Ship

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Ashipisalargebuoyantwatercraft.Shipsare
generallydistinguishedfromboatsbasedonsize,
shapeandcargoorpassengercapacity.Shipsare
usedonlakes,seas,rivers,andoceansforavariety
ofactivities,suchasthetransportofpeopleor
goods,fishing,entertainment,publicsafety,and
warfare.Historically,a"ship"wasasailingvessel
withatleastthreesquareriggedmastsandafull
bowsprit.
Inarmedconflictandindailylife,shipshave
becomeanintegralpartofmoderncommercialand
ItalianfullriggedshipAmerigoVespucciinNew
militarysystems.Fishingboatsareusedbymillions
YorkHarbor,1976
offishermenthroughouttheworld.Militaryforces
operatevesselsfornavalwarfareandtotransport
andsupportforcesashore.Commercialvessels,nearly35,000innumber,carried7.4billiontonsof
cargoin2007.[1]Asof2011,thereareabout104,304shipswithIMOnumbersintheworld.[2]
Shipswerealwaysakeyinhistory'sgreatexplorationsandscientificandtechnologicaldevelopment.
NavigatorssuchasZhengHespreadsuchinventionsasthecompassandgunpowder.Shipshavebeen
usedforsuchpurposesascolonizationandtheslavetrade,andhaveservedscientific,cultural,and
humanitarianneeds.Afterthe16thcentury,newcropsthathadcomefromandtotheAmericasviathe
Europeanseafarerssignificantlycontributedtotheworldpopulationgrowth.[3]Shiptransporthasshaped
theworld'seconomyintotoday'senergyintensivepattern.

Contents
1 Nomenclature
2 History
2.1 Prehistoryandantiquity
2.2 Renaissance
2.3 Specializationandmodernization
2.4 Today
3 Typesofships
3.1 Inlandandcoastalboats
3.2 Seagoingcommercialvessels
3.3 Specialpurposevessels
3.4 Navalvessels
4 Architecture
4.1 Hull
4.2 Propulsionsystems
4.3 Steeringsystems
4.4 Holds,compartments,andthesuperstructure
4.5 Equipment
5 Designconsiderations
5.1 Hydrostatics
5.2 Hydrodynamics

5.2 Hydrodynamics
6 Lifecycle
6.1 Design
6.2 Construction
6.3 Repairandconversion
6.4 Endofservice
7 Measuringships
8 Shippollution
8.1 Oilspills
8.2 Ballastwater
8.3 Exhaustemissions
8.4 Shipbreaking
9 Buoyancy
10 Seealso
11 Notes
12 References
13 Externallinks

Nomenclature
Shipscanusuallybedistinguishedfromboats
basedonsizeandtheship'sabilitytooperate
independentlyforextendedperiods.[4]A
commonlyusedruleofthumbisthatifonevessel
cancarryanother,thelargerofthetwoisaship.[5]
Dinghiesarecarriedonsailingyachtsassmallas
35feet(10.67m),clearlynotshipsthisruleof
thumbisnotfoolproof.
Intheageofsail,a"ship"wasasailingvesselwith
atleastthreesquareriggedmastsandafull
bowspritothertypesofvesselwerealsodefined
bytheirsailplan,e.g.barque,brigantine,etc.

Mainpartsofship.1:Funnel2:Stern3:Propeller
andRudder4:Portside(therightsideisknownas
starboard)5:Anchor6:Bulbousbow7:Bow
8:Deck9:Superstructure

Anumberoflargevesselsareusuallyreferredtoas
boats.Submarinesareaprimeexample.[6]Other
typesoflargevesselwhicharetraditionallycalled
boatsareGreatLakesfreighters,riverboats,andferryboats.Thoughlargeenoughtocarrytheirown
boatsandheavycargoes,thesevesselsaredesignedforoperationoninlandorprotectedcoastalwaters.
Inmostmaritimetraditionsshipshaveindividualnames,andmodernshipsmaybelongtoashipclass
oftennamedafteritsfirstship.InEnglish,ashipistraditionallyreferredtoas"she",evenifnamedafter
aman,butthisisnotuniversalusagesomejournalisticstyleguidesadviseusing"it"asreferringto
shipswithfemalepronounscanbeseenasoffensiveandoutdated.[7][8]

History
Prehistoryandantiquity

Thefirstknownvesselsdatebackabout10,000yearsago,butcouldnot
bedescribedasships.Thefirstnavigatorsbegantouseanimalskinsor
wovenfabricsassails.Affixedtothetopofapolesetuprightinaboat,
thesesailsgaveearlyshipsrange.Thisallowedmentoexplorewidely,
allowingforthesettlementofOceaniaforexample(about3,000years
ago).
Byaround3000BC,AncientEgyptiansknewhowtoassemblewooden
Araftisamongthesimplest
planksintoahull.[9]Theyusedwovenstrapstolashtheplanks
boatdesigns.
together,[9]andreedsorgrassstuffedbetweentheplankshelpedtoseal
theseams.[9][10]TheGreekhistorianandgeographerAgatharchideshad
documentedshipfaringamongtheearlyEgyptians:"DuringtheprosperousperiodoftheOldKingdom,
betweenthe30thand25thcenturiesB.C.,theriverrouteswerekeptinorder,andEgyptianshipssailed
theRedSeaasfarasthemyrrhcountry."[11]Sneferu'sancientcedarwoodshipPraiseoftheTwoLands
isthefirstreferencerecorded(2613BC)toashipbeingreferredtobyname.[12]
TheancientEgyptianswereperfectlyateasebuildingsailboats.Aremarkableexampleoftheir
shipbuildingskillswastheKhufuship,avessel143feet(44m)inlengthentombedatthefootofthe
GreatPyramidofGizaaround2500BCandfoundintactin1954.
ItisknownthatancientNubia/AxumtradedwithIndia,andthereisevidencethatshipsfromNortheast
AfricamayhavesailedbackandforthbetweenIndia/SriLankaandNubiatradinggoodsandevento
Persia,HimyarandRome.[13]AksumwasknownbytheGreeksforhavingseaportsforshipsfrom
GreeceandYemen.[14]
ElsewhereinNortheastAfrica,thePeriplusoftheRedSeareportsthatSomalis,throughtheirnorthern
portssuchasZeilaandBerbera,weretradingfrankincenseandotheritemswiththeinhabitantsofthe
ArabianPeninsulawellbeforethearrivalofIslamaswellaswiththenRomancontrolledEgypt.[15]
ApanelfoundatMohenjodarodepictedasailingcraft.Vesselswereofmanytypestheirconstructionis
vividlydescribedintheYuktiKalpaTaru,anancientIndiantextonshipbuilding.Thistreatisegivesa
technicalexpositiononthetechniquesofshipbuilding.Itsetsforthminutedetailsaboutthevarioustypes
ofships,theirsizes,andthematerialsfromwhichtheywerebuilt.TheYuktiKalpaTarusumsupina
condensedformalltheavailableinformation.TheYuktiKalpaTarugivessufficientinformationand
datestoprovethat,inancienttimes,Indianshipbuildershadagoodknowledgeofthematerialswhich
wereusedinbuildingships.Inadditiontodescribingthequalitiesofthedifferenttypesofwoodand
theirsuitabilityforshipbuilding,theYuktiKalpaTarugivesanelaborateclassificationofshipsbasedon
theirsize.
TheoldestdiscoveredseafaringhulledboatistheEgyptianUluburunshipwreckoffthecoastofTurkey,
datingbackto1300BC.[16]
ThePhoenicians,thefirsttosailcompletelyaroundAfrica,andGreeksgraduallymasterednavigationat
seaaboardtriremes,exploringandcolonizingtheMediterraneanviaship.Around340BC,theGreek
navigatorPytheasofMassaliaventuredfromGreecetoWesternEuropeandGreatBritain.[17]Inthe
courseofthe2ndcenturyBC,RomewentontodestroyCarthageandsubduetheHellenistickingdoms
oftheeasternMediterranean,achievingcompletemasteryoftheinlandsea,thattheycalledMare
Nostrum.ThemonsoonwindsystemoftheIndianOceanwasfirstsailedbyGreeknavigatorEudoxusof
Cyzicusin118BC.[18]

InChina,bythetimeoftheZhouDynastyshiptechnologiessuchassternmountedrudderswere
developed,andbytheHanDynasty,awellkeptnavalfleetwasanintegralpartofthemilitary.Ship
technologyadvancedtothepointwherebythemedievalperiod,watertightcompartmentswere
developed.
TheSwahilipeoplehadvariousextensivetradingportsdotting
thecoastofmedievalEastAfricaandGreatZimbabwehad
extensivetradingcontactswithCentralAfrica,andlikelyalso
importedgoodsbroughttoAfricathroughtheSoutheastAfrican
shoretradeofKilwainmoderndayTanzania.[19]

Romantrirememosaicfrom
Carthage,BardoMuseum,Tunis.

