New Industrial Rport

Sierra
Chapter 1
Introduction to the training

organisation
Report on In-Plant Training
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Sierra
1.1.1 Sierra CONSTRUCTION LIMITED

Sierra Constructions Limited was established on August 20, 1981 presently having its Head
office at 112, Havelock Road, Colombo-05.
The scope of Sierra is a diversified one and covers the following areas.
Civil and structural Engineering
Telecommunication Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Water supply & Sewerage Engineering
Information Technology
Sierra presents itself to the customers as the their infrastructural partner. Thus Sierra
Construction Limited, undertakes turn key projects or individual segments in:
Telecommunication Engineering
Construction of external plant networks
Installation of switching centers
Installation of transmission links
Supply and erection of self supporting antenna towers
Civil and Structural Engineering:
Design and construction of houses and high-rise buildings
Drainage and water supply work
Road construction
Bridge construction
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Sierra
Electrical Engineering:
Construction of transmission lines
Rehabilitation of transmission lines
Laying underground cables
Installation of sub-stations
Information Technology division
Providing Internet services
Software development and networking
It was early 80's, that Sierra has ventured in to the fields of Telecommunication and Civil
Engineering. Since then, its expertise in the latest techniques of design and construction has
equipped it to handle any major construction work The speed, efficiency and reliability with
which it delivers the goods they impressed its clients here and abroad.
Sierra's team of highly motivated experts has built up and excellent record. Yet these men
are not complacent about their performance. They strive constantly to do better. This is the
driving force that has taken sierra to a commanding position in its chosen fields.
A wide range of equipment, machinery and vehicles facilitates Sierra's work in any location.
The company regularly updates and expands its resource base with equipment drawn from
leading suppliers' abroad. Thus it keeps abreast of modern trends and techniques in a
burgeoning, fast changing industry.
Its own workshops handle their repair and maintenance of its vehicles and heavy machinery.
Sierra's Engineering and monitoring skills in construction, management and implementation
have won the trust of its large and prestigious clientele ranging from national and local
government institutions, the armed services and local companies, to the multi national giants
of global industry.
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Sierra
Sierra's strong base in the design and construction of telecommunication services has made
it an expert in tower.
All Sierra's managers count many years experience in their respective disciplines. So their
competence is hard won and accrued, knowledge is the dynamic, which inspires sierra to
give of its best and stay at the top.
Health and safety are vital aspects of modern industry. Sierra's comprehensive safe quads are
regularly reviewed and its workers instructed in the measurers taken for their personal
benefits.
Quality is Sierra's key concern. Only the highest international standards are good enough for
its client.
Sierra used computer technology in its daily project operation. Trained staff use computer
for their logistic control and monitoring progress, invoicing and other connected activities,
so clients can be sure of prompt and satisfactory service.
Technologies, environment, business methods are changing fast. Sierra stays alert to new
opportunities and challenges in constantly refining the service it offers its clients.
Safety and quality control are paramount in sierra's working system. This protected working
environment also ensures excellent output. Although sierra with highly advanced
technologies, the human factor is never forgotten.
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Sierra
1.1.2 COMPANY STRUCTURE

General Affairs & Legal Division
General Meeting
Of Shareholders
Inspection & Quality Control Division

Account & Finance Division
Personal & Administration Division
Statutory
Auditors
Data Processing Division

Logistics Control Division
Technical & Training
Board of
Directors
Maintenance Division
Purchasing Division
Marketing & Sales Division
Engineering Division
Telecommunication Engineering Division
Chief Executive Officer
Civil Engineering Division

Water Supply & Sewerage Eng. Division
Overseas Business Division
Technical & Training Division
Regional Office
Project Office
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Sierra
Figure 1.1: Organization Chart of Sierra Construction Limited
1.1.3 CIVIL ENGINEERING DIVISION

This is one of the major divisions of the company and is fast developing one. Sierra is has
M1- Grade for Building Construction and P1-Grade for Piling works. Some of the major
projects handled by this division are stated below.
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Sierra
Chapter 2
Training Experience
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Sierra
2.1.1 LOCATION OF THE SITE

The Kakkapalliya water supply scheme is conveniently located 3 km from the Madampe city
to get fresh water from Kadupity oya.
2.1.2 DETAILS OF THE PROJECT

Project Name
: Sri Lanka third water supply & sanitation project

Kakkapalliya Water Supply scheme - Puttlam
Contract No
:ABD 03 / 02 / KAKA / P&D /W / 2002 / 06
Funded by
:Asian Development Bank ( ADB)
Loan No
:ADB 1575 SRI (SF)

Civil works Construction of Intake, Treatment plant, Two
Towers, Storage Reservoir & Quarters
Appointed Executing agency :National Water Supply & Drainage Board

Contractor
: Sierra Construction ( pvt) Ltd
Contract Amount
:Rs. 112,500,016.30
Time of completion
:15 calendar months
Defects liability period
:365 days from completion
Mobilization Advance
:20% of contract amount
Retention
:10% of all interim payments
Liquidated damages
:100,000.00 per day
Liquidated limit
:10% of contract amount
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2.1.3 SITE MANAGEMENT

Organization structure of the site is given in Fig2.1.3.a
P.M
S.E.
T/Q
S.E.
I/TP
E.A
T
E.A
T
S(2)
E.A
TP
E.A
I
S(4)
F (3)
MF
Q.S.
AC
M(2)
BPO
AS K
Figure 2.1.3.a: Organization Structutr of the site
P.M.
S.E.
Project Manager
Site Engineer
Tower
TP
Treatment Plant
SK
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I
Q
Intake
Quarters
AC
Accountant Clark
QS
Quantity Surveyor
SK
Store Keeper
ASK
Ass.Store Keeper
Supervisor
EA
Engineering Assistant
Foreman
MF
Mechanical Foreman
Management of a construction site involves several routing activities. Some of the main
activities are planning and control, co-ordination and communication, execution of work,
quality control, maintenance of site records, purchases, storing and accounting works, etc.
2.1.4 SITE ADMINISTRATION AND RELATIONS

In the Kakkapalliya W.S.S. site, the following staff involved in the managerial matters.
Project manager
Site Engineer
(3)
Engineering Assistants
(4)
Quantity Surveyor
(1)
Store Keeper
(2)
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2.1.4.1.1. PROJECT MANAGER (Eng. M.G. Jayarathna)
Our site P.M. is Mr. M.G. Jayarathna. He is responsible for all construction work and
administrative activities of the site. He is mainly responsible for the planning of the project
for the successful completion within the given period. For this, he has to co-ordinate the site,
the head office, consultants, client etc.
At the commencement of the project, he has to prepare the program of work & then maintain
the activities to this program. For this, he has to arrange the construction staff, sub
contractors, laborers, material supplies etc.
All the officers employed in the site are under his control & he should give instructions to
them.
2.1.4.1.2. SITE ENGINEERS

The civil engineer has to study the drawings & specifications for carrying out the
construction accordingly. He is responsible for all the technical aspects of the project &
preceding the work to the program. He also has to instruct the technical officers.
He also has to maintain logbooks and site records, maintaining daily/fortnight/monthly
records, etc.
He has to deal with the P.M. & other parties & makes suggestions regarding any steps to
achieve the required progress.
2.1.4.1.3. ENGINEERING ASSISTANTS

The Engineering Assistant is responsible to carry out the construction work in technically
correct manner. They give all the necessary support to the engineer for carrying out site
work.
2.1.4.1.4. QUANTITY SURVEYOR

His primary responsibility is to deal with the matters related to quantities. He measures the
completed work frequently & check he sub contractors bills before approving.
Before covering any completed work, he measures them and keeps the records.
He has to prepare interim & final bills for payments from the client.
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2.1.4.1.5. STOREKEEPER
He is in charge of the stores and keeps inventory of the equipments & materials. He records
daily issues of tools & checks whether they are all returned. He is responsible for the
tidiness, cleanness, safety and security of all tools, plant & materials.
The storekeeper has to inform the engineer about material requisitions, before running out of
them causing interruptions to ordinary site work.
2.1.4.2 CO ORDINATION AND COMMUNICATION

One of the most important modes of communication is through site meetings. During
the construction period a variety of meetings took place at the site. Some were formally
arranged at regular intervals and concerned with co ordination and progress control of the
site, while a short notice to resolve urgent problems called others. Meetings with the client,
meetings with subcontractors were arranged when necessary.
2.1.4.3. MAINTENANCE OF SITE RECORDS
Drawings
On receipt they were checked, recorded in the register and previous issue was
removed if revised. They were maintained well with a protective transparent
covering preventing tearing when using them.
Labour distribution chart

