academic;
1=academic), and income (0-below average; 1=above average).
FINDINGS
Table 2 presents the intercorrelations among the research variables, including
descriptive statistics and reliabilities for the dependent and independent
variables. The measures demonstrated acceptable reliabilities. The only case of a
low reliability was in the family motive (.40). This low reliability can be
attributed to the fact that this scale has only two items. As for the correlations
themselves, one should note the somewhat high correlations among the
dimensions of the SFMS. A comment should be made in this regard. Blalock
(1972) argued that whenever there are high correlations between independent
variables, it is necessary to have both large samples and accurate measurement.
Both conditions were met in this research. The sample was above 300, and the
SFMS and its dimensions are established scales. The correlations between the
two forms of soccer participation and the eight dimensions of SFMS are all
positive and significant (except between passive participation and economic
motive). These results generally support many of the hypotheses of this research.
However, in order to provide a much more accurate examination of the
hypotheses, a regression analysis was performed.

.07

.48
.15*
1.80 - .04
1.26
.16**
1.00
.16**
1.48
.10
1.19
.07
1.62
.11
1.47
.11
2.13 17**
1.33 - .04
1.42
.07
1.64
.11

.47

.64

.63
.70
2.15
1.59
1.98
1.87
2.25
2.55
3.29
1.77
2.17
2.33

.42

.76

SD

.46***
.09
-.06
-.10
-.11*
-.11
-.06
-.07
-.08
-.02
-.05
-.08

-.04
-.13*
-.18**
-.14*
-.16**
-.14*
-.11
-.09
-.10
-.12*
-.14*

Note: Cronbach alphas are shown on the diagonals in parentheses.

* p<=.05, ** p< =.01, *** p< =.001
N = 315

1. Income (above average)

2. Mothers education
(academic)
3. Fathers education
(academic)
4. Gender (male)
5. Passive participation
6. Active participation
7. Escape
8. Family
9. Aesthetic
10. Group
11. Entertainment
12. Economic
13. Self esteem
14. Eustress

-.11* (.94)
-.11
.79**
-.09 .48**
.13* .33**
.07 .57**
-.04 .52**
-.01 .76**
-.04 .10
-.04 .62***
-.07 .69***

(.92)
.53***
.35***
.54***
.42***
.59***
.19***
.60***
.66***

(.89)
.48***
.53***
.54***
.49***
.28***
.70***
.66***

(.40)
.49***
.54***
.44***
.21***
.56***
.51***

(.86)
.57***
.66***
.23***
.65***
.74***

TABLE 2
BASIC STATISTICS AND INTERCORRELATIONS AMONG VARIABLES
11

12

13

14

(.72)
.69*** (.90)
.24*** .10
(.82)
.64*** .65*** .23*** (.68)
.67*** .77*** .25*** .76*** (.84)

10

428
MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS

MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS

429

TABLE 3
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS (STANDARDIZED COEFFICIENTS) ON ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
PARTICIPATION IN SOCCER
Research variables
Control variables
Income
Gender (male)
Education mother
Education father
Fan motives
Family
Economic
Aesthetic
Escape
Group
Self-esteem
Entertainment
Eustress
R2
Adjusted R2
F
R2
F for R2

Passive participation
Step1
Step2

Active participation
Step 1
Step 2

.16**
-.50***
.02
-.10

.19***
-.36***
-.01
-.18**

.04
-.28***
.04
-.04
-.00
-.08*
.07
-.01
-.03
.21**
.40***
.12

.29
.28
22.6***

.71
.69
42.82***
.41
37.60***

.11*
-.17***
.00
-.10*
.03
-.01
.16*
.09
-.14*
.25**
.11
.22*

.20
.19
14.21***

.58
.55
24.21***
.37
23.35***

N = 315
* p<=.05; ** p< =.01; *** p< =.001

Table 3 shows the results of the hierarchical regression analysis. Two

regressions with two steps each were performed. One regression was performed
for passive participation and a second for active participation. In the first step of
each regression, the demographic variables were entered and in the second step
the eight motives of SFMS.
In general a large amount of variance of both passive and active participation
was explained by the research model. The variables explained 69% of the
variance of passive participation and 55% of the variance of active participation.
The demographic variables added significantly to the variance of both
participation forms, with gender having the strongest relationship with
participation forms. Despite the strong relationship of the control variables, it
should be noted that there was a very high amount of variance added by the
motivation variables to the variance already explained by the demographic ones.
Forty-one percent of the variance was added to the explanation of passive
participation by the SFMS variables and 39% was added to the explanation of the
active forms. All of the above provides strong support for hypothesis 1 that
expected a relationship between SFMS and participation in soccer activities.