ItisknownbyhistoriansthatatitsheighttheMaliEmpirebuilta
largenavalfleetunderEmperorMansaMusainthelate13thand
early14thcentury.[20]Arabicsourcesdescribewhatsome
considertobevisitstotheNewWorldbyaMalifleetin1311.[21]

Beforetheintroductionofthecompass,celestialnavigationwas
themainmethodfornavigationatsea.InChina,earlyversionsof
themagneticcompasswerebeingdevelopedandusedinnavigationbetween1040and1117.[22]Thetrue
mariner'scompass,usingapivotingneedleinadrybox,wasdevelopedinEuropenolaterthan
1300.[23][24]

Renaissance
UntiltheRenaissance,navigationaltechnologyremainedcomparativelyprimitive.Thisabsenceof
technologydidnotpreventsomecivilizationsfrombecomingseapowers.Examplesincludethe
maritimerepublicsofGenoaandVenice,HanseaticLeague,andtheByzantinenavy.TheVikingsused
theirknarrstoexploreNorthAmerica,tradeintheBalticSeaandplundermanyofthecoastalregionsof
WesternEurope.
Towardstheendofthe14thcentury,shipslikethecarrackbegantodeveloptowersonthebowand
stern.Thesetowersdecreasedthevessel'sstability,andinthe15thcentury,thecaravel,designedbythe
Portuguese,basedontheArabicqaribwhichcouldsailclosertothewind,becamemorewidelyused.
Thetowersweregraduallyreplacedbytheforecastleandsterncastle,asinthecarrackSantaMaraof
ChristopherColumbus.Thisincreasedfreeboardallowedanotherinnovation:thefreeingport,andthe
artilleryassociatedwithit.
Inthe16thcentury,theuseoffreeboardandfreeingportsbecamewidespreadongalleons.TheEnglish
modifiedtheirvesselstomaximizetheirfirepoweranddemonstratedtheeffectivenessoftheirdoctrine,
in1588,bydefeatingtheSpanishArmada.
Atthistime,shipsweredevelopinginAsiainmuchthesamewayasEurope.Japanuseddefensivenaval
techniquesintheMongolinvasionsofJapanin1281.ItislikelythattheMongolsofthetimetook
advantageofbothEuropeanandAsianshipbuildingtechniques.Duringthe15thcentury,China'sMing
Dynastyassembledoneofthelargestandmostpowerfulnavalfleetsintheworldforthediplomaticand
powerprojectionvoyagesofZhengHe.ElsewhereinJapaninthe15thcentury,oneoftheworld'sfirst
ironclads,"Tekksen"(),literallymeaning"ironships",[26]wasalsodeveloped.InJapan,during
theSengokuerafromthefifteenthto17thcentury,thegreatstruggleforfeudalsupremacywasfought,
inpart,bycoastalfleetsofseveralhundredboats,includingtheatakebune.InKorea,intheearly15th
centuryduringtheJoseonera,"Geobukseon"(),wasdeveloped.The"turtleship",asitwascalled
isrecognizedasthefirstarmoredshipintheworld.

DuringtheAgeoftheAjuran,the
Somalisultanatesandrepublicsof
Merca,Mogadishu,Barawa,Hobyo
andtheirrespectiveportsflourished,
enjoyingalucrativeforeign
commercewithshipssailingtoand
comingfromArabia,India,
Venetia,[27]Persia,Egypt,Portugal
andasfarawayasChina.Inthe16th
century,DuarteBarbosanotedthat
manyshipsfromtheKingdomof
Cambayainwhatismodernday
IndiasailedtoMogadishuwithcloth
andspices,forwhichtheyinreturn
receivedgold,waxandivory.
Barbosaalsohighlightedthe
abundanceofmeat,wheat,barley,
horses,andfruitonthecoastal
markets,whichgeneratedenormous
wealthforthemerchants.[28]

A3DmodelofthebasichullstructureofaVenetian"galleyof
Flanders",alargeMediterraneantradingvesselofthe15thcentury.
ThereconstructionbyarchaeologistCourtneyHigginsisbasedon
measurementsgivenincontemporaryshiptreatises. [25]

MiddleAgeSwahiliKingdomsare
knowntohavehadtradeportbullshipandtraderoutes[29]with
theIslamicworldandAsiaandweredescribedbyGreek
historiansas"metropolises".[30]FamousAfricantradeportssuch
asMombasa,Zanzibar,andKilwa[31]wereknowntoChinese
sailorssuchasZhengHeandmedievalIslamichistorianssuchas
theBerberIslamicvoyagerAbuAbdullahibnBattua.[32]Inthe
AJapaneseatakebunefromthe16th
14thcenturyAD,KingAbubakariI,thebrotherofKingMansa
century
MusaoftheMaliEmpire,isthoughttohavehadagreatarmada
ofshipssittingonthecoastofWestAfrica.[33]Thisis
corroboratedbyibnBattutahimselfwhorecallsseveralhundred
Malianshipsoffthecoast.[34]Thishasledtogreatspeculation,with
historicalevidence,thatitispossiblethatMaliansailorsmayhave
reachedthecoastofPreColumbianAmericaundertheruleof
AbubakariII,nearlytwohundredyearsbeforeChristopher
Columbus[35]andthatblacktradersmayhavebeenintheAmericas
beforeColumbus.[36]
FiftyyearsbeforeChristopherColumbus,ChinesenavigatorZheng
ModelofamedievalMogadishan
Hetraveledtheworldattheheadofwhatwasforthetimeahuge
ship.
armada.Thelargestofhisshipshadninemasts,were130metres
(430ft)longandhadabeamof55metres(180ft).Hisfleetcarried
30,000menaboard70vessels,withthegoalofbringingglorytotheChineseemperor.
AtthesametimeZhengHemadehisexpedition,PortugueseexplorerGilEanessailedonasquare
riggedcaravelbeyondCapeBojadortheendofwhatwasthenconsideredtheknownworldopeningthe
routetodeepseaexploration,continentalseacommunicationtechnologyandthesphericalearth
principle.

ReplicaofMagellansVictoria.
FerdinandMagellanledthefirst
expeditionthatcircumnavigatedthe
globein15191522.

ThecarrackandthenthecaravelweredevelopedinPortugal.
AfterColumbus,Europeanexplorationrapidlyaccelerated,and
manynewtraderouteswereestablished.[37]In1498,byreaching
India,VascodaGamaprovedthattheaccesstotheIndianOcean
fromtheAtlanticwaspossible.TheseexplorationsintheAtlantic
andIndianOceansweresoonfollowedbyFrance,Englandand
theNetherlands,whoexploredthePortugueseandSpanishtrade
routesintothePacificOcean,reachingAustraliain1606and
NewZealandin1642.[38]Inthe17thcenturyDutchexplorers
suchasAbelTasmanexploredthecoastsofAustralia,whilein
the18thcenturyitwasBritishexplorerJamesCookwhomapped
muchofPolynesia.

