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Spring 2004
Design
ExampleInstitute
Failure
Massachusetts
ofInvestigation
Technology
You are hired to be the expert witness on the case. The following information were
established:
(a) The reaction force (R) at each end of the beam right before the collapse was
estimated at 275 kips.
(b) The horizontal restraint offered by the bearing (i.e., the Teflon disk) is negligible.
(c) Normal weight concrete was used with the compressive strength of fc = 5000 psi.
(d) Yield stress for normal reinforcement was fy = 60 ksi.
Using the above information and the attached drawings, you are asked to assess and
testify on the following questions:
(1) Was the design (Fig. 6) adequate in accordance with ACI code requirements?
(2) It was reported that the elastic shortening of the beam due to the initial
prestressing was 0.9 in (Fig. 7). Check the design adequacy for this situation.
(3) It is postulated that the workmen might have placed the Teflon disk in the wrong
position initially. Together with the elastic shortening due to prestressing, the
final position of the Teflon disk was as shown in Fig. 8. Check the design again
using the ACI code.
(4) Based on the above information, give your opinion as to the cause(s) of the
collapse. It was argued that if instead of having the corbels, the prestressed beams
were cast into the piers as a whole unit (i.e., fixed ends), and then the failure
would not have occurred. Do you foresee any problems with this design?
1 / 12
Spring 2004
Design Example Failure Investigation
y
x
a
B1
c
b
B2
b
sym.
o
S1 =50
c
B3
a
117
58.8
117
z
sym.
0.75
2% grade
9.25
13
2 / 12
5.5
Spring 2004
Design Example Failure Investigation
shear failure
Teflon disk
z
x
3 / 12
Spring 2004
Design Example Failure Investigation
sym.
prestressing
steel anchor
d
z
e
corbel
cable axis
4 - #6
5
beam axis
18
cable axis
y
x
Figure 5. Plan view of end zone (section d-d)
4 / 12
sym.
Spring 2004
Design Example Failure Investigation
z
x
Cable axis
4 - #6 @ 5 in
3 - #5 @ 4 in
25
4 - #5 @ 5 in
Teflon disk
3
18
Shaded area
= 44.55 in2
18
y
x
1
Distance between the center of the shade area and its edge, a = 2.45
5 / 12
Spring 2004
Design Example Failure Investigation
z
x
Cable axis
4 - #6 @ 5 in
3 - #5 @ 4 in
25
4 - #5 @ 5 in
5.9
Teflon disk
2.1
18
Shaded area
= 56.55 in2
18
y
x
0.1
Distance between the center of the shade area and its edge, a = 2.55
6 / 12
Spring 2004
Design Example Failure Investigation
z
x
Cable axis
4 - #6 @ 5 in
3 - #5 @ 4 in
25
4 - #5 @ 5 in
Teflon disk
18
Shaded area
= 78.9 in2
18
y
x
Distance between the center of the shade area and its edge, a = 3.56
7 / 12
Spring 2004
Design Example Failure Investigation
ACI
R = 275 kips
factored reaction
A=
u =
shaded area
A = 44.55 in2
shear force
Vu = u A = 151.5 kips
tension
Nuc = 0 kips
11.9.3.4
moment
Mu = Vu a
11.9.3.2
Ru
= 3.4 ksi
A
= 151.5 x 2.45
= 371.2 kips-in
Corbel dimension
h = 25 in
d = 25 2 = 23 in
bw = 18 in
a 2.45
=
= 0.107 < 1.0 (O.K.)
d
23
and
Nuc < Vu
d1 =
11.9.1
5
23 = 11.5 in 0.5d (O.K.)
10
11.9.2
Shear design
Vn =
since
Vu
151.5
= 202 kips
0.75
max Vn = 0.2 f c b w d
11.9.3.1
11.9.3.2.1
8 / 12
Spring 2004
Design Example Failure Investigation
= 1.4 = 1.4
11.7.4.3
Vn = A vf f y
11.9.3.2
202
= 2.4 in2
60 1.4
11.7.4.1
x
M u = 0.85 f c b w x d-
2
10.2.10
A vf =
Flexural design
setting
x = 0.3
A f = 0.85 f c b w x
= 0.383 in2
Tension design
Since
Nuc = 0
11.9.3.4
An = 0
Primary tension reinforcement
As = Af + An = 0.383 in2
or
11.9.3.5
2
A vf + A n = 1.41 in2 (governs)
3
A n 0.5 ( As A n )
0.5 (1.41 0 )
0.71 in2
From the design, over
2
d = 15.33 in , there are 3 - #5 bars provided.