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MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS

As for the more specific research hypotheses, some of them were strongly
supported by the research model and some were only partly supported or not
supported at all. Hypothesis 1a expected that group motivation would be related
to active rather than passive participation. The findings partly supported this
hypothesis. The absence of a relationship between the group motivation and
passive participation was as expected by the hypothesis. However, although the
findings in Table 3 showed a significant relationship between group motivation
and active participation and no relationship between group motivation and
passive participation, the sign of the relationship was the opposite from the
expected one. The findings showed that the more group motivation one has, the
less actively one will participate. Thus, hypothesis 1a is partly supported by the
data.
Hypothesis 1b expected that economic motivation would be related to passive
rather than active participation. This hypothesis was also partly supported by the
data. As expected, the findings in Table 3 show that economic motivation was not
related to active participation. However, the findings unexpectedly show that the
more economic motivation one has the less passive participation one will have.
Hypothesis 1c expected that eustress motivation would be related to active rather
than passive participation. This hypothesis was supported by the data. The
findings show that eustress motivation has a strong and positive relationship with
active participation and no relationship with passive participation. Hypothesis 1d
expected that self-esteem motivation would be related to the active rather than the
passive form of participation. The hypothesis was partly supported by the data in
Table 3. The findings show that self-esteem motivation was positively related to
the two forms of participation, not only to the active one.
Hypothesis 1e expected that the escape motivation would be related to active
rather than to passive participation. This hypothesis was not supported by the
data in Table 3. The escape motivation was not related to any of the participation
forms. Hypothesis 1f expected that the entertainment motivation would be related
to passive rather than active forms of participation. This hypothesis was strongly
supported by the data. Results in Table 3 showed a strong and positive effect of
the entertainment motivation on passive participation and no relationship
between this motivation and active participation. Hypothesis 1g expected that
aesthetic motivation would be related to passive rather than active participation.
This hypothesis was rejected by the data. The findings in Table 3 showed that
aesthetic motivation was related to active and not passive participation.
Hypothesis 1h expected that family motivation would be related to passive rather
than to active participation. This hypothesis was also rejected by the data. Family
motivation was not related to any type of participation.
As for the demographic variables, the findings strongly support hypothesis 2a
that expected more active and passive participation from males than from

MOTIVATION AND PARTICIPATION OF SOCCER FANS

431

females. Hypothesis 2b, which expected that those with higher income would
have higher levels of active participation, was also supported by the data. The
findings in Table 3 show that higher income was related to active participation.
The significant relationship with passive participation disappeared in step 2 when
the motivation variables were entered into the equation. Hypothesis 3b, that
predicted a negative relationship between education and active participation, was
supported by the data. The findings in Table 3 show a negative relationship
between the fathers education and active participation in soccer activities.
DISCUSSION
The SFMS has received much attention in recent years. The increase in
scientific efforts to explore fans motives for watching sport is a result of the
growing interest across the world in viewing sporting events and the marketing
opportunities that result from the popularity of sport. Wanns (1995) scale and the
studies that resulted from the presentation of this scale have provided an
important step towards a better understanding of the reasons behind the
popularity of sport. This study makes several contributions in that regard. First,
the findings here showed that Wanns scale can be applied to a specific type of
sport such as soccer, rather than to sport in general. Second, the findings showed
that Wanns scale could be applied to cultures other than North America, such as
Israel. Third, the findings of this study demonstrated the predictive validity of
Wanns scale by relating it to a scale of participation in soccer activities. Fourth,
this study has advanced a preliminary conceptual and methodological framework
for the continued examination of SFMS.
While our research makes a number of conceptual contributions to the field, it
should be noted that the study was exploratory in nature. Its hypotheses were
developed based on the limited knowledge that exists in the field, yet the findings
here are interesting and important and can stimulate future research in the area.
As expected, active participation in soccer was related to both eustress and selfesteem motivation. Simply stated, young people who are looking for action or
who want to strengthen their ego, will attend live games. It should be noted,
however, that while the eustress motivation is unique in its contribution to active
participation, the findings showed that an individual could also increase his or her
self-esteem by watching the games at home on television. The negative
relationship of group motivation with active participation was not expected. We
expected that young fans would fulfill part of their social needs by watching and
supporting their team live, as members and part of a group. It appears, however,
that such is not the case, but more research is needed before a firm conclusion
can be made about this finding. The significant effect of the aesthetic motivation
on active participation was also unexpected. Israeli stadiums are not well