Specializationandmodernization

Paralleltothedevelopmentofwarships,shipsinserviceof
marinefisheryandtradealsodevelopedintheperiodbetween
antiquityandtheRenaissance.Stillprimarilyacoastalendeavor,
fishingislargelypracticedbyindividualswithlittleothermoney
usingsmallboats.
Maritimetradewasdrivenbythedevelopmentofshipping
companieswithsignificantfinancialresources.Canalbarges,
towedbydraftanimalsonanadjacenttowpath,contendedwith
therailwayuptoandpasttheearlydaysoftheindustrial
revolution.Flatbottomedandflexiblescowboatsalsobecame
widelyusedfortransportingsmallcargoes.Mercantiletradewent
handinhandwithexploration,selffinancedbythecommercial
benefitsofexploration.

TheBritishHMSSandwichfiresat
theFrenchflagshipBucentaure
(completelydismasted)atthebattle
ofTrafalgar(1805).TheBucentaure
alsofightsHMSVictory(behindher)
andHMSTemeraire(leftsideofthe
picture).Infact,HMSSandwich
neverfoughtatTrafalgar,it'sa
mistakefromAugusteMayer,the

Duringthefirsthalfofthe18thcentury,theFrenchNavybegan
todevelopanewtypeofvesselknownasashipoftheline,
featuringseventyfourguns.Thistypeofshipbecamethe
painter. [39]
backboneofallEuropeanfightingfleets.Theseshipswere56
metres(184ft)longandtheirconstructionrequired2,800oak
treesand40kilometres(25mi)ofropetheycarriedacrewofabout800sailorsandsoldiers.

Duringthe19thcenturytheRoyalNavyenforcedabanontheslave
trade,actedtosuppresspiracy,andcontinuedtomaptheworld.A
clipperwasaveryfastsailingshipofthe19thcentury.Theclipperroutes
fellintocommercialdisusewiththeintroductionofsteamshipswith
betterfuelefficiency,andtheopeningoftheSuezandPanamaCanals.
Shipdesignsstayedfairlyunchangeduntilthelate19thcentury.The
industrialrevolution,newmechanicalmethodsofpropulsion,andthe
RMSTitanicdepartsfrom
abilitytoconstructshipsfrommetaltriggeredanexplosioninship
Southampton.Hersinking
design.Factorsincludingthequestformoreefficientships,theendof
wouldtightensafety
longrunningandwastefulmaritimeconflicts,andtheincreasedfinancial
regulations
capacityofindustrialpowerscreatedanavalancheofmorespecialized
boatsandships.Shipsbuiltforentirelynewfunctions,suchas
firefighting,rescue,andresearch,alsobegantoappear.

Inlightofthis,classificationofvesselsbytypeorfunctioncanbedifficult.Evenusingverybroad
functionalclassificationssuchasfishery,trade,military,andexplorationfailstoclassifymostoftheold
ships.Thisdifficultyisincreasedbythefactthatthetermssuchassloopandfrigateareusedbyoldand
newshipsalike,andoftenthemodernvesselssometimeshavelittleincommonwiththeirpredecessors.

Today
In2007,theworld'sfleetincluded34,882commercialvessels
withgrosstonnageofmorethan1,000tons,[40]totaling
1.04billiontons.[1]Theseshipscarried7.4billiontonsofcargo
in2006,asumthatgrewby8%overthepreviousyear.[1]In
termsoftonnage,39%oftheseshipsaretankers,26%arebulk
carriers,17%containershipsand15%wereothertypes.[1]

TheColomboExpress,oneofthe
largestcontainershipsintheworld,
ownedandoperatedbyHapagLloyd
ofGermany

In2002,therewere1,240warshipsoperatingintheworld,not
countingsmallvesselssuchaspatrolboats.TheUnitedStates
accountedfor3milliontonsworthofthesevessels,Russia1.35
milliontons,theUnitedKingdom504,660tonsandChina402,830tons.The20thcenturysawmany
navalengagementsduringthetwoworldwars,theColdWar,andtherisetopowerofnavalforcesofthe
twoblocs.Theworld'smajorpowershaverecentlyusedtheirnavalpowerincasessuchastheUnited
KingdomintheFalklandIslandsandtheUnitedStatesinIraq.
Thesizeoftheworld'sfishingfleetismoredifficulttoestimate.Thelargestofthesearecountedas
commercialvessels,butthesmallestarelegion.Fishingvesselscanbefoundinmostseasidevillagesin
theworld.Asof2004,theUnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganizationestimated4million
fishingvesselswereoperatingworldwide.[41]Thesamestudyestimatedthattheworld's29million
fishermen[42]caught85,800,000tonnes(84,400,000longtons94,600,000shorttons)offishand
shellfishthatyear.[43]

Typesofships
Becauseshipsareconstructedusingtheprinciplesofnavalarchitecturethatrequiresamestructural
components,theirclassificationisbasedontheirfunctionsuchassuggestedbyPauletandPresles.,[44]
whichrequiresmodificationofthecomponents.Thecategoriesacceptedingeneralbynavalarchitects
are:
HighspeedcraftMultihullsincludingwavepiercers,smallwaterplaneareatwinhull(SWATH),
surfaceeffectshipsandhovercraft,hydrofoil,wingingroundeffectcraft(WIG).
OffshoreoilvesselsPlatformsupplyvessel,pipelayers,accommodationandcranebarges,non
andsemisubmersibledrillingrigs,productionplatforms,floatingproductionstorageand
offloadingunits.
Fishingvessels
Motorisedfishingtrawlers,trapsetters,seiners,longliners,trollers&factoryships.
Traditionalsailingandrowedfishingvesselsandboatsusedforhandlinefishing
Harbourworkcraft
Cablelayers
Tugboats,dredgers,salvagevessels,tenders,Pilotboats.

Floatingdrydocks,floatingcranes,lightership.
Drycargoshipstrampfreighters,bulkcarriers,cargoliners,containervessels,bargecarriers,Ro
Roships,refrigeratedcargoships,timbercarriers,livestock&lightvehiclecarriers.
LiquidcargoshipsOiltankers,liquefiedgascarriers,chemicalcarriers.
Passengervessels
Liners,cruiseandSpecialTradePassenger(STP)ships
Crosschannel,coastalandharbourferries.
Luxury&cruisingyachts
Sailtrainingandmultimastedships
Recreationalboatsandcraftrowed,mastedandmotorisedcraft
Specialpurposevesselsweatherandresearchvessels,deepseasurveyvessels,andicebreakers.
Submersiblesindustrialexploration,scientificresearch,touristandhydrographicsurvey.
Warships
Surfacecombatantdeepandshallowdraft
Submarines
Someofthesearediscussedinthefollowingsections.

Inlandandcoastalboats
Manytypesofboatsaredesignedforinlandandcoastal
waterways.Thesearethevesselsthattradeuponthelakes,rivers
andcanals.
Bargesareaprimeexampleofinlandvessels.Flatbottomed
boatsbuilttotransportheavygoods,mostbargesarenotself
propelledandneedtobemovedbytugboatstowingortowboats
PassengershipofKlnDsseldorfer
pushingthem.Bargestowedalongcanalsbydraftanimalsonan
ontheriverRhine
adjacenttowpathcontendedwiththerailwayintheearly
industrialrevolutionbutwereoutcompetedinthecarriageof
highvalueitemsbecauseofthehigherspeed,fallingcosts,androuteflexibilityofrailtransport.
Lakefreighters,alsocalledlakers,arecargovesselsthatplytheGreatLakes.Themostwellknownis
theSSEdmundFitzgerald,thelatestmajorvesseltobewreckedontheLakes.Thesevesselsare
traditionallycalledboats,notships.Visitingoceangoingvesselsarecalled"salties."Becauseoftheir
additionalbeam,verylargesaltiesareneverseeninlandoftheSaintLawrenceSeaway.Becausethe
smallestoftheSooLocksislargerthananySeawaylock,saltiesthatcanpassthroughtheSeawaymay
travelanywhereintheGreatLakes.Becauseoftheirdeeperdraft,saltiesmayacceptpartialloadsonthe
GreatLakes,"toppingoff"whentheyhaveexitedtheSeaway.Similarly,thelargestlakersareconfined
totheUpperLakes(Superior,Michigan,Huron,Erie)becausetheyaretoolargetousetheSeaway
locks,beginningattheWellandCanalthatbypassestheNiagaraRiver.
Sincethefreshwaterlakesarelesscorrosivetoshipsthanthesaltwateroftheoceans,lakerstendtolast
muchlongerthanoceanfreighters.Lakersolderthan50yearsarenotunusual,andasof2005,allwere
over20yearsofage.[45]
TheSSSt.MarysChallenger,builtin1906astheWilliamPSnyder,wastheoldestlakerstillworkingon
theLakesuntilitsconversionintoabargestartingin2013.Similarly,theE.M.Ford,builtin1898asthe
PresqueIsle,wassailingthelakes98yearslaterin1996.Asof2007theFordwasstillafloatasa

stationarytransfervesselatariversidecementsiloinSaginaw,Michigan.

