APPLICATIONS AND PROPERTIES OF CARBON

STRUCTURES

RON PANDOLFI
INSTRUCTOR: LINDA HIRST

Abstract. Elemental carbon has many allotropes with various structures.

The structures of graphite, diamond, buckyballs, and nanotubes are described
here. The properties and applications are additionally discussed in their rela-
tion to the structure of these molecules. The bonds composing their structures
are discussed in relation to the properties (mechanical, electrical, etc.). The
properties and applications of these allotropes vary widely, as do their struc-
tural design. Distinctions between variants of these structures are made, and
methods of classifying these variants are discussed. Additionaly the properties
and applications of natural and synthetic forms are distinct. The outstanding
properties of these molecules make them uniquely suited to many applica-
tions. Ongoing research continues to reveal new potential applications and
better tunes carbon to current applications. Doping adds another layer of ma-
nipulability to these molecules, as it allows control of many properties of these
materials, and is a very widely researched topic.

1. Introduction
The many variants of elementary carbon makes it uniquely illustrative in physics
and chemistry. The name for carbon is derived from the Latin word for charcoal
[14], carbo, yet carbon has much ner and better structured forms. Its structure
varies from isotropic 3D (diamond) to anisotropic 2D (graphite) to anisotropic
1D (acetylene, carbynes) [16]. The variety of structures taken by molecular carbon
have extraordinary properties in many respects. In looking at the many allotropes of
carbon, each additionally have signicant and varied applications. Additionally, the
properties of these allotropes vary widely as a result of the structural conguration
of their atoms. The focus of this paper, the carbon allotropes graphite, diamond,
buckyball, and nanotube, are each amazing substances.

2. Graphite
Named from the greek word graphein, to write [4], by A. G. Werner (1750-1817)
[4], graphite has a variety of applications, and is both mined and manufactured [4].
The rst recorded use of graphite was in the year 1400, in the manufacturing of
crucibles [4]. This is a common practice even today, as graphite yields favorable
results due to its low thermal expansion coecient [4].
1
 APPLICATIONS AND PROPERTIES OF CARBON STRUCTURES 2

2.1. Structure. The structure of graphite is most simply described as bonded lay-
ers of graphene sheets. Each graphene sheet has planar hexagonal lattice structure
[20]. The stacking structure for perfect crystalline graphite has two stacking vari-
ants: hexagon graphite and rhobohedral graphite [20]. Hexagonal graphite is the
more thermally stable variant [20]. The in-plane and cross-plane carbon-carbon
bonds in graphite have lengths 1.42 and 3.35 respectively [14]. The in-plane bonds
are strong sp2 hybrid orbital bonds (σ -bonds [15]) [20]. In contrast, the van der
Waals bonds (π -bonds [15]) between adjacent layers are comparatively weak [20].
In graphite, the corresponding fourth, delocalized, electron is responsible for the
diminished hardness of bulk graphite [15]. However, the carbon-carbon in-plane
bond strength is approximately 452 kJ/mol, a comparatively high value (compare
this to diamond below) [15]. Graphite is thermally stable up to approximately
◦
2500 C, at which point its strength begins dropping dramatically [8].

2.2. Applications. A common use of graphite is in the manufacture of refractory

articles, typically for the smelting of iron and steel [4]. The low coecient of thermal
expansion and thermal stability makes graphite an excellent material for this use
[4]. There is a wealth of research in this application, especially in the selection of
ideal graphite material [4].

As a lubricant, graphite is the most remarkable in the 'solid' class of lubricants

[4]. In this application, it is unaected by acids, gases, alkalies, or considerable
temperature changes [4]. Its bulk softness allows it to ll surface imperfections as
well [4]. It retains its low coecient of friction, whereas many oils or greases would
deteriorate over time [4]. Graphite is most specially suited for the lubrication of
cylinders, as all these aspects are critical for peak lubrication [4]. A high degree
of purity is required for a graphite material to be suitable for lubrication [4]. This
condition resulted in mixed results in early uses as a lubricant due to both the
diculty in determining purity and lack of naturally pure materials [4]. Combining
graphite with either of these is the subject of many patents, in which specialized
lubricants are described which are more optimal than simply graphite [4].

Other notable applications include as a polish, in electrotyping, and stove/boiler

cement.

3. Diamond
Newton rst proposed the composition of diamond as organic based on measure-
ments of its refractive index. [5]

3.1. Structure. Diamond has face-centered diamond cubic lattice structure [5].
Each carbon atom is tetrahedrally coordinated with four adjacent atoms by σ-
3
bonds (sp hybrid orbital) [5]. The bonds in diamond have length of approximately
1.54 and strength of approximately 347 kJ/mol [15]. The {111} crystalline direc-
tion is substantially stronger than other directions, due to the alignment of three
carbon-carbon bonds in this direction [5]. The activation energy in this direction
is approximately 1060 kJ/mol [5].