3
9 / 12
11.9.4
Spring 2004
Design Example Failure Investigation
(An)provided = 3 2 0.31
= 1.86 in2 > 0.71 in2 (O.K.)
Reinforcement ratio
As
1.76
=
= 0.0043
b d 18 23
11.9.5
f c
5
= 0.04 = 0.0033 < 0.0043 (O.K.)
fy
60
0.04
The engineering design in Fig. 6 is adequate in accordance with ACI code 318-02.
(II) With elastic shortening
Similarly, we have
A = 56.55 in2
Vu = 3.4 56.55 = 192.3 kips
Nuc = 0
Mu = Vu a
= 192.3 2.55
= 490.8 kips-in
Corbel dimension
a 2.55
=
= 0.111 < 0.5 (O.K.)
d
23
d1 =
4.1
d
23 = 9.43 < (N.G.)
10
2
Shear design
Vn =
Vu
192.3
= 257.6 kips < 331.2 kips (O.K.)
0.75
11.9.3.2
A vf =
257.6
= 3.07 in 2
60 1.4
Flexural design
x
M n = f cbx d
2
10 / 12
Spring 2004
Design Example Failure Investigation
x = 0.316 in
Af = 0.40 in2
Primary tension reinforcement
A s = A f +A n = 0.40 in 2
or
Since
As =
2
A vf +A n = 2.04 in 2 (governs)
3
A s 2.04
=
= 1.02 in 2
2
2
(O.K.)
With elastic shortening of 0.9 in, the given design is not adequate.
(III) With shortening and misplaced Teflon disk
Similarly,
A = 78.9 in2
Vu = 3.4 78.9 = 268.3 kips
Nuc = 0
Mu = Vu a
= 268.3 3.56
= 955 kips-in
Corbel dimension
a 3.56
=
= 0.155 < 1 (O.K.)
d
23
d1 =
2
d
23 = 4.6 in < (N.G.)
10
2
Shear design
Vn =
Vu
A vf =
268.3
= 357.7 kips > 331.2 kips (N.G.)
0.75
357.7
= 4.26 in 2 (O.K.)
60 1.4
Flexural design
11 / 12
11.9.3.2
Spring 2004
Design Example Failure Investigation
M n = f cbx d
2
x = 0.62 in
Af = 0.79 in2
Primary tension reinforcement
A s = A f +A n = 0.79 in 2
or
Since
As =
2
A vf +A n = 2.84 in 2 (governs)
3
A s 2.84
=
=1.42 in 2 (O.K.)
2
2
With misplacement of Teflon disk and elastic shortening, the given design is not
adequate.
(IV) There is a good chance that the failure was due to poor design or inadequate
considerations on the part of engineer. Even if the Teflon disk was correctly placed,
with the elastic shortening of beam and live loads, the bridge does not have much of a
chance of surviving. Misplacement of the Teflon disk greatly increased the risk of
failure since no information on the site supervision on the pat of the engineer was given.
A probable cause of the failure could then be attributed to both the engineer and the
contractor.
If the beam is cast monolithically into the pier, problems that might arise are
Secondary stresses induced die to creep, shrinkage and elastic shortening;
Thermal stresses created due to differential temperature effect.
12 / 12
Spring 2004
Design Example
Shear
and Torsion
Massachusetts
Institute
of Technology
Tu
Mu
24
Vu
16
Figure 2. Cross section a-a
1/7
Spring 2004
Design Example Shear and Torsion
Task: Answer or accomplish the following questions and tasks based on given assumption.
Will this given cross section (16 in wide and 24 in deep) be adequate for shear and
torsion requirements? If not, what width is required?
Assume that the depth is to be held at 24 in.
Select the required torsion, shear, and bending reinforcement for the minimum
required width (to nearest inch).
Summarize reinforcement on a sketch of the cross section.