Seagoingcommercialvessels
Commercialvesselsormerchantshipscanbedividedintofour
broadcategories:fishing,cargoships,passengerships,and
specialpurposeships.[46]Moderncommercialvesselsare
typicallypoweredbyasinglepropellerdrivenbyadieselor,less
usually,gasturbineengine.,butuntilthemid19thcenturythey
werepredominantlysquaresailrigged.Thefastestvesselsmay
usepumpjetengines.Mostcommercialvesselshavefullhull
formstomaximizecargocapacity.Hullsareusuallymadeof
steel,althoughaluminumcanbeusedonfastercraft,and
TwomoderncontainershipsinSan
fiberglassonthesmallestservicevessels.Commercialvessels
Francisco
generallyhaveacrewheadedbyacaptain,withdeckofficers
andmarineengineersonlargervessels.Specialpurposevessels
oftenhavespecializedcrewifnecessary,forexamplescientistsaboardresearchvessels.
Fishingboatsaregenerallysmall,oftenlittlemorethan30meters(98ft)butupto100metres(330ft)
foralargetunaorwhalingship.Aboardafishprocessingvessel,thecatchcanbemadereadyformarket
andsoldmorequicklyoncetheshipmakesport.Specialpurposevesselshavespecialgear.Forexample,
trawlershavewinchesandarms,sterntrawlershavearearramp,andtunaseinershaveskiffs.In2004,
85,800,000tonnes(84,400,000longtons94,600,000shorttons)offishwerecaughtinthemarine
capturefishery.[47]Anchovetarepresentedthelargestsinglecatchat10,700,000tonnes(10,500,000long
tons11,800,000shorttons).[47]Thatyear,thetoptenmarinecapturespeciesalsoincludedAlaska
pollock,Bluewhiting,Skipjacktuna,Atlanticherring,Chubmackerel,Japaneseanchovy,Chileanjack
mackerel,Largeheadhairtail,andYellowfintuna.[47]Otherspeciesincludingsalmon,shrimp,lobster,
clams,squidandcrab,arealsocommerciallyfished.Moderncommercialfishermenusemanymethods.
Oneisfishingbynets,suchaspurseseine,beachseine,liftnets,gillnets,orentanglingnets.Anotheris
trawling,includingbottomtrawl.Hooksandlinesareusedinmethodslikelonglinefishingandhand
linefishing.Anothermethodistheuseoffishingtrap.
Cargoshipstransportdryandliquidcargo.Drycargocanbetransportedinbulkbybulkcarriers,packed
directlyontoageneralcargoshipinbreakbulk,packedinintermodalcontainersasaboardacontainer
ship,ordrivenaboardasinrollonrolloffships.Liquidcargoisgenerallycarriedinbulkaboard
tankers,suchasoiltankerswhichmayincludebothcrudeandfinishedproductsofoil,chemicaltankers
whichmayalsocarryvegetableoilsotherthanchemicalsandLPG/LNGtankers,althoughsmaller
shipmentsmaybecarriedoncontainershipsintankcontainers.
Passengershipsrangeinsizefromsmallriverferriestoverylargecruiseships.Thistypeofvessel
includesferries,whichmovepassengersandvehiclesonshorttripsoceanliners,whichcarrypassengers
fromoneplacetoanotherandcruiseships,whichcarrypassengersonvoyagesundertakenforpleasure,
visitingseveralplacesandwithleisureactivitiesonboard,oftenreturningthemtotheportof
embarkation.Riverboatsandinlandferriesarespeciallydesignedtocarrypassengers,cargo,orbothin
thechallengingriverenvironment.Riverspresentspecialhazardstovessels.Theyusuallyhavevarying
waterflowsthatalternatelyleadtohighspeedwaterflowsorprotrudingrockhazards.Changing
siltationpatternsmaycausethesuddenappearanceofshoalwaters,andoftenfloatingorsunkenlogs
andtrees(calledsnags)canendangerthehullsandpropulsionofriverboats.Riverboatsaregenerallyof
shallowdraft,beingbroadofbeamandrathersquareinplan,withalowfreeboardandhightopsides.
Riverboatscansurvivewiththistypeofconfigurationastheydonothavetowithstandthehighwindsor
largewavesthatareseenonlargelakes,seas,oroceans.

Fishingvesselsareasubsetofcommercialvessels,butgenerally
smallinsizeandoftensubjecttodifferentregulationsand
classification.Theycanbecategorizedbyseveralcriteria:
architecture,thetypeoffishtheycatch,thefishingmethodused,
geographicalorigin,andtechnicalfeaturessuchasrigging.Asof
2004,theworld'sfishingfleetconsistedofsome4million
vessels.[41]Ofthese,1.3millionweredeckedvesselswith
enclosedareasandtherestwereopenvessels.[41]Mostdecked
vesselsweremechanized,buttwothirdsoftheopenvesselswere
traditionalcraftpropelledbysailsandoars.[41]Morethan60%of
allexistinglargefishingvessels[48]werebuiltinJapan,Peru,the
RussianFederation,SpainortheUnitedStatesofAmerica.[49]

TheAlbatunDos,atunaboatatwork
nearVictoria,Seychelles

Specialpurposevessels
Aweathershipwasashipstationedintheoceanasa
platformforsurfaceandupperairmeteorological
observationsforuseinmarineweatherforecasting.Surface
weatherobservationsweretakenhourly,andfourradiosonde
releasesoccurreddaily.[50]Itwasalsomeanttoaidinsearch
andrescueoperationsandtosupporttransatlantic
flights.[50][51]Proposedasearlyas1927bytheaviation
community,[52]theestablishmentofweathershipsprovedto
besousefulduringWorldWarIIthattheInternationalCivil
AviationOrganization(ICAO)establishedaglobalnetwork
ofweathershipsin1948,with13tobesuppliedbythe
UnitedStates.[51]Thisnumberwaseventuallynegotiated
downtonine.[53]

TheweathershipMSPolarfrontatsea.

Theweathershipcrewswerenormallyatseaforthreeweeksatatime,returningtoportfor10day
stretches.[50]Weathershipobservationsprovedtobehelpfulinwindandwavestudies,astheydidnot
avoidweathersystemslikeothershipstendedtoforsafetyreasons.[54]Theywerealsohelpfulin
monitoringstormsatsea,suchastropicalcyclones.[55]Theremovalofaweathershipbecameanegative
factorinforecastsleadinguptotheGreatStormof1987.[56]Beginninginthe1970s,theirrolebecame
largelysupersededbyweatherbuoysduetotheships'significantcost.[57]Theagreementoftheuseof
weathershipsbytheinternationalcommunityendedin1990.ThelastweathershipwasPolarfront,
knownasweatherstationM("Mike"),whichwasputoutofoperationon1January2010.Weather
observationsfromshipscontinuefromafleetofvoluntarymerchantvesselsinroutinecommercial
operation.

Navalvessels
Navalvesselsarethoseusedbyanavyformilitarypurposes.Therehavebeenmanytypesofnaval
vessel.Modernnavalvesselscanbebrokendownintothreecategories:surfacewarships,submarines,
andsupportandauxiliaryvessels.