Graphite is more thermally stable than diamond. At standard temperature and

pressure, diamond is virtually stable [1]. In inert atmospheric conditions, diamond
 APPLICATIONS AND PROPERTIES OF CARBON STRUCTURES 3

begins graphitization at 1520◦ C [5]. Also, at low temperature Xe ion implanta-

tion has been found to thermally drive the rapid graphitization of diamond [1]. At
approximately 2120◦ C, 0.3 carats/minute are converted to graphite [5]. Its capabil-
ities for thermal conduction are extremely high, making it the essential solid-state
heat pipe [5].

Natural diamonds typically are either highly impure (Type Ia), typically due to
considerable amounts of nitrogen, or have high dislocation and residual strain (Type
IIa) [18]. The type IIa crystals have much better hardness, though synthetic crystals
created using Chemical Vapor Deposition achieve an even higher hardness and have
extraordinary mechanical properties [18]. Even further, polycrystalline diamond
has greater hardness and is readily available through synthesis using High Pressure
High Temperature techniques (not naturally occurring) [19].

A few of the remarkable physical properties of diamond are outlined in (Table).

3.2. Applications. In applications of diamond materials, thin lms are highly

prevalent [5].

Diamond lms are applicable as thermal exchangers [5]. Its high thermal conduc-
tivity, high strength, low corrosion rate, low erosion rate, low thermal expansion
coecient, and low electrical conductivity makes it uniquely applicable in situa-
tions such as IMPATT diodes and space electronics [5]. The thermal conductivity
of diamond is very sensitive to lattice imperfections [10]. A gem quality diamond
has double the thermal conductivity of the best polycrystalline lm, 2000 W/m K
[10].

Diamond is specially applicable to optics as windows. The low coecient of thermal

expansion and transparency across most of the UV, visible, and infrared spectr a
[12].

Diamond has a favorable, though directionally dependent, coecient of friction

ranging from 0.05 − 0.15 [5]. Still, explicit examples of applications of in this area
were apparent.

Another application is in magnetic disk ywheels, which require a very hard confor-
mally applied thin lm material to decrease friction between the head and platter
in hard disks [5]. Applications are limited in this area due to the required thinness
of the lm, and the related grain size in diamond lms [5].

Natural diamonds are used in industry as wire dies and water jet nozzles, with hole
diameters ranging from 0.01 − 0.5 mm [5]. As a jet nozzle, pressures exceeding 4000
2
kg/cm are required, creating the necessity for a very hard material [5].

Its mechanical and thermal properties makes diamond an excellent material for
cutting and grinding tools. Diamond powders adhered to a toolbase provides a
signicant improvement to lifetime of the tool, and allows a very ne cutting edge.
Adhesion and cost are limiting for this application, though the use of diamond edge
tools is growing quickly [5].

The many applications of diamond continue on, so to abbreviate this section, ad-
ditional applications include [5]:
 APPLICATIONS AND PROPERTIES OF CARBON STRUCTURES 4

• Anvils • Needle-like applications

• Articial heart valves • Scalpels
• Fresnel lenses • Stripper Foils
• Lasers • X-ray targets
• Marine fouling (prevent barnacle • Windows (space, marine)
formations)
• Moth's eye coatings

4. Buckyballs
The most common[11] and popularized buckyball variant is buckminsterfullerene,
or C60 . Buckyballs were rst observed in 1985, at Rice, by spectrometry analysis
of gas phase vaporized graphite [6]. The structural uniqueness of the 60 atom
structure of the closed cluster buckminsterfullerene was soon after apparent [6]. By
1990, buckyballs were able to be produced in macroscopic bulk [6]. Fullerenes are
naturally occurent in soots in signicant percentages [2]. The production of soot is
a primary method for their production in industry [2].

4.1. Structure. Buckyballs are formed by combinations of adjacent pentagons and

hexagons. There are many variants of buckyballs, and not all are sphere-like. Buck-
minsterfullerene has 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons arranged in the same way as
the standard soccerball. The three covalent bonds around each atom provide a
trigonal-like structure that is highly stable.

4.2. Applications. The available literature on buckyballs was limited, though it

was found that Buckyballs have some applications in biomedicine [11]. Some re-
search suggested that buckyballs could be used to control the damage caused by Lou
Gehrig's disease (ALS) and Alzheimer's [11]. Additionally, buckballs may be used
in small sponges to capture and contain harmful chemicals within the body [11].
Half-buckyballs are used as caps for nanotubes in many applications of fullerenes
[11].

