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Adele Diamond
Abstract
Executive functions (EFs; e.g., reasoning, working memory, and self-control) can be improved. Good news indeed, since EFs
are critical for school and job success and for mental and physical health. Various activities appear to improve childrens EFs.
The best evidence exists for computer-based training, traditional martial arts, and two school curricula. Weaker evidence,
though strong enough to pass peer review, exists for aerobics, yoga, mindfulness, and other school curricula. Here I address
what can be learned from the research thus far, including that EFs need to be progressively challenged as children improve
and that repeated practice is key. Children devote time and effort to activities they love; therefore, EF interventions might
use childrens motivation to advantage. Focusing narrowly on EFs or aerobic activity alone appears not to be as efficacious
in improving EFs as also addressing childrens emotional, social, and character development (as do martial arts, yoga, and
curricula shown to improve EFs). Children with poorer EFs benefit more from training; hence, training might provide them
an opportunity to catch up with their peers and not be left behind. Remaining questions include how long benefits of EF
training last and who benefits most from which activities.
Keywords
intervention, training, executive control, working memory, self-regulation, cognitive control, inhibition, self-control,
prefrontal cortex, aerobics, yoga, martial arts
Diverse activities have been reported in research papers published in peer-reviewed journals to improve childrens executive functions (EFs). These activities include computer-based
training, certain school curricula, and training in aerobics, traditional martial arts, yoga, or mindfulness (for a review, see
Diamond & Lee, 2011). In this paper, I address what can be
learned from these many studies.
Corresponding Author:
Adele Diamond, Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia,
2255 Wesbrook Mall,Vancouver, BC V6T 2A1, Canada
E-mail: adele.diamond@ubc.ca
336
and yield large improvements in health, wealth, and crime rate
for a nation (p. 2694).
Working memory refers to holding information in mind and
mentally working with it. It is crucial for making sense of anything that unfolds over time, for that requires holding in mind
what happened earlier and relating it to what is happening
now. Therefore, working memory is necessary for making
sense of any linguistic information, whether read or heard. It is
also needed for mentally reordering items (e.g., reorganizing a
to-do list), understanding cause and effect, and mentally relating pieces of information to derive a general principle or see
novel relations among old ideas.
Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to change perspectives (e.g., to see something from another persons point of
view), change the way you think about a problem (e.g., think
outside the box to attack a problem from a different angle),
and be flexible enough to adjust to changed demands or priorities, admit you were wrong, and take advantage of sudden,
unexpected opportunities.
EFs are critical for success in school (Alloway & Alloway,
2010; Borella, Carretti, & Pelgrina, 2010; Duckworth &
Seligman, 2005; Gathercole, Pickering, Knight, & Stegmann,
2004), on the job (Bailey, 2007), in friendships (Rotenberg,
Michalik, Eisenberg, & Betts, 2008), and in marriage (Eakin
et al., 2004); for mental and physical health (Baler & Volkow,
2006; Miller, Barnes, & Beaver, 2011); and for quality of life
(J. C. Davis, Marra, Najafzadeh, & Lui-Ambrose, 2010).
Improving EFs early in life is important because EF problems
in early childhood predict EF problems years later (Friedman
et al., 2007; Moffitt et al., 2011), and early EF deficits often do
not disappear but can grow larger over time (OShaughnessy,
Lane, Gresham, & Beebe-Frankenberger, 2003; Riggs, Blair,
& Greenberg, 2003).
Diamond
and found convincing evidence that training effects transferred
to more than one objective measure of EFs on which the children had not been trained. Studies that have thus far looked at
the benefits to childrens EFs from aerobics (C. L. Davis et al.,
2011; Kamijo et al., 2011; Tuckman & Hinkle, 1986), mindfulness (Flook et al., 2010), yoga (Manjunath & Telles, 2001),
the Tools of the Mind early childhood curriculum (Diamond,
Barnett, Thomas, & Munro, 2007), and the Montessori curriculum (Lillard & Else-Quest, 2006) have lacked one or more
of the above features.
In the next two sections, I discuss a few principles that hold
regardless of the program or intervention used.