Modernwarshipsaregenerallydividedintosevenmain
categories:aircraftcarriers,cruisers,destroyers,frigates,
corvettes,submarinesandamphibiousassaultships.The
distinctionbetweencruisers,destroyers,frigates,andcorvettesis
notrigorousthesamevesselmaybedescribeddifferentlyin
differentnavies.BattleshipswereusedduringtheSecondWorld
Warandoccasionallysincethen(thelastbattleshipswere
removedfromtheU.S.NavalVesselRegisterinMarch2006),
butweremadeobsoletebytheuseofcarrierborneaircraftand
guidedmissiles.[58]

AmericanaircraftcarrierUSSHarry
S.Trumanandareplenishmentship

Mostmilitarysubmarinesareeitherattacksubmarinesorballisticmissilesubmarines.Untiltheendof
WorldWarIItheprimaryroleofthediesel/electricsubmarinewasantishipwarfare,insertingand
removingcovertagentsandmilitaryforces,andintelligencegathering.Withthedevelopmentofthe
homingtorpedo,bettersonarsystems,andnuclearpropulsion,submarinesalsobecameableto
effectivelyhunteachother.Thedevelopmentofsubmarinelaunchednuclearandcruisemissilesgave
submarinesasubstantialandlongrangedabilitytoattackbothlandandseatargetswithavarietyof
weaponsrangingfromclustermunitionstonuclearweapons.
Mostnaviesalsoincludemanytypesofsupportandauxiliaryvessel,suchasminesweepers,patrolboats,
offshorepatrolvessels,replenishmentships,andhospitalshipswhicharedesignatedmedicaltreatment
facilities.[59]
Fastcombatvesselssuchascruisersanddestroyersusuallyhavefinehullstomaximizespeedand
maneuverability.[60]Theyalsousuallyhaveadvancedmarineelectronicsandcommunicationsystems,as
wellasweapons.

Architecture
Somecomponentsexistinvesselsofanysizeandpurpose.Everyvesselhasahullofsorts.Everyvessel
hassomesortofpropulsion,whetherit'sapole,anox,oranuclearreactor.Mostvesselshavesomesort
ofsteeringsystem.Othercharacteristicsarecommon,butnotasuniversal,suchascompartments,holds,
asuperstructure,andequipmentsuchasanchorsandwinches.

Hull
Forashiptofloat,itsweightmustbelessthanthatofthewater
displacedbytheship'shull.[61]Therearemanytypesofhulls,
fromlogslashedtogethertoformarafttotheadvancedhullsof
America'sCupsailboats.Avesselmayhaveasinglehull(called
amonohulldesign),twointhecaseofcatamarans,orthreeinthe
caseoftrimarans.Vesselswithmorethanthreehullsarerare,but
someexperimentshavebeenconductedwithdesignssuchas
pentamarans.Multiplehullsaregenerallyparalleltoeachother
andconnectedbyrigidarms.
Hullshaveseveralelements.Thebowistheforemostpartofthe
hull.Manyshipsfeatureabulbousbow.Thekeelisatthevery
bottomofthehull,extendingtheentirelengthoftheship.The
rearpartofthehullisknownasthestern,andmanyhullshavea

Aship'shullenduresharshconditions
atsea,asillustratedbythisreefership
inbadweather.

flatbackknownasatransom.Commonhullappendagesincludepropellersforpropulsion,ruddersfor
steering,andstabilizerstoquellaship'srollingmotion.Otherhullfeaturescanberelatedtothevessel's
work,suchasfishinggearandsonardomes.
Hullsaresubjecttovarioushydrostaticandhydrodynamicconstraints.Thekeyhydrostaticconstraintis
thatitmustbeabletosupporttheentireweightoftheboat,andmaintainstabilityevenwithoften
unevenlydistributedweight.Hydrodynamicconstraintsincludetheabilitytowithstandshockwaves,
weathercollisionsandgroundings.
Oldershipsandpleasurecraftoftenhaveorhadwoodenhulls.Steelisusedformostcommercial
vessels.Aluminiumisfrequentlyusedforfastvessels,andcompositematerialsareoftenfoundin
sailboatsandpleasurecraft.Someshipshavebeenmadewithconcretehulls.

Propulsionsystems
Propulsionsystemsforshipsfallintothreecategories:human
propulsion,sailing,andmechanicalpropulsion.Human
propulsionincludesrowing,whichwasusedevenonlarge
galleys.Propulsionbysailgenerallyconsistsofasailhoistedon
anerectmast,supportedbystaysandsparsandcontrolledby
ropes.Sailsystemswerethedominantformofpropulsionuntil
the19thcentury.Theyarenowgenerallyusedforrecreationand
competition,althoughexperimentalsailsystems,suchasthe
turbosails,rotorsails,andwingsailshavebeenusedonlarger
modernvesselsforfuelsavings.

Aship'sengineroom

Mechanicalpropulsionsystemsgenerallyconsistofamotoror
engineturningapropeller,orlessfrequently,animpellerorwavepropulsionfins.Steamengineswere
firstusedforthispurpose,buthavemostlybeenreplacedbytwostrokeorfourstrokedieselengines,
outboardmotors,andgasturbineenginesonfasterships.Nuclearreactorsproducingsteamareusedto
propelwarshipsandicebreakers,andtherehavebeenattemptstoutilizethemtopowercommercial
vessels(seeNSSavannah).
Inadditiontotraditionalfixedandcontrollablepitchpropellerstherearemanyspecializedvariations,
suchascontrarotatingandnozzlestylepropellers.Mostvesselshaveasinglepropeller,butsomelarge
vesselsmayhaveuptofourpropellerssupplementedwithtransversethrustersformaneuvringatports.
Thepropellerisconnectedtothemainengineviaapropellershaftand,incaseofmediumandhigh
speedengines,areductiongearbox.Somemodernvesselshaveadieselelectricpowertraininwhichthe
propelleristurnedbyanelectricmotorpoweredbytheship'sgenerators.

Steeringsystems
Forshipswithindependentpropulsionsystemsforeachside,suchasmanualoarsorsomepaddles,[62]
steeringsystemsmaynotbenecessary.Inmostdesigns,suchasboatspropelledbyenginesorsails,a
steeringsystembecomesnecessary.Themostcommonisarudder,asubmergedplanelocatedattherear
ofthehull.Ruddersarerotatedtogeneratealateralforcewhichturnstheboat.Rudderscanberotated
byatiller,manualwheels,orelectrohydraulicsystems.Autopilotsystemscombinemechanicalrudders
withnavigationsystems.Ductedpropellersaresometimesusedforsteering.
Somepropulsionsystemsareinherentlysteeringsystems.Examplesincludetheoutboardmotor,the
bowthruster,andtheZdrive.

Holds,compartments,andthesuperstructure
Largerboatsandshipsgenerallyhavemultipledecksand
compartments.Separateberthingsandheadsarefoundon
sailboatsoverabout25feet(7.6m).Fishingboatsandcargo
shipstypicallyhaveoneormorecargoholds.Mostlargervessels
haveanengineroom,agalley,andvariouscompartmentsfor
work.Tanksareusedtostorefuel,engineoil,andfreshwater.
Ballasttanksareequippedtochangeaship'strimandmodifyits
stability.

Therudderandpropelleronanewly
builtferry

Superstructuresarefoundabovethemaindeck.Onsailboats,
theseareusuallyverylow.Onmoderncargoships,theyare
almostalwayslocatedneartheship'sstern.Onpassengershipsandwarships,thesuperstructure
generallyextendsfarforward.

Equipment
Shipboardequipmentvariesfromshiptoshipdependingonsuchfactorsastheship'sera,design,areaof
operation,andpurpose.Sometypesofequipmentthatarewidelyfoundinclude:
Mastscanbethehomeofantennas,navigationlights,radartransponders,fogsignals,andsimilar
devicesoftenrequiredbylaw.
Groundtackleincludesequipmentsuchasmooringwinches,windlasses,andanchors.Anchors
areusedtomoorshipsinshallowwater.Theyareconnectedtotheshipbyaropeorchain.On
largervessels,thechainrunsthroughahawsepipe.
Cargoequipmentsuchascranesandcargoboomsareusedtoloadandunloadcargoandship's
stores.
Safetyequipmentsuchaslifeboats,liferafts,andsurvivalsuitsarecarriedaboardmanyvesselsfor
emergencyuse.