This is a daily-maintained chart which indicates the distribution of works in the site.
(i.e. how many direct laboures and how many lasbourers of each subcontractor are
working in that day). By referring this chart, one can directly recognize labor
strength of the site. Normally a supervisor updates this after taking details from each
subcontractor.
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Weather report
Maintenance of a weather report is very important for a construction site because
weather directly affects the amount of work done in the site during the construction
period. If there is any delay in construction works due to bad weather conditions, this
report will be helpful to prove it. A weather report sheet is attached to the Annex D.
2.1.4.4. PROGRESS CONTROL

Project control, which includes both progress control and cost control. The control
plan must ensure that the project is performing according to the schedule recognizing
deadlines with attention paid to resources. The comparison of actual progress with the
planned progress is called the progress monitoring. Planning future tasks to get the project
back to schedule is called updating. Progress monitoring, taking corrective actions and up
dating altogether is called progress control.
In the site, meetings were held with all the parties involved in the project such as client,
consultant and the contractor when necessary and bar charts were updated regularly in order
to control the progress of the site. Corrective actions were taken for any problem occurred,
delays and cost overruns before a serious condition occurs. Progress report was updated
monthly and a copy was sent to the head office to update the progress of the organization.
2.1.4.5. SPECIAL REPORTS

During construction period; construction is going on the site also document
works are going in the office. The good office practice may lead to good construction. There
is various type of document in side of the office. Document is considered one by one.
2.1.4.5.1. DELIVERY SHEET
When some material buys from subcontractors or suppliers, transport from
plant to site directly, delivery sheet is issued. The description of the material, quantity, price
and vehicle number has been mentioned in the delivery sheet. Also the person who is in
charge of site is singed when material received to site.
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2.1.4.5.2. PROGRASS REPORT

The item that is finished marked on the progress chart; week by week marked
the finished item. Then can be taken a speed of the construction and the place of program.
There is a program chart. It is prepared before start the site. Also mention there the item
should complete at what time is. If we maintain a progress chart can be compared with
progress and programme chart. Then can be decided, what are the rates of working.
2.1.4.5.3. DAILY REPORT
This is the brief description of day-to-day site. It is mention detail of weather
chart, construction management staff, machineries and other details. Anyone can under stand
what the capacity of site. This is using mainly easiness of consultant and high rank officers
of contractor.
2.1.4.5.4. GOOD RECEIVED NOTE
If some material were received to the site from head office, good received
note has to be filled. What is the type of material; quantities of material were mention in the
good received note. Before receiving the material good receiving note should be signed.
Therefore officer have a responsibility of material.
2.1.4.5.5. STOCK BOOK
After received the material from head office it should be stocked in the stores.
Before enter the stores, what the name of material, quantity of material should be entered in
the stock book. Also when workers materials bring from stores to site, the name of material,
quantity of material and the name of labour, are mention the stock book. Then anytime, if
stock book is checked, all material in mention in stock book should be there inside of the
stores.
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2.1.4.5.6. GOOD TRANSFER NOTE
When some goods sent from site to site, good transfer note is issued. The
name of material, the quantity of material, what the sending site and what the receiving site
are mention in the good transfer note. Also before sent the material, authorized person
should be singed. After received the material storekeeper of that site should be singed.
2.1.4.5.7. SUBCONTRACTOR BILL

Most of works are given for sub contractors. They successfully completed
that work under the supervision of main contractors staff. After finish the work main
contractor pay to subcontractor. This payment is going through subcontractor bill. The name
of the item, description of item, rate, unit, this period total, previous period total and final
total are mention in the subcontractor bill.
2.2 MOBILIZATION WORK

Site mobilization of the Intake, Water tower and water treatment plant project at
kakkapalliya was very tough task. The project named kakkapalliya water supply scheme.
But treatment plant, intake and elevated tower were established at Nelumpokuna Madampe.
Nelumpokuna is very rural village. And also that village is too far from Madampe town. The
proposed area was fully coved from trees and bushes. Therefore long time allocated for site
mobilization work
In order to achieve this job needed so machines such as, Wheel Loaders, Excavator,
Backhoe loader (JCB) as well as Dump Trucks for delivery works.
Apart from clearing works we had considered about removing of topsoil. It, s about
150mm-topsoil layer has to be removed. Layer thickness was varied depends on the
topography of the ground.
And also it is difficult to find residents for site staff. In first month, PM & other staff
coming from far plases to the site daily.
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2.3 EXCAVATION WORK

2.3.1 METHOD STATEMENT OF EXCAVATION (Specially prepare for give to
the consultant)
Cleaning of site
Removed the top soil by using JCB (Backhoe Loader)
Setting out of the struc6ture foundation will be done according to the drawings
and the permanent offset of pegs will be fixed about two or three meter away
from the out line
Excavation will be taken place by using excavator up to the required depth and
minimum working space about 500mm.
Disposal excavated soil away from the site. But the soil which can reused were
separated to the backfilling
Excavation was done by manually (with adequate labour force) for the balance
quantity
Compaction was done before lying of lean concrete.
2.3.2 METHOD OF EXCAVATION

Excavations are carried for laying foundations. The small excavations are done manually &
large ones are mechanically excavated, using the backhoe loader, the mini excavator or
excavator. In the pits, a working space of 0.5 m is allowed.
In our site excavation of 450 m 3 capacity water tower foundation, 1000 m 3 capacity
water tower foundation, clarifier foundation & intake are very large. Therefore we used large
excavator for excavate. We use kobelco PC 120 Machine to excavate.
For excavating other structures foundation we use caterpillar.
After excavating by machines, sides of the pits are leveled manually. Also the bottom
of the excavation is adjusted to the required level, either by scraping by a mammoty or by
filling earth.
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METHOD OF
EXCAVATION
MANUAL EXCAVATION
MACHINE EXCAVATION
2.3.2.1. MANUAL EXCAVATION

Manual excavation is the most economical method, but not suitable, when quantity is
massive to excavate. Slow out put, time waste and requirement of lot of manpower are the
other disadvantage in the method. In this site manual excavation was used as a secondary
support.
2.3.2.2. MACHINE EXCAVATION
Machine excavation is the most common and rapid method used when the quantity to be
excavated is massive. Selection of type of machine will govern by the space available in the
site, type of soil, access to the site etc. the process consist depositing excavated materiel in
to the tipper, the tipper should be placed in such position as not interrupt, to the moment of
the machine and other public vehicles. Skinless of the operator depends on the speed, and
the quantity of the work done. In this site machines used to,
Excavate foundation base
Excavate retaining wall bases
Excavation of the Intake Well
Excavation of the ground Reservoir
Excavation of the Clarifier
In construction work excavation for foundation base is one of the vital parts. Because,
stability of the main structure depends on the basement. In our site excavation was carried
out using Backhoe machines, and excavator.
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Sierra
2.3.3 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED WHEN EXCAVATING
Major problem have to be faced is, we were unable to get the convenient
good soil for the construction work. So we had to excavate very large soil
amount up to get the good soil surfaces.
When we excavating soil sometimes braking large amount of soil because
when the soil is loose.
Excavating very deep, difficult to excavate correctly. Therefore we should
excavate remaining amount by manually.
Only we can chard foundation capacity. Therefore extra expense to excavate
working space. It is not included in our site BOQ
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2.4 FORMWORK
2.4.1. INTRODUCTION
Formwork is the temporary structural system, which provides casing to enable wet concrete
to attain the required shape. Formwork should have a sufficient strength and stiffness
to withstand following loads,
Total weight of formwork, reinforcement and concrete
Construction loads ( effect of placing and compacting of concrete )
Wind loads
The final appearances of the structure very much depend on the quality & workmanship of
the formwork.
Selection of formwork depend on,
Cost of formwork total cost of forms, accessories, labour and supervision
Reuses
number of times that can be used
Productivity
units of formwork accomplished in a given period of time
Surface finish
In a good formwork,
Striping of formwork after concreting must be easy
Joints must be simple and there shouldnt be leakages through joints
Timber should not be too dry or too wet
Special things
When we want to a smooth finishing we use double coated plywood
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2.4.2. FORMWORK MATERIAL & DEVICES

Formworks are may be of the two kinds,
Temporary formworks
Permanent formworks
For the fabrication of temporary formwork, timber planks, plywood sheets or steel sheets
can be used. They are commonly for columns, slabs, beams, staircases etc.
Permanent formwork can be done by a brickwork or rubblework. Permanent formworks are
not removed after concreting & it remains with the concrete component .The most common
use of permanent formwork is for pile caps.
12mm thick single coated & double coated plywood sheets
2x 2 timber
2x 4 timber / Perry girder
50mm diameter GI pipe
Form ties
6000mm
10
Fig 2.4.2.a - 50mm diameter GI pipe