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maintained. Nevertheless, young people still see the aesthetic value of watching
soccer live rather than at home with the benefit of high quality replays supplied
by television broadcasting. This finding is, in a way, a tribute to Israeli soccer,
which is not well-known for its achievements, but more than that, it is a tribute
to the potential of this sport to attract fans to games. Among the demographic
variables, one should note the effect of the economic variable on active
participation. The findings show that those who are more actively involved are
those whose parents can afford the expenses associated with such participation.
On the other hand, it is interesting to note the negative effect of education on
active participation. The study demonstrated that active participation in soccer is
considered a lower class activity in Israel. Those with a higher level of education
generally prefer to watch it on television. As mentioned before, developing highquality stadiums is one way to attract a higher class of young soccer fans to the
matches.
The relationship of gender to both active and passive participation was
expected. One of the challenges of those who want to increase the popularity of
soccer is to find ways to make soccer more attractive to women, as both
potentially active and passive participants. The strong relationship of the
entertainment motivation with passive participation was expected. This variable
has the strongest coefficients among the motivation variables, demonstrating the
potential of soccer to compete with other forms of entertainment. Watching
soccer on television ranks as a leading leisure time activity. Making soccer even
more appealing by improving the quality and scheduling of its broadcasts would
perhaps increase its popularity among young females.
Several other comments about the measurement instrument are worthy of
mention. The applicability of Wanns scale in Israeli culture was demonstrated by
the construct validity of the scale, as shown in the relationships between the
dimensions of the scale and participation in soccer activities. The intercorrelations among the dimensions of the scale are slightly higher, but do not differ
much from earlier findings (Wann, 1995), and provide additional support for the
applicability of the scale to other cultures. The findings of this study showed
other similarities to findings of other studies that have applied the scale. For
example, similarly to the findings here, Amstrong (2002) found a negative
correlation between sport fan motivation and income. Armstrong also found, as
we did, that education was negatively correlated with sport fan motivation. This
study found a strong correlation between gender and SFMS, and James and
Ridinger (2002) reported a similar finding. All of the above support the
usefulness of Wanns scale in different cultures. Naturally, there is a need to
examine this scale in additional cultures to strengthen this conclusion.
The soccer participation scale developed here showed good psychometric
properties. Its construct validity was demonstrated by the findings regarding its

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433

relationship with the SFMS. The distinction advanced here between active and
passive participation was supported by the data and is an important differentiation, both conceptually and practically. There is a difference between those
who watch sports at home and those who actually go to the games, and the data
supported this distinction. These differences have conceptual and practical
implications. Different motives seem to drive those who actively participate in
sport and those who passively participate, and marketers need to be aware of
these distinctions and address them. Varying the sports and cultures to which
Wanns scale is applied could further test its predictive validity.
This study has some limitations. First, it is cross-sectional in its design and, as
such, limits the drawing of causal conclusions. Second, the sample is composed
of high school students, and the findings cannot be generalized to an older
population. For example, the findings here about the nonsignificant relationship
of the escape motivation and the family motivation can be attributed to the age
of the respondents. Despite its limitations, the study makes important
contributions to the continuation of research on sport and soccer fans motivation.
It proposed a conceptual framework for further examination of this topic; it
developed and advanced the fans participation scales, and examined this topic in
a culture different from those of North American and Europe. More research is
needed to validate the findings and approach advanced here. This study, however,
contributes by stimulating further research to increase understanding of this
important and interesting topic.
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