Designconsiderations
Hydrostatics
Boatsandshipsarekepton(orslightlyabove)thewaterinthree
ways:
Formostvessels,knownasdisplacementvessels,the
vessel'sweightisoffsetbythatofthewaterdisplacedby
thehull.
Forplaningshipsandboats,suchasthehydrofoil,thelift
developedbythemovementofthefoilthroughthewater
increaseswiththevessel'sspeed,untilthevesselis
foilborne.
Fornondisplacementcraftsuchashovercraftandair
cushionvehicles,thevesselissuspendedoverthewaterby
acushionofhighpressureairitprojectsdownwards
againstthesurfaceofthewater.

Somevessels,liketheLCAC,can
operateinanondisplacementmode.

Avesselisinequilibriumwhentheupwardsanddownwardsforcesareofequalmagnitude.Asavessel
isloweredintothewateritsweightremainsconstantbutthecorrespondingweightofwaterdisplacedby
itshullincreases.Whenthetwoforcesareequal,theboatfloats.Ifweightisevenlydistributed
throughoutthevessel,itfloatswithouttrimorheel.
Avessel'sstabilityisconsideredinboththishydrostaticsenseaswellasahydrodynamicsense,when
subjectedtomovement,rollingandpitching,andtheactionofwavesandwind.Stabilityproblemscan
leadtoexcessivepitchingandrolling,andeventuallycapsizingandsinking.

Hydrodynamics
Theadvanceofavesselthroughwaterisresistedbythewater.
Thisresistancecanbebrokendownintoseveralcomponents,the
mainonesbeingthefrictionofthewateronthehullandwave
makingresistance.Toreduceresistanceandthereforeincrease
thespeedforagivenpower,itisnecessarytoreducethewetted
surfaceandusesubmergedhullshapesthatproducelow
amplitudewaves.Todoso,highspeedvesselsareoftenmore
slender,withfewerorsmallerappendages.Thefrictionofthe
waterisalsoreducedbyregularmaintenanceofthehullto
removetheseacreaturesandalgaethataccumulatethere.
Antifoulingpaintiscommonlyusedtoassistinthis.Advanced
designssuchasthebulbousbowassistindecreasingwave
resistance.

FishingboatDonaDelfina

Asimplewayofconsideringwavemakingresistanceistolookatthehullinrelationtoitswake.At
speedslowerthanthewavepropagationspeed,thewaverapidlydissipatestothesides.Asthehull
approachesthewavepropagationspeed,however,thewakeatthebowbeginstobuildupfasterthanit
candissipate,andsoitgrowsinamplitude.Sincethewaterisnotableto"getoutofthewayofthehull
fastenough",thehull,inessence,hastoclimboverorpushthroughthebowwave.Thisresultsinan
exponentialincreaseinresistancewithincreasingspeed.
Thishullspeedisfoundbytheformula:

or,inmetricunits:

whereListhelengthofthewaterlineinfeetormeters.
Whenthevesselexceedsaspeed/lengthratioof0.94,itstartstooutrunmostofitsbowwave,andthe
hullactuallysettlesslightlyinthewaterasitisnowonlysupportedbytwowavepeaks.Asthevessel
exceedsaspeed/lengthratioof1.34,thehullspeed,thewavelengthisnowlongerthanthehull,andthe
sternisnolongersupportedbythewake,causingthesterntosquat,andthebowrise.Thehullisnow
startingtoclimbitsownbowwave,andresistancebeginstoincreaseataveryhighrate.Whileitis
possibletodriveadisplacementhullfasterthanaspeed/lengthratioof1.34,itisprohibitivelyexpensive
todoso.Mostlargevesselsoperateatspeed/lengthratioswellbelowthatlevel,atspeed/lengthratiosof
under1.0.

Forlargeprojectswithadequatefunding,hydrodynamic
resistancecanbetestedexperimentallyinahulltestingpoolor
usingtoolsofcomputationalfluiddynamics.
Vesselsarealsosubjecttooceansurfacewavesandseaswellas
wellaseffectsofwindandweather.Thesemovementscanbe
stressfulforpassengersandequipment,andmustbecontrolledif
Vesselsmovealongthethreeaxes:
possible.Therollingmovementcanbecontrolled,toanextent,
1.heave,2.sway,3.surge,4.yaw,
byballastingorbydevicessuchasfinstabilizers.Pitching
5.pitch,6.roll
movementismoredifficulttolimitandcanbedangerousifthe
bowsubmergesinthewaves,aphenomenoncalledpounding.
Sometimes,shipsmustchangecourseorspeedtostopviolentrollingorpitching.
Howithasbeenconvincinglyshowninscientificstudiesofthe21stcentury,[63][64]controllabilityof
somevesselsdecreasesdramaticallyinsomecasesthatareconditionedbyeffectsofthebifurcation
memory.Thisclassofvesselsincludesshipswithhighmanoeuvringcapabilities,aircraftandcontrolled
underwatervehiclesdesignedtobeunstableinsteadystatemotionthatareinterestingintermsof
applications.Thesefeaturesmustbeconsideredindesigningshipsandintheircontrolincritical
situations.

Lifecycle
Ashipwillpassthroughseveralstagesduringitscareer.Thefirstisusuallyaninitialcontracttobuild
theship,thedetailsofwhichcanvarywidelybasedonrelationshipsbetweentheshipowners,operators,
designersandtheshipyard.Then,thedesignphasecarriedoutbyanavalarchitect.Thentheshipis
constructedinashipyard.Afterconstruction,thevesselislaunchedandgoesintoservice.Shipsend
theircareersinanumberofways,rangingfromshipwreckstoserviceasamuseumshiptothe
scrapyard.

Design

Linesplanforthehullofa
basiccargoship

Avessel'sdesignstartswithaspecification,whichanavalarchitectuses
tocreateaprojectoutline,assessrequireddimensions,andcreateabasic
layoutofspacesandaroughdisplacement.Afterthisinitialroughdraft,
thearchitectcancreateaninitialhulldesign,ageneralprofileandan
initialoverviewoftheship'spropulsion.Atthisstage,thedesignercan
iterateontheship'sdesign,addingdetailandrefiningthedesignateach
stage.

Thedesignerwilltypicallyproduceanoverallplan,ageneral
specificationdescribingthepeculiaritiesofthevessel,andconstructionblueprintstobeusedatthe
buildingsite.Designsforlargerormorecomplexvesselsmayalsoincludesailplans,electrical
schematics,andplumbingandventilationplans.
Asenvironmentallawsarebecomingmorestrict,shipdesignersneedtocreatetheirdesigninsucha
waythattheship,whenitnearsitsendofterm,canbedisassembledordisposedeasilyandthatwasteis
reducedtoaminimum.

Construction

Shipconstructiontakesplaceinashipyard,andcanlastfromafew
monthsforaunitproducedinseries,toseveralyearstoreconstructa
woodenboatlikethefrigateHermione,tomorethan10yearsforan
aircraftcarrier.DuringWorldWarII,theneedforcargoshipswasso
urgentthatconstructiontimeforLibertyShipswentfrominitiallyeight
monthsorlonger,downtoweeksorevendays.Buildersemployed
productionlineandprefabricationtechniquessuchasthoseusedin
shipyardstoday.[65][66][67]

MSFreedomoftheSeas
underconstructionina
shipyardinTurku.

Hullmaterialsandvesselsizeplayalargepartindeterminingthe
methodofconstruction.Thehullofamassproducedfiberglasssailboat
isconstructedfromamold,whilethesteelhullofacargoshipismadefromlargesectionswelded
togetherastheyarebuilt.