95
86
20
Fig 2.4.2.b Form ties

U Base
10
50
0
T Base
140
140
30
400
12
400
30
30
Fig 2.4.2.c U Base
30
Fig 2.4.2.d T Base

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Adjustable Jack
12
0
35
12
5
50
12
0
12
12
no
12
3 20
0 0
150
Fig 2.42.e - Adjustable Jack

170
17
0 00
00
6
0
140
40
140
12
Separators
3
0
3 0
3
0
Fig 2.42.f - separators
3 0
30
50
Turn buckle
150
Fig 2.42.g Turnbuckle
150
225
280
Chains
Wire nails and Concrete nails
Dimensions are in millimeters
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2.4.3. FORMWORK ARRANGEMENT OF THE 450 M3 GROUND
RESERVOIR WALL
Before fixing, form oil (grease, dissolved in diesel) is applied on the inner surfaces of the
formwork. This avoids absorption of water to the forms from the concrete. Hence application
of form oil is important for the proper strength of the concrete as well as the durability of the
forms (boars are not adhered to the concrete surface). A strip of foam rubber is kept to make
the form grout tight .At the outside of the joints; a strip of gum tape is pasted to provide an
additional seal for water.
Then fixed the created plywood in the inner side, at the correct level. Then fixed the
separators & fixed the outer side. Then apply vertical G.I. pipes to ply. Then apply the
horizontal long G.I. pipe to it. Then support ply using T base, U base Adjustable jack, etc.
Finally checking aligning & Verticality & present to the consultant to get approval.
2.4.4. FORMWORK ARRANGEMENT OF THE COLUMN

After fixing kicker, the formwork was join to that kicker by using wire nails. Then we firstly
make plywood panels according to the column size. Then remove the set concrete &
moisture from the panel. If it was used previously. When making formwork for columns we
have to leave a removable section of the bottom of the formwork. This allows removing
rubbish before concreting. That hole called cleanout trap.
Applying some mould oil to the inner surface of the panel & wipeout off. Fixing cover
blocks to the reinforcement of the column. Cleaning the existing concrete surfaces until
dirt, wooden saw dust, tie wire clippings, nails..etc. are removed. Then tightening the
sides of in columns in correct positions using G.I. pipes laterally to bear the lateral
pressure & stresses. To do that form ties, separators & short G.I. pipes were used & those
were placed at sufficient intervals. Finally we have to plume the erected column to keep
in correct positions using adjustable a craw jacks & U Base supporting to four sides.
After concreting the column , again check whether the plumbing work is in correct or
not
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2x 2 Timber
Sideboards
Fig2.4.4.a Three sideboards are assembled together
Sideboards
Plumb bob
Setting out line
Fig.2.4.4.b plumbing of the column
Adjustable Jacks
GI pipes
12mm Plywood
2x 2Timber
Plan
Elevation
Fig.2.4.4.cFormwork arrangement of the column
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2.4.5 CIRCULAR SHAPE FORMWORK

(for wals of 1000 m3 & 450 m3 water tower wall)
We used steel shatter for wall of 1000 m3 & 450 m3 tower walls. For made that, we used
40x40x6 mm L Angle. At first we cut this l angle 2420 mm pieces. After that curved it by
Hammer & man power. Then fixed it cross L angle to not change. Then fixed it to the 4 mm
thick steel plate by using GI structure support.
2.4.6. REMOVING FORMWORK

The removal of formwork has to be done after the concrete gained its strength, to resist
deformations due to self-weight & imposed loads.
Generally, formworks are removed after the below mentioned periods after concreting.
COMPONENT
FORMS ARE REMOVED AFTER (Days)
Columns
01
Beams outer sideboards
01
Slab formwork
14
Beam formworks
21
Table 2.4.6.a form work removing days
When removing, a great care has to be given to minimize the damages to the forms, as they
are re usable.
Generally, a formwork made out of ordinary plywood sheets can be use 3-5 times, if handled
with care & protected from weather effects.
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2.4.7. PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED WHEN MAKING FORM WORK
In our site to getting smooth finishing use double coated plywood. But that plywood
havent good quality. Therefore that ply using maximum 2 times.
First one month in my training I was in a 450 m3 tower site. In that site we made
circular structure using 2 x 2 & ply. That structure directly open to the sun few days.
Therefore in fixing that structure was very difficult.
In second month to upward I was in Ground Reservoir.In this structure we made wall
kicker with tapered three side. But we trying to getting concrete approval from our
consultant, He said all four sides have tapered. But this is not shown in plan. How
ever we have to make another taper for remaining wall.
In first lifting of G.R. wall there was a support engaged to the one wall. The BOQ
specialized that support must stainless steel. The size of that support is
75 x 75 x 10 mm L angle. That is not available in Sri Lanka at that time. Therefore
we have to go another option. Final decision is 18 mm diameter stainless steel screw
engaged to the wall and stainless steel L angle fixed to it. Till getting this decision
our wall form work explored to the sun. therefore it was difficult to the aliening that
form work.
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2.5. SCAFFOLDING
Scaffolding is a temporary structure from which persons can gain access to a place of work
in order to carry out building operations; it includes any working platforms, ladders and
guardrails. Scaffolding should be used if solid footing or a safe ladder is not available.
Caster brakes should be set before an employee gets on a scaffold. If no brakes are
available, another employee should be in position to secure the scaffold.
Scaffolding shall be secured at intervals of 15 feet
to a solid support. Securing will be by wire, cable,
chain or rope.
Ladders, boxes, etc. should not be moved with
employee(s) or materials on the scaffold.
Scaffolding shall not be moved until its height is
reduced below 15 feet. Sufficient help shall be
used to move the scaffold. A "watcher" shall be
posted to watch for overhead obstructions as well
as holes, etc. at ground level.
Fig. 2.4.a. Example of using scafolding
Guard rails and toe boards are required on any scaffold over five feet high.
Flooring shall be solid from side-to-side and secured in place with cleats.
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It is your responsibility to keep all tools and materials away form the edges of the scaffold
and platform openings.
Scaffolding over 50 feet high shall be inspected by the Environmental Health & Safety
Department.
Basically there are two forms of scaffolding;

Putlog scaffold.
Independent scaffold.
Both these scaffolding systems were used in our site.
2.5.1 PUTLOG SCAFFOLD

This form of scaffolding consists of a signal row of uprights or standards set away from the
wall at a distance, which will accommodate the required width of the working platform. The
standards are joined together with horizontal members called ledgers and are tied to the
building with cross members called putlogs. The scaffold is erected as the building rises and
is mostly used for building of brick construction. In our site putlog scaffold was used to
formwork and concreting work of upper walls.
I General purpose
Maximum standard spacing 2.1 m
Maximum loading
200 Kg
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2.5.2 INDEPENDENT SCAFFOLD
An independent scaffold has two rows of standards, which are tied by cross members
called transoms. This form of scaffold does not rely upon the building for support and is
therefore suitable for use in conjunction with framed structures.
Every scaffold should be securely tied to the building at intervals of approximately 3.6m
vertically and 6m horizontally. Scaffolding materials can be of tubular steel or tubular
aluminums alloy or timber.
Material
Scaffolds can be of
1. Tabular steel
2. Tabular aluminum alloy
3. Timber
2.5.3. SCAFFOLDING FITTINGS