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than students in the standard-physical-education group in
working memory and on all dimensions of inhibitory control
studied (e.g., cognitive inhibitory control, measured on a
distractiblefocused continuum; discipline, measured on a
quittingpersevering continuum; and emotion regulation).
These effects generalized to multiple contexts and were found
on multiple measures.
In a pilot study of the effects of yoga (which involved physical training, relaxation, and sensory awareness) on childrens
EFs, 10- and 13-year-old girls were randomly assigned to
either yoga or physical training for 75 minutes a day, 7 days a
week for 1 month (Manjunath & Telles, 2001). Those who did
yoga improved more in planning and execution on the Tower
of London (a task that requires all three core EFs), especially
when task conditions were more difficult and complex, than
did controls.
School curricula. The two curricula empirically shown to
improve childrens EFsMontessori (Lillard & Else-Quest,
2006) and Tools of the Mind (inspired by Vygotsky, 1978;
Diamond et al., 2007)share a number of features in common
(Diamond & Lee, 2011). They both (a) help children exercise
their EFs and constantly challenge them to do so at higher levels; (b) reduce stress in the classroom; (c) rarely embarrass a
child; (d) cultivate childrens joy, pride, and self-confidence;
(e) take an active and hands-on approach to learning; (f) easily
accommodate children progressing at different rates; (g) emphasize character development as well as academic development; (h) emphasize oral language; (i) engage children in
teaching one another; and (j) foster social skills and bonding.
Many of these characteristics are also true of the two programs
designed to complement school curricula that have been
shown to improve EFs: PATHS (Riggs et al., 2006) and CSRP
(Raver et al., 2011). Disadvantaged preschool children randomly assigned to a CSRP Head Start class showed better EFs
than did controls at the end of that preschool year; moreover,
they continued to perform better than controls in math and
reading for the next 3 years, and those academic gains were
mediated almost entirely through improved EFs (Li-Grining
et al., 2011).
Both Tools of the Mind and CSRP are meant to be used
only with children aged 3 to 6. None of the four programs
shown to improve EFs have reported EF benefits in children
older than 9 years of age. Thus, the effects of school curricula have been studied so far only in very young children.
The school programs and their assessment have concentrated
heavily on inhibitory control. A randomized control trial of
Tools of the Mind is currently underway (Farran & Wilson,
2011). This study is particularly noteworthy because of
its impeccable research design and the meticulous way in
which it is being conducted. The first year of data collection
failed to show a benefit from Tools of the Mind, but that may
have been because of floor and ceiling effects of the EF
measures.
Diamond
339
Improves Physical
Fitness
Increases Feelings of
Social Belonging and
Support
Program
or
Intervention
Direct Route
Builds Confidence,
Pride, and Sense of
Self-Efficacy
Reduced
Incidence and/or
Severity of EF
Disorders (e.g.,
ADHD,
Addictions, and
Conduct Disorder)
Improved
Academic
Outcomes and
School Success
Positive
Feedback
Loops
Fig. 1.Prefrontal cortex and executive functions (EFs) are the first area of the brain and mental functions to
suffer, and suffer disproportionately, if you are sad (von Hecker & Meiser, 2005), stressed (Arnsten, 1998), lonely
(Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008), or not physically fit (Hillman, Erickson, & Kramer, 2008). Unmet emotional, social, or
physical needs work against displaying good EFs. Conversely, when people are less stressed, happier, more physically
fit, and socially supported, they can think more clearly and creatively and exercise better self-control and discipline
(i.e., display better EFs). Therefore, I hypothesize that programs that will most successfully improve childrens
EFs are those that require and directly challenge EFs and support EFs indirectly by reducing childrens stress or
improving their ability to handle stress, increasing their joy, helping them feel that they belong and that others are
there for them, and improving their physical fitness.
Funding
The author gratefully acknowledges support from the National
Institute on Drug Abuse (Grant R01 DA019685) during the writing
of this paper.
340
Diamond
Note
1.The authors used the term self-control here, but what they
assessed was broader than just self-control and encompassed inhibitory control more generally.
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