ME2030 - 20160415 - Metrology

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1
Metrology
S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH
What exactly is Metrology?

The branch of knowledge concerned with
measurements
The science of measurements
Prelude
Video : TED Talk by Adam Savage on How Simple
Ideas Lead to Scientific Discoveries
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8UFGu2M2gM
Take home lesson from the video
Accuracy is determined not by the sophistication of the

instrument, but by the method of measurement.
What exactly is Metrology?

The branch of knowledge concerned with
measurements
The science of measurements
What is a Measurement ?
A procedure in which an unknown quantity is
compared to a known standard using an accepted
and consistent system of units
Quantity
Measurement
Numerical
Value
Repeatability and Variance

Let us assume two players: A & B
Who is a better shot of the two
What do you measure in the
process?
Why do those measures matter?
Are those measures consistently the
same?
Why not?
Accuracy & Precision

Accuracy
Degree to which the measured value agrees with the
actual value
Precision
the repeatability of a measurement
i.e. the closeness of agreement between the results of successive
measurements of the same parameter carried out by the same
observer, with the same measuring instrument, at the same
location at a short interval of time
10
Accuracy & Precision
Accurate
Precise
Machine-1: 140, 151, 159
Machine-2: 140, 141, 139
Better Central Tendency: High Accuracy
Low Central Tendency: Low Accuracy
High Dispersion: Low Precision
Low Dispersion: High Precision
11
12
Measurement Errors
Systematic Errors
Random Errors
Operator Errors
Application Errors
13
Systematic Errors
Description
An error in which, in the course of the number of measurements of
the same value of a given quantity, made under the same conditions,
with the same measuring instrument, remains constant in absolute
value and sign, or varies according to a known law when the
conditions change.
Cause
Mainly due to instrumental errors such as, zero drift, non-linearity, in
accurate calibration, sensitivity change etc..
Examples
Error which occurs when taking measurements at 25 C from a steel
ruler gauged at 0 C.
14
15
Random Errors
Description
An error in which, in the course of the number of measurements of
the same value of a given quantity, made under the same conditions,
with the same measuring instrument, varies in an unpredictable
manner both in value and sign of the absolute value.
Cause
Mainly due to unidentified sources, such as changes in environment,
resistance inside measuring instruments etc...
Examples
Error which occurs when taking measurements micro balances in
changing environments
16
17
Operator Errors
Description
An error in which occurs due to the fault of the operator
Cause
Due to misreading of instrument, lapses in memory, boredom ,
inadequate knowledge in handling the instruments etc
Examples
When taking a same reading over a long period of time.
18
19
Application Errors
Description
An error in which occurs due improper selection and measuring
technique for measurements.
Cause
Lack of knowledge of handing and selecting measuring instruments for
a particular application
Examples
When using a screw gauge to measure the thickness of the soft sheet
of metal strip the force exerted by the anvil on the surface of the
metal may cause faulty reading
20
Linear Measurements
21
Linear Measurements
Fundamental quantity
LENGTH
Linear distance between internal or external
surfaces, points etc.
22
Standards of Length
How is it done?
Comparing the unknown quantity with a with a standard
on a appropriate device.
Against what ???

What is the system of units???
23
The Imperial Standard Yard
24
The Prototype Meter France
25
Dimensions
Dimensions of the measuring instruments are
classified as follows
Low resolution devices (up to 0.25mm)
Medium resolution devices (up to 0.0025mm)
High resolution devices (less than microns)
26
Low resolution devices

Steel rule
Steel rule with assistance of
Calipers
Dividers &
Surface gauges
Thickness gauges
27
Medium resolution devices

Micrometer
Micrometer with assistance of
Telescoping
Extendable ball gauges
Vernier calipers
Dial indicators
Microscope
28
High resolution devices

Gauge blocks
Gauge block with assistance of
Mechanical comparator
Electronic comparator
Pneumatic comparator
Optical flats
29
Linear Measuring Instruments