Fitting of either steel or aluminum alloy are covered by the same British standard as
quoted above for the tubes. They can be used in conjunction with either tabular unless
specified differently by the manufacturer.
The major fitting used in metal scaffolding are
Double coupler
: The only real load bearing fitting used in scaffoldings
And is used to join ledgers to standards.
Swivel coupler
: Composed of two single couplers riveted together so
that it is possible to rotate them and use them for connecting two scaffolding tube
at any angle.
Putlog coupler
: Used solely for fixing putlogs or transforms to the
horizontal ledges
Base plate
: A square plate with a central locating spigot used to
distribute the load from the foot of a standards on to a sole plate or firm ground.
Base plate can be obtained with a treaded spigot and nut for use on sloping sites
to make up variation in levels.
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Split joint pin
: A connection fitting used to joint scaffold tubes end to
end center bolts expands two segments, which grip on the bore of the tube.
Reveal pin
: Fits into the end of a tube to from an adjustable strut.
Putlog end
: Flat plate which fits on the end of a scaffold tube to
convert into a putlog.
2.5.4. SCAFFOLDING SAFETY CHECK LIST
All standards are correctly aligned and properly supported at their base.
No undue deflection in ledgers putlogs or transoms.
No member of a structure has been removed.
All braces and ties are effective in stabilizing the structure.
All couplers are properly tightened.
All boards are sound and properly supported.
All guardrails and toe boards are in place.
All ladders are sound and properly supported secured.
2.6. LADDERS
Although there is always a risk in working on elevated areas, it is a fact that the vast
majority of accidents involving ladders result from the failure to exercise care. Proper
training, as well as routine inspections and maintenance, can substantially reduce the
number of ladder-related injuries.
On any job requiring a ladder, use only approved
sturdy ladders that you can place on a firm base.
Inspect the ladder prior to EVERY use. Do not use
ladders with structural defects; properly tag with
"Do Not Use" and withdraw from service. Use a
ladder only for the purpose for which it was
designed (refer to manufacturer's labeling and
recommendations). Use only non-conductive side
rails around live electrical equipment. Wear
protective clothing and rubber-soled shoes.
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Carry ladders parallel to the ground. Tie ladders down securely when transporting.
Barricade traffic areas in the vicinity of ladder use, and lock, barricade or guard doorways in
which a ladder is placed. Keep the area around the top and bottom of the ladder clear.
Whenever possible, angle out the base one-fourth of the ladder's working length. The ladder
should reach at least three feet above the landing.
Extension ladders shall be kept from slipping or tipping by tying off the ladder at the top and
securing the ladder at the bottom. Portable ladders in use shall be tied, blocked or otherwise
secured to prevent their being displaced.
Face the ladder while climbing and use both hands. Lift equipment and materials with a
rope specifically for that purpose--don't carry the equipment up a ladder with one hand.
Carry smaller tools in pouches around the waist. Do not load the ladder beyond it's
maximum intended load. Never allow more than one worker on the ladder at a time.
Never stand on the top two steps of any ladder or the top cap of a stepladder. This could
cause you to become off-balance resulting in a fall. Do not stand on the back cross bracing.
Always maintain at least three points of contact with the ladder (2 feet and 1 hand, or 2
hands and 1 foot should be in contact with the ladder at all times). Do not over-extend
sideways; use the belt buckle rule: Keep your belt buckle positioned between the side rails
at all times--this will maintain your center of gravity in the proper position. Do not move,
shift, or extend the ladder while you are standing on it. Never walk a ladder.
Maintain ladders free of oil, grease and other hazards.
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2.7. REINFORCEMENT
2.7.1.INTRODUCTION
Steel is one of widely used materials in a construction site. Although Concrete is
strong in compression it is weak in tension. Therefore to withstand tensile forces, concrete is
reinforced with steel.
2.7.1.1 TYPES OF STEEL
High yield steel (T)

Characteristic strength -460N/mm2, mainly used for main bars. Available diameters
in the site-10,12,16,20,25mm
Mild steel (R)

Characteristic strength -250N/mm2 mainly used for stirrups. Available diameters in
the site-6mm
2.7.1.2. TYPES OF BARS USED

Tor steel & mild steel bars were used for the reinforcements. The sizes used were,
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Type of bars
Tor steel
Mild steel
Dia.mm
25, 20, 16, 12, 10
10, 8
Table 2.7.1.2.a used bar

We used steel form Steel Corporation Tor steel. Tor steel bars were available in lengths of
6m & 12m. Mild steel was available in long lengths. All the quantities related to bars were
taken by weight. We get 6 m steel bars.
Reinforcing bars had to be tested for tensile strength by a recognized institution & the results
were submitted to the consultant. In our site, we went steel testing to U.O.M. & N.B.R.O.
2.7.2. BAR NOTATIONS

Indication of reinforcements in a drawing is done in following manner,
52T16 24 150T
Location of the bar
Spacing between bars
Bar Mark
Bar Diameter
Bar Type ( Tor steel or Mild steel )
Number of bars
NOTATION FOR SLABS

T1
-Top outer layer
T2
-Top second layer
B1
-Bottom top layer
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B2
-Bottom second layer
NOTATION FOR WALLS

NF
-Near face outer layer
FF
-Far face outer layer
2.7.3. PREPARATION OF BAR SCHEDULES

This is prepared in a standard manner. Bar schedules are prepared for each & every
beam, column & slab according to the structural drawings. It contains all the details needed
for fabrication of steel. Those details are bar mark, bar type and size, number of units, length
of a bar, shape code, etc
Preparation of bar schedule helps to reduce the bar cutting wastages.
Bar schedules are presented in following format,
BAR SCHEDULE
Location :Member
Date :Bar
Type of
No. of
No. of
Total
Length of
mark
size
members
bars each
nos.
each bars
Shape
Table 2.7.3.a - BAR SCHEDULE
2.7.4. CUTTING & BENDING OF BARS

There is a steel yard in the site for storing, cutting and bending of bars.
Reinforcement bars are cut into required lengths and bent into required shapes shown on the
bar schedule either manually or by means of machinery.
In manual operations, labourers used the bar bending bench on which strong nails are fixed
and GI pipes with suitable lengths to bend the bars. That is used for smaller diameter bars.
For bending of larger diameter bars, bar bending machine is used specially for 25mm bars.
After bending all r/f bars were bundled and clearly numbered according to the bar mark so
that steel fixers will not face any difficulty when fixing them.
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2.7.5. FIXING OF REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement bars should be placed in correct positions as shown in the
reinforcement drawings. Reinforcement arrangement should be rigid enough so that the
reinforcement does not get displaced when walking on it and during the placement of
concrete. For that, bars crossing each other should be tied up with binding wire. In the site
18 gauge double annealed iron wire
was used as binding wire. Cover blocks, spacer bars, stools should be correctly placed
where necessary. After fixing the reinforcement, one of engineers checked it with the
reinforcement drawing before placing the concrete to see whether all the things were done
according to the
drawing. (i.e. whether spacing between bars, no of bars, no of stirrups, lap lengths, provision
for cover blocks, stools, etc are correctly maintained)
2.7.6. CHECKING OF REINFORCEMENTS

Reinforcements should be checked for followings in any elements before concreting is done.
a) Covering There should be a space between reinforcement and face of
concrete. To keep this space cover blocks are placed between reinforcements and
formwork. Y=25,40,50mm in our site.
y- depends on covering
required
Fig. 2.7.6.a cover block
For the separation of top reinforcement net and bottom reinforcement net of a slab
stools are used.
y- depends on thickness
of the slab.
Fig. 2.7.6.b - slab stool

b) Lap length There should be a minimum lap length of 50 times bar diameter (),
when lapping bars.
50
Fig. 2.7.6.c- steel bars
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c) Anchorage length At the end of reinforcements, it should be anchored by a bend or

hook.
d) Shear links Shear links are provided to avoid the shear failures of the structures.
Spacing between shear links must be checked with the detail drawing.
Y mm
X mm
Fig. 2.7.6.d- strup
e) Bar diameters, spacing between bars

Bar diameters and bar spacing must be checked with the reinforcement detail
drawing.
NOMINAL
SECTIONAL
MASS PER UNIT
DIAMETER
AREA (mm2)
LENGTH Kg/m
(mm)
6
10
12
16
20
25
28.3
78.5
113.1
201.1
314.2
490.9
0.222
0.616
0.888
1.579
2.465
3.854
Table 2.7.6.a - MASS PER UNIT LENGTH
2.7.7. PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED WHEN MAKING

RAINFORCEMENT
There is reinforcement Forman in our site. But starting time of our site there is no
any reinforcement contractor. Therefore we have to cutting, bending & binding
steel bars using company labourers.
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When reinforcement in my structure ( G.R. ) making first lift of wall there was
came major problem which not covering in the one corner. To avoid this we have
to release four distribution bars in both side of the corner.
In some occasion given bar schedule is wrong. Therefore at that time we have to
correct that.
2.8. CONCRETE WORK