High production costs and small production quantities have limited the commercial
applications of fullerenes [7]. However, since 2002 bulk production of fullerenes in
tons has been ready for manufacturing [7].

5. Nanotubes
The rst small diameter (<10 nm) carbon laments were prepared in the 1970's
using chemical vapor synthesis [9]. In 1991 the rst carbon nanotubes were observed
at NEC Laboratory using High-Resolution Electron Microscopy [9]. In 1992 it
was predicted that carbon nanotubes could be either semiconducting or metallic
depending on their structural characteristics (observed in 1998) [9].
 APPLICATIONS AND PROPERTIES OF CARBON STRUCTURES 5

5.1. Structure. The structure of carbon nanotubes was determined early on using
Transmission Electron Microscopy and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy techniques
[9]. It was revealed that carbon nanotubes are formed as cylindrical graphene
sheets [9]. The lattice is essentially that of a rolled graphene sheet, resulting in
a signicant angle strain from the hexagonal lattice of graphene [9]. The precise
structure of a unique carbon nanotube varies by size and chirality [9]. A carbon
nanotube's structure is uniquely described by its chiral vector ~ h = n~a1 + m~a2 ,
C
where n and m are integers corresponding to lengths on a graphene lattice [17]. The
chiral vector is representative of the conductivity of its molecule, corresponding to
either semiconducting or metallic [17]. Additionally, the chiral vector represents the
molecule's category of carbon nanotube as either of 'zigzag', 'armchair', or 'chiral'
design [9]. A similarly useful value is the chiral angle θ dened by [17]:

2n + m
cosθ = √ ,
2 n + m2 + nm
2

which can also be used to classify carbon nanotubes.

Single wall nanotubes have radii which may vary from 0.7 − 10.0 nm, and their
width/length aspect ratio can reach up to 105 . The tensile strength of a nanotube
is approximately 500 times that of strong steel alloys and signicantly less dense
than aluminum [11]. This and other remarkable properties results in many appli-
cations for carbon nanotubes which exploit their mechanical properties [11]. Their
conductive properties vary widely by design and are fairly manipulable [11]. They
are highly thermally conductive, with a value nearly twice that of diamond (in the
axial direction) [11]. Although nanotubes have extremely high tensile strength,
they have little tolerance for compressive, torsional, or bending stresses [9].

5.2. Applications. The earliest application of carbon nanotubes was in reinforced

composites [13]. The addition of carbon nanotubes to various materials signicantly
inuences the electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties of the composite [13].
Such materials are currently in production [13].

A most lucrative potential application is as a replacement for LCDs [13]. In this

application, nanotubes have an advantage for their low power consumption, bright-
ness, viewing angle, and response rate [13]. Prototype displays are currently in
testing [13]. A similar, but less complex application is as simple lamps [13]. As
a replacement for uorescent lamps, they would have comparable lifetimes and be
more environmentally safe [13].

Carbon nanotubes have been proposed as a means for hydrogen storage and trans-
portation in fuel cells [13]. Theory predicts that capillary action would allow the
storage of liquids as gases [13].

Substantial research in the area of chemical modications to carbon nanotubes

has been critical to the growth of applications [3]. Oxidization reaction for small
diameter carbon nanotubes has broadened the horizon of possibilities [3].

Due to their extraordinary mechanical and electrical properties, there are numerous
potential applications for carbon nanotubes. In highlight, these include [11]:
 APPLICATIONS AND PROPERTIES OF CARBON STRUCTURES 6

• Actuators/articial muscles • Semiconductors

• Atomic force microscope probe • Nanoelectronics
tips • Nanogears
• Batteries • Nanolithography
• Chemical sensors • Nanothermometers
• Collision-protection materials • Nanotweezers
• Controlled drug delivery • Reinforcement of armor
• Data storage • Solar storage
• Dialysis lters • Supercapacitors
• Flat panel displays • Thermal protection
• Flywheels • Waste recycling
• Hydrogen storage
• MEMS devices

6. Conclusions
The allotropes graphite, diamond, and fullerenes have each been discussed, and by
review of available literature have signicant and widely varied applications. The
outstanding properties of these molecules make them uniquely suited to many appli-
cations. Ongoing research continues to reveal new potential applications and better
tunes carbon to current applications. Doping adds another layer of manipulability
to these molecules, as it allows control of many properties of these materials, and
is a very widely researched topic.

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