[Design Procedures]
1. Check maximum torsion capacity
(ACI)
CT =
Tc =
Section/(Equation)
0.8 f c' x 2 y
0.4Vu
1+
CT Tu
1+
0.05469
120
12
11.6.1 &
11.6.2.2
(Tu )actual
0.8 4000 x 2 ( 24 )
< 4.25Tc 1440 10 lbs-in < 4.25
1.02579
3
2/7
Spring 2004
Design Example Shear and Torsion
x
Tc =
1+
0.05147 120 12
(O.K.)
3. Selection of stirrups
Ts =
1440
Tc =
341 103 = 1353 103 lbs-in
0.85
Tu
x1 = 17 2 ( 2 ) = 13 in
y1 = 24 2 ( 2 ) = 20 in
T = 0.66 + 0.33
y1
= 1.168
x1
At
Ts
1353 103
=
=
= 0.0743 in2/in
s T x1 y1 f y 1.168 (13)( 20 ) ( 60 103 )
25bw ( 25 )(17 )
At
=
= 0.00708 in2/in
=
f yv
60000
s min
Vc =
Vs =
2 f c' bw d
T
1 + 2.5CT u
Vu
(O.K.)
1 + 2.5 ( 0.05147 )
45
11.6.5.3
= 10657 lbs
45
Vc =
10.66 103 = 42.28 103 lbs
0.85
Vu
Av
V
42.28 103
= s =
= 0.0336 in 2 /in
s
f y d ( 60 103 ) 21
(11-15)
A 1 Av
0.0336
A
Since
= t+
= 0.0743 +
= 0.0911 in 2 /in
2
s stirrup s 2 s
3/7
smax =
Spring 2004
Design Example Shear and Torsion
x1 + y1 13 + 20
=
= 8.25 in
4
4
d 21
=
= 10.5 in
2 2
11.5.4.3
11.5.4.1
0.5 f c' x 2 y = 0.85 ( 0.5 ) 4000 ( 6936 ) = 186 103 lbs-in < Tu (Applicable)
( Av + 2 A t )min =
50bw s 50 (17 ) s
=
= 0.0142 s
fy
60 103
( Astirrup )min =
0.0142 s
= 0.0071s in2
2
(11-23)
A
in;
0.0911
A
= 3.4 in
0.0911
smax = 8.25 in
(O.K.)
(O.K.)
(O.K.)
Al ,min =
5 f c' Acp
f yl
f yv
At
ph
s
f yl
(11-24)
Acp is the area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross section, in2, and ph is the
4/7
Spring 2004
Design Example Shear and Torsion
50bw s
50bw At
< 2 At or
<
to find 2 At .
2 fy
fy
s
(11-23)
50 (17 )
50bw
A
=
= 0.0071 < t = 0.0743
3
2 f y 2 ( 60 10 )
s
400 x T
u
Al =
f y T + Vu
u 3C
A
2 t ( x1 + y1 )
s
400 (17 )
1440 103
=
2 ( 0.0743) ( 33) < 0
3
3
60 10 1440 103 + 45 10
3 0.05147
M u = ( 0.85 f c' ab ) d
2
(1)
0.85 f c' ab
As =
fy
(2)
Eq.(1) provides
a = 3.605 in
Eq.(2) provides As = 3.47 in2 =
Amin =
3.47
= 0.0097
(17 )( 21)
200
= 0.0033 in 2 < As = 3.47 in 2
fy
(O.K.)
In balanced state,
5/7
Cbalanced =
b ( 0.003)
= 12.6 in abalanced = 0.85Cbalanced = 10.71 in
0.003 + y
( As )balanced = ( As )b =
b =
Spring 2004
Design Example Shear and Torsion
0.85 ( 4 )(10.71)(17 )
= 10.32 in2
60
10.32
= 0.0289
(17 )( 21)
(O.K.)