2.8.1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete consists of a mix of cement, sand, metal and pure water, and to be of the right
quality, the mix must be properly designed and the right amount of each material correctly
batched. The cement, sand and coarse aggregate should be preferably batched by weight:
this reduces the differences between one batch of concrete and the next.
The concrete should possess the strength, durability, impermeability and resistance to
abrasion required for the proposed structure. It should be free of such defects as cracking,
honeycombing, palling of the surface, undue shrinkage etc. The concrete should be of good
quality and should be produced with careful control over the batching of materials, water
cement ratio etc. Necessary care and attention should be given to the design and preparation
of formwork.
In our site concrete was used in 3 grades. Those 3 grades of ready mix concrete were
used for different purposes.
Grade 15 used for screed concrete,
Grade 25 for columns, beams & slabs.
For water retaining structures grade 35 A
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In its fresh state, concrete should
Be composed of accurately batched proportion
Have the required W/C ratio
Be well mixed
Not segregate during transportation and placing
Be fully compacted
Be provided with specified finish.
2.8.1.1. QUALITY OF CONCRETE DEPENDS,
Quality of cement
Type of aggregate
The grading of aggregate
Water cement ratio
Mixing method and mixing time of concrete
Mixing proportion of materials.
Method of transportation
Method of placing the concrete and type of compaction
Temparacture
Curing
2.8.1.2. CEMENT
Types of cement available are as follows.
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
Rapid hardening Portland cement (RHPC)
This gains strength more rapidly and does not have a quicker setting. These cements are
used when concreting in cold weather and when earlier striking of formwork is required.
Low heat Portland cement (LHPC)
High alumina cement
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It has a low setting but hardens very rapidly. The strength OPC is achieved in 28
days will be achieved by high alumina cement in 24 hours.
The beginning of noticeable stiffening in the cement paste is known as initial set
(loss of the fluidity). The stage at which further stiffening is complete and final
hardening process (responsible for its strength) begins is known as final set.
Stage 1 initial setting time
This is a period during which the conceit gradually loss its
plasticity and any disturbance of the muss or re mixing after wards may cause serious
loss of strength. Here fore cement mix must be placed in position and all work
completed within this period usually this time should not be less then 45 min
Stage 2 final setting time.
This is a period during which the concrete fully hardened. This time
should not be more than 10 hrs.
Stage 3
It is an indefinite period and may extend up to several years of
suitable condition are availed however it is not.
2.8.1.2.1. IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
Fineness:
- this is a measure of the smallness of the cement particles.
Setting time:
- setting is the term used to describe the stiffening of cement

paste.
Heat of hydration: - rate of evolution of heat

Strength:
- rate of development of strength.
2.8.1.3. AGGREGATES
Aggregates is classed in to the following two sizes. The bulk of concrete is aggregate in
the from of sand gravel which is bound together by cement.
Types of Aggregates
1. Coarse aggregates: -gravel or crushed rock 5mm or long size
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Minimum size 5mm mesh sieve
Maximum size 20mm (3/4) for reinforced concrete it
(Lean concrete) may 40mm or more
Coarse aggregates used for plain or reinforced may be natural gravel,
crushed gravel or crushed stone. In Sri Lanka the coarse aggregate mainly used in
crushed gnosis.
2.Fine aggregates: -Sand less 5mm size.
Fine aggregates should pass through the 5mm. Mesh and be retained on the
100mm. mesh sieve River sand is the material that is mainly used as fine aggregate in Sri
Lanka crushed stone and sea sand are also sometimes used as fine aggregate.
2.8.1.4. WATER
For Concrete mixed we used water should be equal to quality of good drinking
water. So it must be clean and free from impurities, which are like to effect the quality of
strength of the resultant concrete. Normally we used pure drinking waters Water has two
functions in concrete.It is chemically necessary for the hydration of the cement.It acts as
a lubricant for the cement and the aggregates in the compaction of the concrete.
The water-to-cement ratio is the single most important factor effecting
concrete strength. For full hydration cement absorbs 0.25 of its weight of water in
normal conditions. So the actual water-to-cement ratio used generally ranges from 0.45
to 0.6.
Nominal mixes suggested by the manufacturer (OPC)
1) 1:2:4(grade 20)
: 50kg cement
27.5 ltr. Of water
2) 1:1 :3(grade25) : 50kg cement
22.5 ltr. Of water
3) 1:1:2(grade30)
17.5 ltr. Of water
: 50kg cement
2.8.2. WORKABILITY
The term workability is used to describe the case with which the concrete can be
completed.The cement content ,the overall graidng of the aggregate & the shape of the
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aggregate particles effects of the amount of the water required to produce workable concrete.
The workability may be mearsured by the slump test.
Water/cement ratio is directly effected to the workability. But workability can be
improved without inceasing the water/cement ratio.
2.8.3. ADMIXTURES
2.8.3.1. TYPES OF ADMIXTURES
Accelerating admixtures
Retarding admixtures
Water reducing admixtures
2.8.3.1.1. ACCELERATING ADMIXTURES

Their function is primarily to accelerate the early strength development of concrete that is
hardening although they may also coincidentally accelerate the setting of concrete.
The most common accelerator used over many decades was calcium chloride. Calcium
nitrite & calcium nitrate are possible accelerators.
2.8.3.1.2. RETARDING ADMIXTURES

A delay in the setting of the cement paste can be achieved by the addition to the mix of a
retarding admixture. Retarders generally also the hardening of the paste although some salts
may speed up the setting but inhibit the development of strength.
Sugar, carbohydrate derivatives, soluble Zinc salts, soluble borates & some other salts
exhibit retarding action; methanol is also a possible retarder.
2.8.3.1.3. WATER- REDUCING ADMIXTURE

The function of water-reducing admixtures is to reduce the water content of the mix, usually
by 5 or 10%, sometimes (in concretes of very high workability) up to 15%. The purpose of
using a water-reducing admixture in a concrete mix is to allow a reduction in the
water/cement ratio while retaining the desired workability. or alternatively , to improve its
workability at a given water/cement ratio.
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Water- reducing admixtures improve the properties of fresh concrete made with poorly
graded aggregate.
In Kakkapalliya W.S.S site Rebuild 1000 use for admixture.
2.8.3.2. RHEOBUILT 1000
RECOMMENDED FOR
Mass concrete
Ready mixed concrete
Long distance transporting
Pumped concrete
Hot weather concrete
Use with all cements and air entraining admixtures
Foundation rafters for nuclear power station, turbo generators, rolling
mills, shipyards, and high rise building
Transporting of concrete lasting more than one hour
FEATURES / BENEFITS
High slump applications
Minimum thermal peaks.
High flow ability of the concrete for longer periods.
Easy pumping.
Delay setting and longer workability.
Improves the properties of fresh and hardened concrete considerably.
High reliability.
High ultimate strength.
Impermeability.
Durability.
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2.8.4. BONDING AGENTS FOR CONCRETE AND MORTAR
2.8.4.1. BARRA EMULSION
Recommended for bonding freshly placed concrete, mortar, etc on to

cement and masonry surface
Repair mortar to concrete
Fresh concrete to set concrete at construction grout
Rendering and insulation material to masonry plaster and concrete
FEATURES AND BENEFITS

Water-resistant
-can be used in outdoor situation. Will not emulsify due to rain
Non toxic
-suitable for use in structures strong portable water
Finely dispersed
polymer
-Excellent penetration into pores improved bond
2.8.5. PREPARATION BEFORE CONCRETING
All bolts and wedges were checked against loosening due to vibration.
Checking whether the number of ties used is sufficient and whether they are in
right places is important.
If there is a stop end of a slab a stop board should be applied. Wetted pieces of
cover of cement bags was used to stop leaking of grouts through stop board in the
site.
Above wetted pieces of papers should be also used stop grout loss through joints
of formwork especially where the formwork is against a kicker.
We must check whether all the formwork is correctly aligned and levelled.
We must make sure all the supporting jacks are at the right spacing and has been
tightened enough.
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Checking rears whether they have been laid according to drawings is a very
important thing. Lengths of bars, anchorage lengths, lap lengths must be checked.
Sizes of stirrups, spacing of bars and stirrups, must also be checked.
We must make sure that reinforcement has right cover and bars have enough
spacers. It is very essential to use the compressors to clean the slab to be
concreted. If there is a construction joint, it must be first chipped cleaned and
then some drought should be applied on joint.
All the rebars and forms should be wetted before concreting.
2.8.6. MIXING OF CONCRETE

Concrete must be thoroughly mixed in concrete Proportions, the mixing
being continued until a uniform colour is attained. Generally we used different types of
methods for mixing the concrete.
Hand mixing
Machine mixing
Batch mixing
volumetric Batching
Weight Batching
continues mixing
In our site there was a batching plant. Therefore very few times we used hand mixing &
machine mixing. In my structure there was no any hand mixing & machine mixing.
2.8.6.1. MACHINE MIXING
Another way of mixing concrete is the mixing by machine. In machine
mixing, the speed of rotation of the drum and the duration of mixing affect the quality of
concrete. Machine mixes may be divided into two groups.
Batch mixing
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Continuous mixing
2.8.6.2. BATCHING OF CONCRETE