Vernier caliper
Micrometer
Slip gauge or gauge blocks
Optical flats
Comparators
Interferometer
30
Vernier Caliper
31
Micro Meter
A micro meter is a precision instrument used to measure a
job, generally within an accuracy of 0.01mm.Micrometer used
to take the outside measurements are know as outside
micrometer.
32
Slip Gauge
Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel having a
cross-section of about 30 by 10 mm
Normal set
Range
Step
Pieces
1.001 to 1.009
0.001
1.01 to 1.09
0.01
1.1 to 1.9
0.1
1 to 9
10 to 90
10
Total
45
33
Special Set
Range
Step
Pieces
1.001 to 1.009
0.001
1.01 to 1.49
0.01
49
1.5 to 9.5
0.5
19
10 to 90
10
Total
86
34
Feeler Gauge
35
Limit Gauges
36
Limit Gauges
Not for exact measurement, but a quick Yes-No
assessment
Mostly used in quality inspection
37
Cylindrical Plug Gages

Used for checking inside diameter of straight hole
(generally "go" and "no-go" variety)
Consists of handle and plug on each end ground and/or
lapped to specific size
Small-diameter plug ("go" gage) checks lower limit

of hole
Larger-diameter plug
checks upper limit
38
38
Cylindrical Plug Gage
39
39
Cylindrical Plug Gage
40
40
Plain Ring Gages

Used to check outside diameter of pieces
Ground and lapped internally to desired size
Size stamped on side of gage
Outside diameter knurled and "no-go" end

identified by annular groove on knurled surface
Precautions and procedures similar to those
outlined for a plug gage
41
41
Thread Plug Gages

Used for checking internal threads of the "go"
and "no-go" variety
Based on same principle as cylindrical plug gages
"go" end (longer end)
Should be turned in flush to bottom of hole
"no-go" end
Should just start into hole and become snug before
third thread enters
42
42
Thread Plug Gages
43
43
Thread Ring Gages
44
44
45
45
Comparators
46
Comparators
Relative measurement instead of Absolute
47
Comparators
A device that compares the size of a part with that to
which is set , and does not directly indicate the
actual size
Types of comparators:
Mechanical comparators
Electrical comparators
Optical comparators
Pneumatic comparators
48
Mechanical Comparators
Employs mechanical means for magnifying the small
movement of the measuring stylus
Advantages being self contained, robust design and
no requirement of no external power to operate.
Disadvantages being loss of accuracy over a long
period of time due to wear of moving parts
49
Dial Gauges
50
Dial Gauges
51
Mikrokator comparators
52
Sigma comparators
53
Optical Comparators
54
Optical Comparators
55
Electrical Comparators
56
Pneumatic Comparators
Back pressure type
57
ME2230: Manufacturing Science -1
Angle Measurements
58
Types of Angle Measurement Instruments

Line Standard Angular Measuring Devices
Protractors
Universal Bevel Protractors
Face Standard Angular Measuring Devices

Sine bar
Measurement of Inclines
Spirit Level
Clinometer
59
Protractors
60
Protractors
It is the simplest instrument for measuring angles
between two faces.
Radial lines at an desired angle from a common
center
Used for non-precision works
61
Bevel Protractor
62
Universal Bevel Protractors
63
Face Standard Angular

The measurements are done with respect to two
faces of the measuring instruments.
64
Sine Bar
65
Sine Bar
66
Sine Bar
67
Sine Bar
A sine bar is made up of a hardened steel beam having a flat
upper surface
mounted on two cylindrical rollers
The axes of the two rollers are parallel to each other.
They are also parallel to the upper flat surface at an equal
distance from it.
Unlike bevel protractors sine bars make indirect
measurements.
Sine block itself is not a measuring instrument. It acts as an
important link in the angle measuring process.
68
Sine Table
69
Angle Gage Blocks
70
Measurement of Inclines
Spirit Level
71
Clinometer
72
Measurement by Light Wave Interference
73
Michelson interferometer
Video 1
Video 2
74
Measurement by Light Wave Interference

Introduction
Interferometry applied to Flatness Testing
75
Fringes
76
Fringes
77
Fringes
A
Here the error is indicated by the amount by which the
fringes are out of parallelism with those on the base plate
B
If the work piece is concave or convex, fringe pattern will
be as shown in Figure (b).
C
The surface is flat with slight rounding off at the corner
78
Optical flats
Optical flats can be used to measure the flatness
An optical reference flat of known quality
A monochromatic light box
Solvent and cleaning material
79
Typical setup of optical flat
80
Working
81
Fringe Pattern
Air wedges
Flatness error of zero
Cylinder with flatness error of two fringes
Contact method
Convex Cylinder
Concave Cylinder
Convex Sphere
Concave Sphere
Convex Spheroid
Concave Spheroid
Saddle
Highly Irregular
82
Air wedge
Flatness error of zero (a)
(a)
(b)
Cylinder with flatness error of two fringes (b)