5. Summary
Use
4 #10 @ the bottom (3.47 in2 for M, 1.61 in2 for T)
2 #6 @ intermediate level (1.50 in2 for T)
3 #6 @ the top (1.79 in2 for T, 0.46 in2 excess)
We have an excess of steel. In the worse case, we have a moment Mu without Tu. The 5.08in2
of steel at the bottom can all be considered for flexural tensile reinforcement purpose. In that
case,
5.08
= 0.0142 < 0.75 b (Check for flexural capacity as singly-reinforced section)
(17 )( 21)
24
2 #6
#5 @ 3.5
4 #10
17
Figure 3. Configuration of the cross section
6/7
Spring 2004
Design Example Shear and Torsion
7/7
Spring 2004
Design Example
Yield
Line Theory
Massachusetts
Institute
of Technology
#4 @15 Bottom
(0 ~ 24) (x-direction) and
(0 ~ 18) (y-direction)
18
24
Fixed
Fig. 1 Reinforced concrete slab and its dimensions
Task: Using the yield line theory method, determine the ultimate load wu that can be carried by
the slab.
1/6
Spring 2004
Design Example Yield Line Theory
[Design Procedures]
Given the information about the slab, shown in Fig. 1, below:
Thickness of the slab: 8 in,
Effective depth in x direction: 7 in,
Effective depth in y direction: 6.5 in,
Notice that d = d for each direction.
b = 12 in
b = 12 in
Y direction
Top: #4@12 in (0~18)
Bottom: #4@15 in (0~18)
Material strengths:
Concrete
'
Uniaxial compressive strength: f c = 4000 psi,
Steel
Yield stress: f y = 60 ksi.
1. Calulation of the moments per unit length in both directions
(1) X direction (d = d = 7 in)
z
x
mux , pos
Fig. 2 Positive bending moment in X direction
We have
#4@15 in. for positive (bottom, 0~18) reinforcement (Fig. 2),
#4@12 in. for negative (top, 0~18) reinforcement (Fig. 3),
Unit length moments are calculated below.
mux , pos :
As =
12 in
0.2 in 2 = 0.16 in 2
15 in
2/6
C = T
Spring 2004
Design Example Yield Line Theory
provides
0.85 f c' ab = As f y a =
fy
0.85 f c'b
a
0.235
z
x
mux ,neg
Fig. 3 Negative bending moment in X direction
As' =
12 in
0.2 in 2 = 0.2 in 2
12 in
C = T
provides
a'
0.294
muy , pos
Fig. 4 Positive bending moment in Y direction
muy , pos :
As =
12 in
0.2 in 2 = 0.16 in 2
15 in
3/6
C = T
Spring 2004
Design Example Yield Line Theory
provides
fy
0.85 f c' ab = As f y a =
'
c
0.85 f b
As =
60
0.16 = 1.4706 0.16 = 0.235 in
0.85 4 12
a
0.235
z
x
muy ,neg
Fig. 5 Negative bending moment in X direction
muy , neg :
As' =
12 in
0.2 in 2 = 0.2 in 2
12 in
C = T
provides
' a'
0.294
'
A
F
18
y
9
24
Fig. 6 Postulated failure mode and the associated length and angle definitions
4/6
Spring 2004
Design Example Yield Line Theory
1
1
, y =
a
9
x =
my x l y
AB, CD
1/a
AD, BC
1/9
AE, BE,
CF, DF
1/a
1/9
1
5.71* 9
a
EF
2/9
mx y lx
1
6.17 18
a
1
5.71 24
9
1
4.95* a
9
2
4.6 ( 24 2a )
9
[*: Use 5.71 and 4.95 kips-in to be conservative although the moment varies along these yield
lines.]
int
111.06
51.39
= 2
+ 15.23 + 4
+ 0.55a + 24.48 2.04a
a
427.68
+ 54.94 + 0.16a
a
Area
18 a
2
9a ;
( 24 2a ) 9 = 216 18a
w A
1/3
3wa
1/3;
1/2
int
ext
427.68
+ 54.94 + 0.16a = w ( 216 6a )
a
427.68 + 54.94a + 0.16a 2
w=
216a 6a 2
d 2w
dw
For minimum w,
>0
= 0 and
da
da 2
dw
= 0 provides
da
5/6
Spring 2004
Design Example Yield Line Theory
2
2
dw ( 54.94 + 0.32a ) ( 216a 6a ) ( 427.68 + 54.94a + 0.16a ) ( 216 12a )
=
=0
2 2
da
a
a
216
6
(
)
It yields to
11867a 329.64a 2 + 69.12a 2 1.92a 3 92378.88 + 5132.16a 11867 a + 659.28a 2
34.56a 2 + 1.92a 3 = 0
364.2a 2 + 5132.16a 92378.88 = 0
a 2 + 14.09a 253.65 = 0
and a = 10.37 in
Qw =
wu = 0.636
kips
ft 2
Therefore the ultimate load this rectangular slab can carry is 0.636 kips/ft2.