In concrete batching we used two types of methods.
Volumetric batching
Weight Batching
2.8.6.2.1. VOLUMETRIC BATCHING
For volume batching, cement is measured by bag and water in liters. For
measuring aggregates, wooden boxes are made in units of one or more whole bags of
cement. The boxes should be provided with handles for ease of lifting and loading
mixers. Separate measuring boxes should be provided for different aggregates.
When concrete is batched by volume there is always a danger of variation
between one batch and another. So if on any job batching is specified by volume you
will have to take a certain amount of extra case to make sure your quantities are correct.
2.8.6.2.2. WEIGHT BATCHING
Another method we used in batching is the method using weight of materials.
This is far more accurate than volume batching and gets rid of the danger of variation
between one batch and the next, besides making things easier for the man on the job.
It is becoming general practices nowadays to batch concrete by weight rather
than by volume. Machine mixing ensures better and more uniform concrete. We have
weight Batching plant in Kakkapalliya W.S.S. site
2.8.6.3. BATCHING PLANT
Although doing a mix deign & weigh bathing is the advisable procedure
using structural mixes such as 1:2:4 & 1:1 1/2:3 using volume bathing is most
common in our construction sites.
Concrete mix of cement, sand, aggregate, water & admixture to be
of the right quality the mix must be properly design and the right amount of each natural
correctly batched. Weather the mixer set-up being used the aim is to procedure every
batch with required workability, strength & uniformity of colour at the right rate
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On large jobs, a portable cement silo will be used & if well looked after, there
should be no problem in marking sure that the right amount of cement goes in to each
batch, depending on the type of silo & the mixture the cement will be fed directly from
silo hopper.
2.8.7. TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE

Concrete must be transported from the place of mixing to concreting without
occurring segregation of materials. It does not contaminated with water or any other material
while transporting. Number of methods for the transporting of concrete is available. In site
mixing, hand wheelbarrows are used to transport concrete. Ready mixed concrete is
transported from the place of batching to the site by means of a ready mixed concrete truck.
Placing of concreting to its final position is done by after the checking of
reinforcements and formwork. Formwork should be free of dusts and it should be wetted
before placing the concrete. Special care should be taken to avoid the segregation of
materials when placing concrete. Concrete pump is used to place ready mix concrete to the
required place. In a concreting process, placing procedure should be planned properly.
Within the initial setting time of concrete it should be compacted and leveled.
If we didnt manage the deliveries of trucks in a large concrete in that way we have
face lot of difficulties and effect directly for that concrete. So for an experience engineer he
can manage it really well and at last get a good concrete work. Also in this purpose he or she
the engineer have to well consider about the type of concrete (Grade of concrete &also the
slump height of concrete), the time of batching the concrete, Initial and final setting time and
also the things like segregation, which describe above Para.
2.8.7.1. READY MIX CONCRETE

This method is used in the case of large scale concrete required in rapidly.
Batching is done by weight basis. Wide range of mix types and admixtures are
use. Ready Mix Plant has a better quality controlling method. Normally 0.5m 3 of
concrete will batch at a time. Because of that Minimum of 0.5m 3 ready mix
concrete can be order in case of small scales usage. Ready Mix concrete has better
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quality. They used retarders to delay the setting time of a concrete. Ready mixed
concrete prepared at batching plant and drum truck was used to transport Ready Mix
Concrete in to the site. Ready Mix pump and Bucket fixed crane are use to place
concrete in to a higher elevation.
2.8.7.2. READY MIX PUMPING PROCESS.
Generally the pump car arrives an hour earlier than the mixer trucks. This time was for
locating the pump, for the preliminary measures & to avoid waiting of mixers until the pump
is ready. In our site only 2 times using pump car because placing base of 450 & 1000 m3
Water tower base. Other all times we used bucket & shutter.
2.8.7.2.1. ARRANGING THE PUMP CAR
Pump car was located so as to reach the longest point required without any difficulties.
Attention was given to avoid damages to the boom from the surroundings & vice versa. In
no case, the boom wad located above electrical supply lines.
Pump car was supported on four outriggers that give a good stability & those were also used
to keep the truck in a horizontal plane. A plate bubble in the truck chassis was used to
maintain the levelnass. Otherwise, there was a hazard of overturning the truck when
handling the boom.
Before pumping concrete, a cement grout was pumped through for avoiding adherence of
grout on inner surfaces of pump lines. This avoided losses of grout form concrete that
reduces strength.
After pumping concrete, the pump was cleaned using water & compressed air to avoid
blocking.
2.8.8. COMPACTING OF THE CONCRETE

Proper compaction of the concrete is essential to achieve its maximum strength. Poker
vibrator is used for this purpose. When compacting concrete by using poker vibrator it
should be held vertically.
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Held poker vibrator vertically
After
completing
Gauge
the
compaction, surface of theFig
concrete
and finished properly with
2.8.8.ais-leveled
Poker vibrator
the use
of a trowel.
In slabs to ensure same thickness everywhere, gauge is used.
Straight edge is used to cut the concrete to the relevant level of the slab.
Thickness of
the concrete
2.8.9. GREEN CUTTING

After concreting, wall part or wall base part green cut was done. By green cut we can
get rough surface. Therefore not necessary on concrete, rough surface very useful for
bonding another concrete layer. After finished concreting, wall or base normally kept 1 or 2
hours. Then top surface (green cutting surface) well washed with compressed air with water.
By green cut, all grout on surface was removed. Green cut was done only horizontal
surfaces.
2.8.10. CONCRETE CHIPPING

When we cant doing green cut we should do this. By concrete chipping, we can
make rough concrete surface. Rough surfaces are very important for bonding between two
concrete layers. Chisels and chipping hammers were applied for the concrete chipping. All
vertical surfaces were chipped
2.8.11. CURING OF CONCRETE

For setting and hardening of concrete curing is done. For this water is spread on the
cased concrete or wetted, covering the concrete surface places gunny bags. This is done at
least 5 days to 7 days.
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The chemical reaction which accompanies the shuttering of cement and hardening of
concrete is depend on the presence of water so exposed concrete should be covered. Curing
is attached for the following quantities of concrete
1. It improves the weather resisting qualities of the concrete.
2. Improve the durability and permeability of the concrete.
3. Reduce the shrinkage.
Curing means keeping the concrete sufficiently damp and prevent of evaporation by
wind, sunny etc. to fulfill this task following method was used for foundation. This was the
best method of curing the horizontal surface such as floors, slabs and concrete road etc. the
concrete area is divided into small portions with the using sand or clay. Then water is filled
into these portions for the period of curing. Though this method is very good the cleaning at
the concrete surface is fairly difficult.
2.8.12. DEFECTS IN CONCRETE

Honeycombs these is the major defect in concrete . Honeycombs will occur due to,
Segregation of materials when placing concrete

Usage of improper mixture of concrete
By using incorrect proportions of materials
Due to high water cement ratio
Due to poor mixing of materials
Poor compaction of concrete
Bad formwork arrangement

When joints of formwork are loose there can be leakage of grout
through these joints. This will lead to occur honeycombs.
Formations of cracks in the surface due to the evaporation of water from concrete,
cracks are formed in the surfaces. This can be avoided by curing the concrete properly.
2.8.13. TEST ON CONCRETE
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Concrete is tested for the workability of fresh stage by conducting slump test and by
conducting compressive strength cube test, hardened concrete is tested for the compressive
strength.
2.8.13.1. SLUMP TEST
Test apparatus
Mould
Mould has a conical shape, 100mm diameter at the top, 200mm at the
bottom and 300mm high. Both top and bottom are opened and they are
parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the axis of the cone.
Tamping rod Tamping rod is 16mm in diameter and 600mm long, rounded at one end.
100mm
600mm
300m
m
200mm
Fig 2.813.1.a. - Slump test apparatus

Test procedure
Collect the concrete sample, which must be represented of an entire batch. Mould is cleaned
and placed on a hard flat surface. Mould is filled in three layers of concrete of approximately
equal depth. Each layer is rodded with 25 strokes of the tampered rod. Top surface of the
mould is leveled with the rod. Mould is lifted straight up from the concrete and placed it
beside the specimen.
Measuring of the slump
Tampering rod is placed across the top of the mould and distance between bottom of the rod
and displaced original center of the specimens top surface is measured.
Shape of the slump can be true, shear or collapse.
Slump
True
slump
Shear
slump

Fig 2.813.1.b Measuring of slumps and types of
slumps
Collapse
slump
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2.8.13.2. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH CUBE TEST

Test apparatus
Cube test apparatus consist of a mould and a steel bar.
Mould mould is 150mm cube which, has a base plate.
Steel bar 380mm long steel bar, which has 25mm2 in ramming face.
Test procedure
Mould is cleaned and oiled well.
Collect the concrete sample, which is going to be tested.
Mould is filled in three layers and each layer is rammed with 25 strokes by using steel
bar.
Surface is leveled by using a trowel.
Six cubes are casted in the same manner.
Following day moulds are removed and cubes are kept in water.
Three cubes are tested by seven days to check the seventh day strength and other three
cubes are tested by twenty-eight days to check the twenty-eight day strength.
2.8.14. CONSTRUTION GROUT