Generally,construction
startswiththehull,and
onvesselsoverabout30
meters(98ft),bythe
layingofthekeel.Thisis
doneinadrydockoron
AshiplaunchingattheNorthern
land.Oncethehullis
ShipyardinGdansk,Poland
assembledandpainted,it
AshipyardatKerala,SouthernIndia
islaunched.Thelast
stages,suchasraisingthe
superstructureandaddingequipmentandaccommodation,canbedoneafterthevesselisafloat.
Oncecompleted,thevesselisdeliveredtothecustomer.Shiplaunchingisoftenaceremonyofsome
significance,andisusuallywhenthevesselisformallynamed.Atypicalsmallrowboatcancostunder
US$100,$1,000forasmallspeedboat,tensofthousandsofdollarsforacruisingsailboat,andabout
$2,000,000foraVendeGlobeclasssailboat.A25meters(82ft)trawlermaycost$2.5million,anda
1,000personcapacityhighspeedpassengerferrycancostintheneighborhoodof$50million.Aship's
costpartlydependsonitscomplexity:asmall,generalcargoshipwillcost$20million,aPanamaxsized
bulkcarrieraround$35million,asupertankeraround$105millionandalargeLNGcarriernearly
$200million.Themostexpensiveshipsgenerallyaresobecauseofthecostofembeddedelectronics:a
Seawolfclasssubmarinecostsaround$2billion,andanaircraftcarriergoesforabout$3.5billion.

Repairandconversion
Shipsundergonearlyconstantmaintenanceduringtheircareer,
whethertheybeunderway,pierside,orinsomecases,inperiods
ofreducedoperatingstatusbetweenchartersorshippingseasons.
Mostships,however,requiretripstospecialfacilitiessuchasa
drydockatregularintervals.Tasksoftendoneatdrydockinclude
removingbiologicalgrowthsonthehull,sandblastingand
repaintingthehull,andreplacingsacrificialanodesusedto
protectsubmergedequipmentfromcorrosion.Majorrepairsto
thepropulsionandsteeringsystemsaswellasmajorelectrical
systemsarealsooftenperformedatdrydock.

Anableseamanusesaneedlegun
scalerwhilerefurbishingamooring
winchatsea

Vesselsthatsustainmajordamageatseamayberepairedatafacilityequippedformajorrepairs,suchas
ashipyard.Shipsmayalsobeconvertedforanewpurpose:oiltankersareoftenconvertedintofloating
productionstorageandoffloadingunits.

Endofservice
Mostoceangoingcargoshipshavealifeexpectancyofbetween20and
30years.Asailboatmadeofplywoodorfiberglasscanlastbetween30
and40years.Solidwoodenshipscanlastmuchlongerbutrequire
regularmaintenance.Carefullymaintainedsteelhulledyachtscanhavea
lifespanofover100years.
AshipgraveyardinFrance

Asshipsage,forcessuchascorrosion,osmosis,androttingcompromise
hullstrength,andavesselbecomestoodangeroustosail.Atthispoint,it
canbescuttledatseaorscrappedbyshipbreakers.Shipscanalsobeusedasmuseumships,orexpended
toconstructbreakwatersorartificialreefs.
Manyshipsdonotmakeittothescrapyard,andarelostinfires,collisions,grounding,orsinkingatsea.
TheAllieslostsome5,150shipsduringWorldWarII.[68]

Measuringships
Onecanmeasureshipsintermsofoveralllength,lengthoftheshipatthewaterline,beam(breadth),
depth(distancebetweenthecrownoftheweatherdeckandthetopofthekeelson),draft(distance
betweenthehighestwaterlineandthebottomoftheship)andtonnage.Anumberofdifferenttonnage
definitionsexistandareusedwhendescribingmerchantshipsforthepurposeoftolls,taxation,etc.
InBritainuntilSamuelPlimsoll'sMerchantShippingActof1876,shipownerscouldloadtheirvessels
untiltheirdeckswerealmostawash,resultinginadangerouslyunstablecondition.Anyonewhosigned
ontosuchashipforavoyageand,uponrealizingthedanger,chosetoleavetheship,couldendupin
jail.Plimsoll,aMemberofParliament,realisedtheproblemandengagedsomeengineerstoderivea
fairlysimpleformulatodeterminethepositionofalineonthesideofanyspecificship'shullwhich,
whenitreachedthesurfaceofthewaterduringloadingofcargo,meanttheshiphadreachedits
maximumsafeloadinglevel.Tothisday,thatmark,calledthe"PlimsollLine",existsonships'sides,
andconsistsofacirclewithahorizontallinethroughthecentre.OntheGreatLakesofNorthAmerica
thecircleisreplacedwithadiamond.Becausedifferenttypesofwater(summer,fresh,tropicalfresh,
winternorthAtlantic)havedifferentdensities,subsequentregulationsrequiredpaintingagroupoflines
forwardofthePlimsollmarktoindicatethesafedepth(orfreeboardabovethesurface)towhicha
specificshipcouldloadinwaterofvariousdensities.Hencethe"ladder"oflinesseenforwardofthe
Plimsollmarktothisday.Thisiscalledthe"freeboardmark"or"loadlinemark"inthemarineindustry.

Shippollution
Shippollutionisthepollutionofairandwaterbyshipping.Itisaproblemthathasbeenacceleratingas
tradehasbecomeincreasinglyglobalized,posinganincreasingthreattotheworldsoceansand
waterwaysasglobalizationcontinues.Itisexpectedthat,...shippingtraffictoandfromtheUSAis
projectedtodoubleby2020."[69]Becauseofincreasedtrafficinoceanports,pollutionfromshipsalso
directlyaffectscoastalareas.Thepollutionproducedaffectsbiodiversity,climate,food,andhuman
health.However,thedegreetowhichhumansarepollutingandhowitaffectstheworldishighly
debatedandhasbeenahotinternationaltopicforthepast30years.

Oilspills
Oilspillshavedevastatingeffectsontheenvironment.Crudeoil
containspolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAHs)whichare
verydifficulttocleanup,andlastforyearsinthesedimentand
marineenvironment.[71]Marinespeciesconstantlyexposedto
PAHscanexhibitdevelopmentalproblems,susceptibilityto
disease,andabnormalreproductivecycles.
Bythesheeramountofoilcarried,modernoiltankersmustbe
consideredsomethingofathreattotheenvironment.Anoil
TheExxonValdezspilled10,800,000
tankercancarry2millionbarrels(318,000m3)ofcrudeoil,or
USgallons(8,993,000impgal
84,000,000USgallons(69,940,000impgal318,000,000L).
40,880,000L)ofoilintoAlaska's
Thisismorethansixtimestheamountspilledinthewidely
PrinceWilliamSound. [70]
knownExxonValdezincident.Inthisspill,theshipranaground
anddumped10,800,000USgallons(8,993,000impgal
40,880,000L)ofoilintotheoceaninMarch1989.Despiteeffortsofscientists,managers,and
volunteers,over400,000seabirds,about1,000seaotters,andimmensenumbersoffishwerekilled.[71]
TheInternationalTankerOwnersPollutionFederationhasresearched9,351accidentalspillssince
1974.[72]Accordingtothisstudy,mostspillsresultfromroutineoperationssuchasloadingcargo,
dischargingcargo,andtakingonfueloil.[72]91%oftheoperationaloilspillsweresmall,resultingin
lessthan7tonsperspill.[72]Spillsresultingfromaccidentslikecollisions,groundings,hullfailures,and
explosionsaremuchlarger,with84%oftheseinvolvinglossesofover700tons.[72]
FollowingtheExxonValdezspill,theUnitedStatespassedtheOilPollutionActof1990(OPA90),
whichincludedastipulationthatalltankersenteringitswatersbedoublehulledby2015.Followingthe
sinkingsoftheErika(1999)andPrestige(2002),theEuropeanUnionpasseditsownstringentanti
pollutionpackages(knownasErikaI,II,andIII),whichrequirealltankersenteringitswaterstobe
doublehulledby2010.TheErikapackagesarecontroversialbecausetheyintroducedthenewlegal
conceptof"seriousnegligence".[73]