6/6
Spring 2004
Outline 1
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Structural design
o Definition of design:
Determination of the general shape and all specific dimensions of a
particular structure so that it will perform the function for which it is
created and will safely withstand the influences which will act on it
throughout its useful life.
Principles of mechanics, structural analysis, behavioral knowledge
in structures and materials.
Engineering experience and intuition.
(a) Function, (b) strength with safety requirements will vary for
structures.
Influences and structural response:
Influences
Structure
Loads
Temperature fluctuations
Foundation settlements
Time effects
Corrosion
Earthquakes
Other environmental effects
Structural response
Failure (strength)
Failure mode
Deformations
Cracking
Stresses
Motion
o Structural mechanics:
A tool that permits one to predict the response (with a required level of
accuracy, and a good degree of certainty) of a structure to defined
influences.
1 /7
Spring 2004
Outline 1
relation
Spring 2004
Outline 1
Design factors
o 1956 A.L.L. Baker (simplified method of safety factor determination)
o 1971 ACI Code (load factors and capacity (strength, resistance)
reduction factors)
o 2002 ACI 318 Building Code
o Design loads (U) are factored to ensure the safety and reliability of
structural performance.
o Structural capacities () of concrete material are reduced to account
for inaccuracies in construction and variations in properties.
3 /7
Spring 2004
Outline 1
Safety
o Semi-probabilistic design is achieved by introducing the use of load
factors, l , and capacity reduction factors, .
o Load factors ACI 318 Building Code
Load combinations
U = 1.4(D + F)
U = 1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
U = 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (1.0L or 0.8W)
U = 1.2D + 1.6W + 0.5L + 1.0(Lr or S or R)
U = 1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L + 0.2S
U = 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H
U = 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H
where D = dead load; F = lateral fluid pressure; T = self-straining
force (creep, shrinkage, and temperature effects); L = live load; H =
load due to the weight and lateral pressure of soil and water in soil;
Lr = roof load; S = snow load; R = rain load; W = wind load; E =
earthquake load.
4 /7
Spring 2004
Outline 1
For a structure loaded by dead and live loads the overall safety
factor is
s=
1.2 D + 1.6 L 1
D+L
Making of concrete
o Cements
Portland cements
Non-portland cements
Accelerating admixtures
Air-entraining admixtures
Superplasticizers
Corrosion inhibitors
Medium
Medium
Good
Slow
Small
Good
Fast
Large
Poor
Slow
Small
Poor
Tetracalium
aluminoferrate, C4AF
Spring 2004
Outline 1
Ultimate
cementing value
Ability to be cast
Economical
6 /7
Durable
Fire resistant
Energy efficient
On-site fabrication
Aesthetic properties
o Disadvantages
Low ductility
Volume instability
7 /7
Spring 2004
Outline 1
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline 4
Fracture mechanics:
o Failure of concrete structures typically involves crack propagation and
growth of large cracking zones before the maximum load is reached.
Fracture mechanics, for design of concrete structures, has been
introduced for a realistic prediction of crack stability.
o Some reasons for introducing fracture mechanics into the design of
concrete structures:
1. Energy required for crack formation,
2. The need to achieve objectivity of finite element solutions,
3. Lack of yield plateau,
4. The need to rationally predict ductility and energy absorption
capability, and
5. The effect of structure size on the nominal strength, ductility, and
energy absorption capability.