DESCRIPTION
Construction grout is ready to use, cementations grout with selected, graded natural
aggregates for use in general civil engineering works.
On mixing with the specified quantity of water it provides a grout with high strength
characteristics and extended working time. The grout undergoes controlled expansion in the
plastic state to compensate for plastic shrinkage.
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RECOMMENDATION
Construction grout is recommended for grouting unwanted voids in structural elements such
as
Patching up honeycombs in concrete.
Grouting gaps between pre fabricated elements.
Stanchion base plates and column bases.
Bridge bearing plates
Underpinning
APPLICATION
Correct substrate preparation was critical for optimum performance. Surfaces should
be structurally sound, clean, and free from loose particles, oil, grease, or any other
contaminant.
Cement laitance, loose particles, oil, grease, mould release agent, curing membrane,
and other contaminants must be removed by wet girt blasting, high pressure water
jetting or such other effective methods.
Prepared the surface rough profile within 5mm level difference between trough and
ridge.
Before placing of grout the surface must be well saturated using clean water.
Mixing was done by mechanically. For small batches, used heavy-duty slow speed
drill fitted with a grout stirrer.
Keeping the mixer running, add construction grout slowly. Mix at least 3 minutes
until a lump free mix is obtained. Add the remaining water while continuing to mix
until the desired consistency achieved.
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Placing was done within 15 minutes without interruption until completion. Cure all
exposed grout surfaces as soon as the grout reaches touch hard state.
2.8.15. PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED WHEN CONCRETING

When we concreting base of 450 m3 tower, after starting short time of concreting
pump car was fall. Therefore we have to use bucket & shutter. That is very difficult.
Because that is time consuming. After braking two hours the pump car is repaired.
Removing formwork of first lift of G.R. we saw cracks in the wall. After informing
consultant they said the outer side of wall crack chipped & use construction grout &
finally treated.
In one day there was very dangerous case. When we concreting our concrete bucket
fallen down. At that time bucket is filled with concrete. That bucket approximately
weight of 5 ton. Luckily not ant damages for any person.
When we testing test cubes, some cubes havent required strength. Therefore we
have to change our aggregates & making a mix design from university of moratuwa.
2.9. PRINCIPALS OF SAFETY MANAGEMENT

2.9.1. INTRODUCTION
1st of July Organized a safety programme in our site. The lecture is priyalal Fernando. He is
former Safety officer in Ceylon Tobacco Company. He gave us very valuable things. The
following notes are get on his lecture.
1. An unsafe act, an unsafe condition, an accident; all these are system of something
wrong in the management
2. Safety should be managed like any other company function. Management should be
direct the safety effort by setting achievable, by planning, organizing controlling
achieve them.
Accident
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An even which is unplanned, unexpected, unanticipated & unpreventable &which
may or not have resulted in damage to property or injury to people.
Safety
A
state of danger less .
A
thing is provisionally categorized if
its risk are deemed to know &, in
the light of that knowledge, its judge to be acceptable.
An incident is an accident if,

it cause one or more of the following;
1. Injury to any person
2. Damage to property
3. Damage to equipment
4. Damage to material
Type of accidents
No accident
-even though accident potential is there.
Near miss accident
-called an accident.
Accident
- no damage or injury.
Accident
- damage to equipment, material, or property.
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Accident
-injury to person and damage to equipment, material or

property.
2.9.2 CHAIN OF EVENTS

To happen an accident, not due to one case. It is due to serious of incidents
Origin of fault
Human failure
Unsafe acts
unsafe condition
Accident
Injury
2.9.3. ACCIDENT COST

Every accident costs something to,
1. The injury person.
2. The family of the injury person.
3. The factory/site were he works
4. The nation and above all the manager.
2.9.4. ACCIDENT PREVENTION

There are three basic steps:
1. Discovering causes
2. Eliminating unsafe acts
3. Eliminating unsafe condition.
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2.9.5 RISK MANAGEMENT
Risk identification
Risk quantification
Acceptable risk
unacceptable risk
2.9.5.1. If the risk is acceptable

Evaluate the risk
Take necessary precautions
Continue
2.9.5.2. If the risk is unacceptable

Discontinue & take necessary action
Reduce risk to an acceptable level
Continue
2.8.6.
MOST ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES ARE RESULT OF

FOLLOWING
2.9.6.1. FALLING FROM HEIGHTS

Injuries sustained due to falling from heights, is at the top list for the category of
accidents .this same reason, results in the greatest no. of deaths. Managers, Engineers,
Superintendents and foreman must there for give attention to the need for fencing and
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guarding, all work areas at elevated positions. The provision of safety belts and safety
helmet is recommended, in situations where its not principal to erect fencing / guarding.
Handrails will be required on all stairways and landing, even after the building is
completed.
2.9.6.2. HOUSE- KEEPING
This is the practice of keeping work place properly arranged, with an assigned place
for every item, the work place for every item, the workplace being kept neat and tidy.
Itll result in a reduction of accidents from slipping and falling and in general will create,
most of the safety condition, for maintaining a well managed work site.
2.9.6.3. FALLING OF MATERIALS ONTO PERSONS BELOW
Protection from object falling from heights and injuring persons below, needs to be
addressed by providing netting, below work areas; by providing hard hats or helmets
for head protection and putting up signs which say,
Danger from falling objects
2.9.6.4 WEARING GLOVES
Gloves are required for the protection of the hands of workers handling bricks,
corrugated and other roofing sheets, boxes, working with shovels and other similar tools
and implements. When a worker isnt stressed, by having to work with minor cuts and
injuries on his hands, his work out put will be far greater than otherwise.
2.9.6.5. BOOTS AND SAFETY SHOES

