Set Theory

Prichestt and Saber

Bowen Mathematics
Appendix 2

Set
A set is any combination of items thought of as a whole. The

collection is treated as a single object, to which

mathematical operation may be applied.
{Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi}
It is a set of cities. Cities are members / elements of set
Use capital letter to represent a set and small letter to

represent element in a set.

S = {3, 4, 5, 6}

Set Specification
Roster Method
We can denote a set S in writing by listing all of its elements in

curly braces:
{a, b, c} is the set of whatever 3 objects are denoted by a, b, c.
Descriptive Method
State the rules or conditions that distinguishes members of the set
from non-members
For any proposition P(x) over any universe of discourse, {x| P(x)} is the set of

all x such that P(x).

e.g., {x | x is an integer where x>0 and x<5 }

Basic properties of sets

Sets are inherently unordered:
No matter what objects a, b, and c denote,

{a, b, c} = {a, c, b} = {b, a, c} =

{b, c, a} = {c, a, b} = {c, b, a}.
All elements are distinct (unequal);

multiple listings make no difference!

{a, b, c} = {a, a, b, a, b, c, c, c, c}.
This set contains at most 3 elements!

Definition of Set Equality

Two sets are declared to be equal if and only if they

contain exactly the same elements.

In particular, it does not matter how the set is defined or
denoted.
For example: The set {1, 2, 3, 4} =
{x | x is an integer where x>0 and x<5 } =
{x | x is a positive integer whose square
is >0 and <25}

Infinite Sets
Conceptually, sets may be infinite (i.e., not finite, without

end, unending).
Symbols for some special infinite sets:
N = {0, 1, 2, } The natural numbers.
Z = {, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, } The integers.
R = The real numbers, such as
374.1828471929498181917281943125
Infinite sets come in different sizes!

The Empty Set

(null, the empty set) is the unique set that

contains no elements whatsoever.

= {} = {x|False}

Ordered Pairs
The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by

A and B, is defined as the set consisting of all ordered pairs

(a, b) for which a is element of A and b is element of B. For
example, if A = {x, y} and...
S = A*B = {a,b | a = 2b}

Venn Diagram
The Venn Diagram is made up of two or more overlapping circles.

It is often used in mathematics to show relationships between sets.

In language arts instruction, Venn Diagrams are useful for
examining similarities and differences in characters, stories,
poems, etc.

Types of Sets
Subset
Proper subset
Improper subset
Universal set ()
Complement

Set Operations
Unions
Intersection
Disjoint

Disjointedness
Two sets A, B are called

disjoint (i.e., unjoined)

iff their intersection is
empty.
Example: the set of even
integers is disjoint with
the set of odd integers.

Help, Ive
been
disjointed!

Set Symbols

Element

Not Element

Subset ( proper set )

Not Subset
Subset

Subset

Union

Inter sec tion

Imlies and is implied by

Null Set
Smallest subset of a super set is a se that contains no element

in common at all. It is called null set or empty set or { }

Prove:
If S , then {x} and x S

However, { }
We can not say that S, hence S
Null set is unique.
There is only one such set in the whole world and is

considered a subset of any set that can be conceived.

Set Equality
Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements,

and we write, X = Y

X Y and Y X

X Y

Set Difference
For sets A, B, the difference of A and B, written AB, is the set

of all elements that are in A but not B.

A B : x xA xB
x xA xB
Also called:
The complement of B with respect to A.

Intersection
The intersection, W, of two sets X and Y is the set of elements

that in both X and Y.

W X Y {x : x X and x Y }

Union
The union of two sets A and B is the set of elements in one or

other of the sets.

C X Y {x : x X or B}

Complement
The complement of a set X is the set of elements of the

universal set U that are not elements of X.

X {x U : x X }
U

Set Difference Examples

{1,2,3,4,5,6} {2,3,5,7,9,11} =

___________
Z N { , -1, 0, 1, 2, } {0, 1, }
= {x | x is an integer but not a nat. #}
= {x | x is a negative integer}
= { , -3, -2, -1}

Set Difference - Venn Diagram

A-B is whats left after B

takes a bite out of A

Set
AB
Set A

Set B

Set Identities
Identity:

A=A AU=A
Domination: AU=U A=
Idempotent: AA = A = AA
Double complement: ( A ) A
Commutative: AB=BA AB=BA
Associative: A(BC)=(AB)C
A(BC)=(AB)C

Problem
A company studies the product preferences of 20000

customers. It was found that each of the products A, B, C was

liked by 7020, 6230, and 5980 respectively and all products
were liked by 1500; products A and B were liked by 2580,
product A and C liked by 1200 and products B and C liked by
1950. Prove that the study results are not correct.

Problem
In a class of 25 students, 12 have taken economics; 8 have

taken economics but not politics. Find the number of

students who have taken economics and politics and those
who have taken politics and not economics.