Ballastwater
Whenalargevesselsuchasacontainershiporanoiltankerunloadscargo,seawaterispumpedinto
othercompartmentsinthehulltohelpstabilizeandbalancetheship.Duringloading,thisballastwateris
pumpedoutfromthesecompartments.[74]
Oneoftheproblemswithballastwatertransferisthetransportofharmfulorganisms.Meinesz[75]
believesthatoneoftheworstcasesofasingleinvasivespeciescausingharmtoanecosystemcanbe
attributedtoaseeminglyharmlessjellyfish.Mnemiopsisleidyi,aspeciesofcombjellyfishthatinhabits
estuariesfromtheUnitedStatestotheValdspeninsulainArgentinaalongtheAtlanticcoast,hascaused
notabledamageintheBlackSea.Itwasfirstintroducedin1982,andthoughttohavebeentransportedto
theBlackSeainashipsballastwater.Thepopulationofthejellyfishshotupexponentiallyand,by
1988,itwaswreakinghavocuponthelocalfishingindustry."Theanchovycatchfellfrom204,000
tonnes(225,000shorttons201,000longtons)in1984to200tonnes(220shorttons197longtons)in
1993spratfrom24,600tonnes(27,100shorttons24,200longtons)in1984to12,000tonnes(13,200
shorttons11,800longtons)in1993horsemackerelfrom4,000tonnes(4,410shorttons3,940long
tons)in1984tozeroin1993."[75]Nowthatthejellyfishhaveexhaustedthezooplankton,includingfish

larvae,theirnumbershavefallendramatically,yettheycontinueto
maintainastrangleholdontheecosystem.Recentlythejellyfishhave
beendiscoveredintheCaspianSea.Invasivespeciescantakeoveronce
occupiedareas,facilitatethespreadofnewdiseases,introducenew
geneticmaterial,alterlandscapesandjeopardizetheabilityofnative
speciestoobtainfood."Onlandandinthesea,invasivespeciesare
responsibleforabout137billiondollarsinlostrevenueandmanagement
costsintheU.S.eachyear."[71]
Ballastandbilgedischargefromshipscanalsospreadhumanpathogens
andotherharmfuldiseasesandtoxinspotentiallycausinghealthissues
forhumansandmarinelifealike.[76]Dischargesintocoastalwaters,
alongwithothersourcesofmarinepollution,havethepotentialtobe
Acargoshippumpsballast
toxictomarineplants,animals,andmicroorganisms,causingalterations
waterovertheside
suchaschangesingrowth,disruptionofhormonecycles,birthdefects,
suppressionoftheimmunesystem,anddisordersresultingincancer,
tumors,andgeneticabnormalitiesorevendeath.[71]

Exhaustemissions
Exhaustemissionsfromshipsareconsideredtobeasignificantsourceof
airpollution.Seagoingvesselsareresponsibleforanestimated14
percentofemissionsofnitrogenfromfossilfuelsand16percentofthe
emissionsofsulfurfrompetroleumusesintotheatmosphere.[71]In
Europeshipsmakeupalargepercentageofthesulfurintroducedtothe
air,...asmuchsulfurasallthecars,lorriesandfactoriesinEuropeput
together.[77]By2010,upto40%ofairpollutionoverlandcouldcome
fromships.[77]Sulfurintheaircreatesacidrainwhichdamagescrops
andbuildings.Wheninhaledsulfurisknowntocauserespiratory
problemsandincreasetheriskofaheartattack.[77]

Exhauststackonacontainer
ship.

Shipbreaking
Shipbreakingorshipdemolitionisatypeofshipdisposalinvolvingthebreakingupofshipsforscrap
recycling,withthehullsbeingdiscardedinshipgraveyards.Mostshipshavealifespanofafewdecades
beforethereissomuchwearthatrefittingandrepairbecomesuneconomical.Shipbreakingallows
materialsfromtheship,especiallysteel,tobereused.

ShipbreakingnearChittagong,
Bangladesh

Inadditiontosteelandotherusefulmaterials,however,ships
(particularlyoldervessels)cancontainmanysubstancesthatare
bannedorconsidereddangerousindevelopedcountries.
Asbestosandpolychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs)aretypical
examples.Asbestoswasusedheavilyinshipconstructionuntilit
wasfinallybannedinmostofthedevelopedworldinthemid
1980s.Currently,thecostsassociatedwithremovingasbestos,
alongwiththepotentiallyexpensiveinsuranceandhealthrisks,
havemeantthatshipbreakinginmostdevelopedcountriesisno
longereconomicallyviable.Removingthemetalforscrapcan
potentiallycostmorethanthescrapvalueofthemetalitself.In
mostofthedevelopingworld,however,shipyardscanoperate

withouttheriskofpersonalinjurylawsuitsorworkers'healthclaims,meaningmanyoftheseshipyards
mayoperatewithhighhealthrisks.Furthermore,workersarepaidverylowrateswithnoovertimeor
otherallowances.Protectiveequipmentissometimesabsentorinadequate.Dangerousvaporsandfumes
fromburningmaterialscanbeinhaled,anddustyasbestosladenareasaroundsuchbreakdownlocations
arecommonplace.
Asidefromthehealthoftheyardworkers,inrecentyears,shipbreakinghasalsobecomeanissueof
majorenvironmentalconcern.Manydevelopingnations,inwhichshipbreakingyardsarelocated,have
laxornoenvironmentallaw,enablinglargequantitiesofhighlytoxicmaterialstoescapeintothe
environmentandcausingserioushealthproblemsamongshipbreakers,thelocalpopulationand
wildlife.EnvironmentalcampaigngroupssuchasGreenpeacehavemadetheissueahighpriorityfor
theircampaigns.[78]

Buoyancy
Afloatingboatdisplacesitsweightinwater.Thematerialoftheboathullmaybedenserthanwater,but
ifthisisthecasethenitformsonlytheouterlayer.Iftheboatfloats,themassoftheboat(pluscontents)
asawholedividedbythevolumebelowthewaterlineisequaltothedensityofwater(1kg/l).Ifweight
isaddedtotheboat,thevolumebelowthewaterlinewillincreasetokeeptheweightbalanceequal,and
sotheboatsinksalittletocompensate.

Seealso
Admiraltylaw
Airship
Chartering(shipping)
Dynamicpositioning
Environmentalimpactofshipping
Factoryship
Ferry
Flagstate
Glossaryofnauticalterms
Marineelectronics
Marinefuelmanagement
Maritimehistory
Mothership
Navalarchitecture
Navy
Nuclearmarinepropulsion
Propulsion
Sailing
Sailingship
Sailor
Shipburial
Shiptransport
Shipwreck
Spaceship
Trainferry
Vesselsafetysurvey
Whaler
Modelships

Shipmodel
Shipmodelbasin
Shipreplica
Lists
Listoffictionalships
Listofhistoricalshiptypes
ListofPanamaxports
Listoftheworld'slargestcruiseships
Listofworld'slargestshipsbygrosstonnage
Listofworld'slongestships
Listsofships
Listsofshipwrecks
Shipsizes
Aframax
Capesize
Chinamax
Handymax
Handysize
MaerskTripleEclass
Malaccamax
Panamax
QMax
Seawaymax
Suezmax
UltraLargeCrudeCarrier

Valemax
VLCC

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Externallinks
Shipparts(http://www.macmillandictionary.com/thesauruscategory/british/partsofboatsand
ships)
Nauticaltermsandshipparts(http://phrontistery.info/nautical.html)
Tankerships(http://www.marineinsight.com/marine/typesofshipsmarine/differenttypesof
tankersextensiveclassificationoftankerships/)
Shipsizes(http://maritimeconnector.com/wiki/shipsizes/)
Malaccamax(http://maritimeconnector.com/wiki/malaccamax/)
ShipsizesfromhandymaxtoULCC(http://www.imcbrokers.com/blog/overview/p/detail/ship
sizesfromhandymaxtoulcc)
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