o Fracture problem
P
2a
P
1/9
Spring 2004
Outline 4
( P, x ) dV
Prob ( P ) = 1 exp
V
0 Vr
N =
P
1
=
bd bd
1 Prob ( P ) dP
V = volume of structure,
Vr = representative volume of material,
m = Weibull modulus of the material,
2/9
Spring 2004
Outline 4
2E
a
3/9
Spring 2004
Outline 4
o Cracking modes:
Mode I:
Opening mode
Mode II:
In-plane mode
Mode III:
Tearing mode
ijI =
K I f ijI ( )
2 r
, ijII =
K II fijII ( )
2 r
, ijIII =
K III fijIII ( )
2 r
4/9
Spring 2004
Outline 4
o Energy criterion
As the crack tip propagates, energy flows into the crack tip where it is
dissipated by the fracture process. The energy flow is characterized by
the energy release rate:
Gb =
( a )
1
a
a
a +
a
2
2
a
a
dx dU e
da da
x
x = cP
P
5/9
Spring 2004
Outline 4
thus,
Gb = P
d (cP) d cP 2
da
da 2
d ( cP ) 1 d ( cP
Gb = P
da
2 da
Gb = P 2
dc 1 2 dc 1 2 dc
P
= P
da 2
da 2
da
P 2 dc
G =
2b da
o Stress intensity
x =
K1
3
cos 1 sin sin
2 r
2
2 2
y =
K1
3
cos 1 + sin sin
2 r
2
2 2
xy =
K1
3
cos sin cos cos
2 r
2 2
2
2
Spring 2004
Outline 4
o Calculation of Gi
For Model I, GI =
K I2
.
E'
K II2
.
E'
K III2
E
1 2
G = GI + GII + GIII
o Calculation of KI
The stress intensity factor K I can be calculated from ij (or ij )
expressions or from K I = a f ( g ) . Also,
KI =
P
P
a f ( ) =
bd
bd
d ( ) , =
a
d
( ) = f ( ) a = a nondimensional function.
For geometrically similar structures of different sizes, the stress
intensity factor is proportional to the square root of the size, and
the energy release rate is proportional to the size of the structure.
The condition of mode I crack propagation is as follow:
K I = K Ic
where K Ic = G f E ' = critical value of K I = fracture toughness
7/9
Spring 2004
Outline 4
N =
K Ic
1
log N = log d + const.
2
a f ( )
2
1
log d
o Fracture process zone
In the HSC the tensile strength can be 2-5 times greater than
NSC. However, the increase in fracture energy or elastic
modulus is not much. Consequently, HSC may be brittle.
o Applicability of LEFM:
8/9
Spring 2004
Outline 4
L = L
After peak a localized fracture develops. There is a softening behavior
inside the fracture zone. This is called strain localization.
However, in the region near crack tip (localization of deformation), this
assumption is not valid. The modified form for L is thus:
L = L + w
where w = the term representing the influence of localization in
fracture zone.
o Therefore,
two
relationships
are
needed
to
characterize
mechanical behavior:
1. relationship for region outside the fracture zone.
2. w relationship for the fracture zone.
G f = ( w ) dw
0
9/9
the
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline 6
Ductility
o Toughness, deformability, energy absorption capacity
b
c
y
kd
d
As
s > y
s = y
o For beams failing in flexure the ductility ratio can be defined as the
ratio of the curvature at ultimate moment to the curvature at yield.
fy
1
Es d (1 k )
Yield condition: y =
Ultimate condition: u =
Ductility =
u
c
u 1
a
u
u d (1 k )
=
y f y E s a 1
characterizes
the
deformation
capacity
of
members
1/9
Spring 2004
Outline 6
o The defined ductility (ratio) shown above does not give information
about effects of a moderate number of cycles nor about the shape of
the descending branch in moment-rotation curves.
o For doubly reinforced cross section,
1/ 2
'd '
k = ( + ' ) n 2 + 2 +
n
d
M y = As f y jd
a=
As f y As' f y
0.85 f c'b
u 0.85 1 Es c f c'
'd '
'
' 2 2
1
2
=
+
+
+
+
+
) (
)
(
n
2
y
d
fy ( ' )
1/ 2
As'
As
Given As , f c' , f y
d
d
h
distribution
As = As'
c
0.85 f c'
0.85 f c'
distribution
c =0.003
2/9
1.0
Ultimate
unconfined
M
Curve 1
Balanced
Point
Pn
P0
Pb
P0
Curve 2
yield
M
0.85 f c'bh 2
u
y
Spring 2004
Outline 6
Curve 2
Curve 1
Mb
0.85 f c'bh 2
Confined section
P
P0
Pb
(Balanced point)
P0
Curve 1: Combinations of P and M and h that cause the column to
reach u (ultimate concrete strain) without confinement
Curve 2: Combinations of P and M and h at which the tension steel
first reaches the yield strength.