These will provide protection for the feet and toes. While mixing or laying of
concrete the protection of the feet and legs is important. Safety shoes will provide
protection to the toes from falling heavy weight, from slips/falls and from electric shock.
2.9.6.6. EYE PROTECTION
Eye protection by the use of goggles, face, shields, helmets, etc, are required for
operations such as bearing and chipping of concrete; grinding and cutting of mild steel;
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gas and arc welding; mixing of paints, primers and epoxy fillers .any work, where there
is the possibility of liquid splashing onto the face or where there can be particles being
thrown of and could enter the eye, and` cause serious injury, will need eye protection.
2.9.6.7. EAR PROTECTION
This is more specially hearing protection; is required at all workstation where there is
a high sound level. Constant exposure to sound level which are higher than 90 decibels
will cause permanents loss of hearing .the use of pneumatic compressors and pneumatic
hand tools also produces high sound levels. Ear plugs and ear muffs are the stranded ear
protective devices that are utilized.
Accident and injuries from motorized and non motorized building equipment has to be
addressed. Basically it will be to repair and maintain this equipment to be in good
working order.
A few of the more commonly used equipment are; concrete mixers, conveyer belts,
air compressor, electric generator, jcbs, tractor and steel benders, crains, etc.
Due to the arduous work conditions in the building industry its essential that only able
bodied and
Physically fit person is hired for working at heights, carrying loads for the and for the
operation of cranes and similar equipment.
Excavation of trenches and foundation required the use of shuttering and support timber
to prevent collapses and caving in from the sites.
Provide a basic first aid kit at the smaller sides and more comprehensive first aid
facilities and ambulance at the lager sites these provisions will create a high level of
confidents in the management, among the workers and the supervisor.
Security at the site to prevent unauthorized entry, will contribute to the safety and
prevention of losses .the security person or personal can be given a basic training infire
fighting and on how to handle and emergency. Water, sand bucket and even fire
extinguishers can be kept ready; depending on the identified fire risk
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2.10. PLANT & MACHINERY
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2.10.1. BACKHOE LOADER
Fig . 2.10.1.a - Backhoe loader
This is the most versatile machine used in the construction industry. This is equipped with a
front-loading bucket & a back excavating arm. This is capable of doing excavations,
loading, leveling earth, transporting earth Etc.
When parking, the machine is supported on the front-loading bucket & the back outriggers.
This prevents damages to the tires due to the load. Also when excavating by the back arm,
the same practice is done. The machine is designed for reverse & forward traveling to same
extents, as it is essential in earth moving activities. Therefore it is not advisable to subject
the machine to forward traveling sessions for long distances. Generally, the machine is
transported on a trailer for long journeys.
2.10.2. EXCAVATOR
Fig . 2.10.2.a - Excavator
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Sierra
This is a crawler-mounted machine with an arm for excavating purposes. The machine is
capable of swinging 3600 on the crawler assembly. Therefore this is capable of earth moving
activities easily. The excavator is generally used for medium & large excavations & earth
moving operations.
2.10.3. PNEUMATIC RAMMER.
Fig . 2.10.3.a - Pneumatic rammer
This is powered by a petrol engine. When operating, the base plate moves up & down,
generating vertical impacts on the earth surface. The rammer is provided with a hook mart
fixed on shock absorber to minimize the vibrating effect on the operator.
This is suitable for compacting work of small scale, generally floors inside buildings, ditches
etc.
2.10.4 DOUBLE DRUM VIBRO ROLLER
Fig . 2.10.4a - Double drum vibro roller
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The roller is powered by a petrol engine & exerts compacting load of 2 tonnes on the
surface. It is equipped with forward & reverse gears.
An internal vibrator, driven by the engine is available & can be activated when necessary.
This carries out compacting jobs quicker than the pneumatic Ramer. Suitable for compacting
pavements, & medium scale jobs. For large-scale jobs, 10 tone vibro rollers can be used.
2.10.5 10 TON VIBRO ROLER
Dynapac CA 252 10
Make & model
tons
Fig . 2.10.5a - 10 ton vibro roler
Specificatio
ns
Table 2.10.5a. - Make & model
2.10.6 CONCRETE MIXER
Operating mass
10050 kg
Max. operating mass
13600 kg
Frequency/Amplitude 33 Hz/1,7 mm
Centrifugal force
Hi/Lo
Speed
Propulsion
Curb clearance
246/119 kN
0-9 km/h
Wheels and Drum
400 mm
Dimensions
Drum width
diameter
FigDrum
. 2.10.6a
- Concrete mixer
Drum shell thickness
2130 mm
1523 mm
25 mm
Engine
Deutz BF4M2012C
93 kW SAE/2200
rpm
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The mixer used in the site is manually fed & engine driven. Feeding materials & discharging
concrete is done by tilting the drum manually. The engine is diesel powered.
2.10.7 POKER VIBRATOR.
Fig . 2.10.7a - Poker vibrator
This is an internal vibrator, driven by a petrol engine. A hose attached to the engine
generates vibrations. Inside the hose, a cable rotates, driving a centrifugal steel ball
assembly that impacts with the vibrating head, causing vibrations.
The hose should not be sharply bent while the vibrator is running, as it may cause
unnecessary twists in the cable & then break.
Different sizes of vibrators are available such as 0.5,01,1.5,02 inches. By using the biggest
possible vibrator, a good compaction can be obtained in a lesser time. For the areas which
are, congested with reinforcements, smaller sizes are used.
In general vibrating operations, the vibrator is turned to its maximum performance while
slower speeds are used for vibrating thin layers of concrete.
2.10.8 ELECTRIC HAMMER DRILL
Fig . 2.10.8a - Electric hammer drill
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Sierra
The drill is used for various drilling operations on wood, steel work, concrete etc.
Drill bits of specified sizes are available for different operations. For concrete drilling
purposes, special concrete drill bits have to be used & hammering action can be obtained for
tough operations.
2.10.9 CIRCULAR POWER SAW
Fig . 2.10.9a - Circular power saw
This can be used to cut timber easily & quickly. Using a power saw, instead of a handsaw
can largely shorten the fabrication times of formwork.
This is provided with a sliding cover to the tool for protecting both the tool & the operator.
2.10.10 DUMP TRUCKS
Fig . 2.10.10a - Dump trucks
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Dump trucks are used for transporting materials to the site & debris out of the site. As a
hydraulic jack can hoist the cargo cabin, time for unloading materials is very short compared
to a lorry.
They are available in several capacities such as 1,1 ,2,2 1 /2, cubes etc.
2.10.11 CONCRETE MIXER

Fig . 2.10.11a - CONCRETE MIXER
Fig . 2.10.11b - CONCRETE MIXER
Drum volume
Maximum load applicable on flat
10.2 m3
5.0 m3
ground
Agitating capacity
Mixing capacity
Drum speed
Drum inclination to the
6.0 m3
5.0 m3
0-16 rpm
160
horizontal
Table 2.10.11a Deatila of concrete mixer
Drum
time
rotation
1-5
5-8
30-60
2-5
5-10
Counterclockwise
Clockwise
revolutions
Charging
Mixing
Traveling
Mixing
Dischafge
per minute
1-10
8-12
1-3
8-12
1-10
Table 2.10.11b - Standard operation cycle & drum revolutio

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2.10.12 ROUGH TERRAIN CRANE

Short wheel base four wheel drive cranes for off road conditions and construction sites.
Generally fitted with hydraulic telescoping booms. Have some capacity to lift "on rubber"
without stabisers down and to "pick and carry".
Fig . 2.10.12a - Rough Terrain crane
2.10.13 ALL TERRAIN CRANE

Fully roadable hydraulic telescopic boom cranes. Ideal for rapid movement and setup on
construction sites with difficult terrain. Also suitable for city and inductrial lifting tasks.
Multi axle steer allows good manoeuvrability.
Fig . 2.10.13a - All Terrain crane
2.10.14 TRUCK CRAIN

Fig . 2.10.14a - Truck Crain
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2.10.15 TRUCK LOADER CRANE (CARGO CRANE)

Truck mounted hydraulic cranes designed for rapid deployment to pick and place loads.
Used predominately to load and unload the truck. Fitted with a wire rope and winch.
Fig . 2.10.15a - Truck loader crane (cargo crane)
2.10.16 LATTICE BOOM CRAWLER CRANE
Diesel powered machine.
Fuel 0.5L per hour
Load range 1-25 Tones
To operate one operator & helper
For pilling site used, move the plant & equipment.

(Chisel, rods, trime pipes, and rein. Cages)
Fig . 2.10.16a - lattice boom crawler crane
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2.10.17 PUMP CAR
Fig . 2.9.18.a - PUMP CAR
Make & model
Putzmeister 36m
Max. horizontal reach

Max. vertical reach
Boom
Concrete uotput
Cpump cylinder dia.
Slewing range
Delivery pressure
31.7m
35.6m
4 section Z fold
90 m3 / h
230 mm
3650
78 bar
Table 2.10.17a- Deatila of pump car
Fig 2.9.187. pump car
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Sierra

Introduction to the training

Report on In-Plant Training

1.1.1 Sierra CONSTRUCTION LIMITED

Civil and structural Engineering

Water supply & Sewerage Engineering

Report on In-Plant Training

Report on In-Plant Training

Report on In-Plant Training

1.1.2 COMPANY STRUCTURE

Inspection & Quality Control Division

Data Processing Division

Chief Executive Officer

Civil Engineering Division

Figure 1.1: Organization Chart of Sierra Construction Limited

1.1.3 CIVIL ENGINEERING DIVISION

Report on In-Plant Training

Report on In-Plant Training

2.1.1 LOCATION OF THE SITE

2.1.2 DETAILS OF THE PROJECT

: Sri Lanka third water supply & sanitation project

:ABD 03 / 02 / KAKA / P&D /W / 2002 / 06

:Asian Development Bank ( ADB)

:ADB 1575 SRI (SF)

Appointed Executing agency :National Water Supply & Drainage Board

: Sierra Construction ( pvt) Ltd

:15 calendar months

Defects liability period

:365 days from completion

:20% of contract amount

:10% of all interim payments

:100,000.00 per day

:10% of contract amount

Report on In-Plant Training

2.1.3 SITE MANAGEMENT

Figure 2.1.3.a: Organization Structutr of the site

Report on In-Plant Training

2.1.4 SITE ADMINISTRATION AND RELATIONS

Report on In-Plant Training

2.1.4.1.2. SITE ENGINEERS

2.1.4.1.3. ENGINEERING ASSISTANTS

2.1.4.1.4. QUANTITY SURVEYOR

Report on In-Plant Training

2.1.4.2 CO ORDINATION AND COMMUNICATION

2.1.4.3. MAINTENANCE OF SITE RECORDS

Labour distribution chart

Report on In-Plant Training

2.1.4.4. PROGRESS CONTROL

2.1.4.5. SPECIAL REPORTS

2.1.4.5.2. PROGRASS REPORT

Report on In-Plant Training

2.1.4.5.7. SUBCONTRACTOR BILL

2.2 MOBILIZATION WORK

2.3 EXCAVATION WORK

2.3.2 METHOD OF EXCAVATION

Report on In-Plant Training

2.3.2.1. MANUAL EXCAVATION

Report on In-Plant Training

Report on In-Plant Training

Total weight of formwork, reinforcement and concrete

Construction loads ( effect of placing and compacting of concrete )

Cost of formwork total cost of forms, accessories, labour and supervision