83
Contact method
Convex Cylinder
Concave Cylinder
84
Saddle
Highly Irregular
85
Optical Flat
86
Non-Destructive Testing
87
Definition of NDT
The use of noninvasive
techniques to determine the
integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure some
characteristic ofan object.
i.e. Inspect or measure
without doing harm.
88
What are Some Uses of NDE Methods?

Flaw Detection and Evaluation
Leak Detection
Location Determination
Dimensional Measurements
Structure and Microstructure Characterization
Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements
Material Sorting and Chemical Composition
Determination
89
When are NDE Methods Used?

There are NDE application at almost any stage in the
production or life cycle of a component.
To assist in product development
To screen or sort incoming materials
To monitor, improve or control manufacturing processes
To verify proper processing such as heat treating

To verify proper assembly
To inspect for in-service damage
90
Magnetic Particle Inspection

The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye
pigment are then applied to the specimen. These particles are attracted to
magnetic flux leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly
over the discontinuity. This indication can be visually detected under
proper lighting conditions.
91
Magnetic Particle Crack Indications
92
Liquid Penetrant Inspection

A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is
applied to the surface of the part and allowed time to
seep into surface breaking defects.
The excess liquid is removed from the surface of the
part.
A developer (powder) is applied to pull the trapped
penetrant out the defect and spread it on the surface
where it can be seen.
Visual inspection is the final step in the process. The
penetrant used is often loaded with a fluorescent dye
and the inspection is done under UV light to increase
test sensitivity.
93
Radiography
High Electrical Potential
Electrons
+
X-ray Generator
or Radioactive
Source Creates
Radiation
Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample
Exposure Recording Device
94
Film Radiography
The part is placed between the radiation
source and a piece of film. The part will stop
some of the radiation. Thicker and more
dense area will stop more of the radiation.
The film darkness (density)
will vary with the amount
of radiation reaching the
film through the test
object.
X-ray film
= less exposure
= more exposure
Top view of developed film
95
Radiographic Images
96
Eddy Current Testing

Coil's
magnetic field
Coil
Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents
Conductive
material
97
Eddy Current Testing
98
Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)

High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and
they are reflected back from surfaces or flaws.
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can
visualize a cross section of the specimen showing the depth of
features that reflect sound.
f
initial
pulse
crack
echo
back surface
echo
crack
0
Oscilloscope, or
flaw detector
10
plate
99
Common Application of NDT

Inspection of Raw Products
Inspection Following Secondary Processing
In-Services Damage Inspection
Inspection of Raw Products
Inspection for in-Service Damage
Cracking
Corrosion
Erosion/Wear
Heat Damage
etc.
Power Plant Inspection

Periodically, power plants are
shutdown for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current probes
into heat exchanger tubes to check
for corrosion damage.
Pipe with damage
Probe
Signals produced by
various amounts of
corrosion thinning.
Aircraft Inspection
Nondestructive testing is used
extensively during the
manufacturing of aircraft.
NDT is also used to find cracks and
corrosion damage during operation
of the aircraft.
A fatigue crack that started at the
site of a lightning strike is shown
below.
Pipeline Inspection
NDT is used to inspect pipelines to
prevent leaks that could damage the
environment. Visual inspection,
radiography and electromagnetic testing
are some of the NDT methods used.
Have a nice day!

ME2030 - 20160415 - Metrology

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ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

What exactly is Metrology?

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

Take home lesson from the video

Accuracy is determined not by the sophistication of the

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

What exactly is Metrology?

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

Repeatability and Variance

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

Accuracy & Precision

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

Accuracy & Precision

Machine-1: 140, 151, 159

Machine-2: 140, 141, 139

Better Central Tendency: High Accuracy

Low Central Tendency: Low Accuracy

High Dispersion: Low Precision

Low Dispersion: High Precision

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

Against what ???

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH

ME2030: Manufacturing Processes 1

The Imperial Standard Yard

S. Suryakumar, ME, IITH