The difference between Curve 1 and 2 indicates the amount of
3/9
Spring 2004
Outline 6
u
y
o For column members, factors affecting the ductility, other than those
rate of loading
concrete strength
bar diameter
Deflections
o Types of deflection
4/9
Spring 2004
Outline 6
Short-term deflection
o Effective moment of inertia
= dx
A
where = curvature
Due the existence of cracks, the effective moment of inertia will be
calculated as
3
M 3
M cr
cr
Ie =
I g + 1
I cr
M max
M max
5/9
Spring 2004
Outline 6
M cr =
f cr I g
y
cross section.
Long-term deflection
o The member when loaded undergoes an immediate deflection. The
additional deflections are caused due to creep and shrinkage. The rate
of these additional deflections decreases by time.
o Effect of creep on the flexure behavior of concrete member
creep = Ct
fc
Ec
total =
fc
f
f
+ Ct c = c (1 + Ct )
Ec
Ec Ec
Eeff =
fc
total
Ec
1 + Ct
6/9
Spring 2004
Outline 6
In
unsymmetrical
sections
non-uniform
stress
sh
restraint of steel
Concrete will tend to shrink, but cannot due to the steel restraint,
hence concrete undergoes tensile stress and steel reinforcement will
be in compression.
sha =
fs
f A
= c c
Es ES As
f A E
f A
f c = sh c c c = sh c c Ec ,effective
Es As 1 + Ct
Es As
7/9
Spring 2004
Outline 6
to shrinkage. Otherwise,
ct
cb
sh =
cb ct
h
Control of deflections
o Excessive deflections can lead to cracking of supported walls and
partitions,
ill-fitting
doors
and
windows,
poor
roof
drainage,
1. Sensory acceptability
2. Serviceability of the structure
3. Effect on nonstructural elements
8/9
Spring 2004
Outline 6
Minimum thickness
l
16
Simply supported
l
18.5
l
21
Cantilever
l
8
1 + 50 '
where = a time-dependent coefficient characterizing material
As'
.
bd
Long-term deflection total = immediate
9/9
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline 7
Structural behavior
o Structural members are subjected to shear forces, generally, in
combination with flexure, axial force, and sometimes with torsion.
o Shear failures are brittle failures primarily because shear resistance
in R/C relies on tensile as well as the compressive strength of
concrete. Although cracking introduces complications it is still
convenient to use classical concepts in analyzing concrete beams
under shear failure. Such concepts indicate that shear failure is
related to diagonal tensile behavior in concrete. R/C beam must be
safe against premature failure due to diagonal tension.
1/8
Spring 2004
Outline 7
v
Vd
M
=K
.
f x = K 2 2 leading to dependence on the ratio of
f
M
bd
Basis of design
o Total ultimate shear force Vu
Vu Vn
where = the strength reduction factor for shear, and
Vn = nominal shear strength.
o Nominal shear strength
Vn = Vc + Vs
where Vc = inclined cracking load of concrete,
Vs = shear carried by transverse reinforcement.
o Shear strength expression of concrete given by ACI:
Vd
Vc = 1.9 f c' + 2500 w u bw d 3.5 f c' bw d
Mu
w =
As
= longitudinal tensile steel ratio,
bw d
2/8
Spring 2004
Outline 7
Vu d
1 , in lbs-in,
Mu
Vc = 2 f c' bw d
o The required shear strength to be provided by the steel (vertical web
reinforcement):
Vs =
(Vu Vc ) = Vu V
Av f y d
s
s = spacing of stirrups.
When stirrups with inclination are used, the contribution of steel to
shear strength becomes:
Vs =
Av f y d
s
( sin + cos )
Shear transfer
o Shear in concrete can cause inclined cracking across a member. It is
also possible that shear stresses may cause a sliding type of failure
along a well-defined plane. Because of previous load history, external
tension, shrinkage, etc., a crack may have formed along such a plane
even before shear is applied. Upon application of shear forces we have
the problem of quantifying shear stress transferred across the cracked
sections.
o General shear transfer mechanisms are
1. Through still uncracked concrete
3/8
Spring 2004
Outline 7
2. Direct thrust
3. Dowel action
4. Aggregate interlock
Reinforcement provides clamping action.
1. Transfer of shear through intact concrete such as the compression
region in a beam
2. Direct thrust
o Models of shear transfer:
1. Arch analogy: Beam example
2. Truss analogy (strut-and-tie action): Corbel example
Failure mechanisms of corbels:
Flexural-tension failure
3. Dowel action
o Three mechanisms of dowel action:
M
Vd
Vd
Vd
l
Vd
Vd
Vd
M
Flexural
2M
Vd =
l
Vd shear
As f y
Vd =
2
4/8
Kinking
Vd = As f y cos
Spring 2004
Outline 7
Note that the shear yield stress may be determined from von
Mises yield function:
y =
As f y
3
Block B
a
rebars
a
a-a crack plane
(pre-cracked)
Block A
V
5/8
Spring 2004
Outline 7
V = Vd + V f =
As =
+ As f y = As f y
+
3
3
As f y
V
= required area of the steel
1
fy
+
3
shear
displacement
w = crack width
Crack surface
Sufficient shear displacement should take place before interlock
occurs.
Crack width will increase with increased shear displacement.
At contact points:
Frictional resistance due to general roughness of a crack in
concrete,
Additional frictional resistance due to local roughness. (also
involves cyclic shear effects)
6/8
Spring 2004
Outline 7
shear stress
psi
1500
w = 0.005 in
w = 0.020 in
w = 0.010 in
1000
500
shear
displacement
5
10
15
20
25
1+ KD
w0 +
KN
1
KN
103 in
+ KD
KD , KN
stiffnesses,
7/8
Spring 2004
Outline 7
N + N
hj
w0
H
V
V
V
N
N + N
1
1
+
Gcr =
K
Ge
h N + KD
8/8
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline 9
behavior
is
especially
critical
for
structures
subject
to
earthquake effects.
o The shear forces developed as a result of such an excitation should be
safely transferred through joints. The R/C system should be designed
as a ductile system.
Design of joints
o Joint types
Type I Static loading
strength important
ductility secondary
Type II Earthquake and blast loading
ductility + strength
inelastic range of deformation
1/9
Spring 2004
Outline 9
stress reversal
o Joints should exhibit a service load performance equal to that of the
members it joins.
o Joints should possess strength at least equal to that of the members
it joins (sometimes several times more).
o Philosophy: Members fail first, then joints.
The joint strength and behavior should not govern the strength of
the structure.
o Detailing and constructability.
Behavior of joints
o Knee joint
Compression zone
2/9
Spring 2004
Outline 9
Joint core
d
T = As f y
d
C
T = As f y
'
T = As f y
'
T ' = As f y
'
C
Internal forces
T
T
T
T
ft ' =
As f y
T
=
= f y 6 f c'
bd
bd
'
ft ' 6 fc
fy
fy
3/9
Spring 2004
Outline 9
fy
4. Relative size will affect strength and detailing for practical reasons.
Crack control
bars
Transverse
ties
5. Bond force
U
T
T+dT
U =
dT
dx
dx
Compression
zone
(push-off)
Tension zone
4/9
Spring 2004
Outline 9
d
C=T
d
z
T = As f y
T = As f y
2T
Push-off force
z
Internal forces
Spring 2004
Outline 9
Cs
'
Cc
'
fc
fc
ft
Cc
Cs
Cc
Cs
6/9
Spring 2004
Outline 9
o Interior joints
Concrete
Cc'
V
Cc
V
V
Cc
V
Cc'
7/9
Spring 2004
Outline 9
Steel
Cs'
lh
Cs
lv
Cs
Cs
Cs' + T '
Cs + T
u0 =
and v0 =
lh
lv
Combined behavior:
Shear transfer by bond
u0 =
v0 =
Cs + T
lh
C s + T
lv
V j = Vc + Vs
8/9
Spring 2004
Outline 9
Effect of confinement
9/9
Spring 2004
Outline 12
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Thin shell
o Definition A thin shell is a curved slab whose thickness h is small
compared with its other dimensions and compared with its principal
radius of curvature.
o Middle surface
The surface that bisects the shell is called the middle surface. It
specifies the form of this surface and the thickness h at every point.
o Analysis of thin shells consists the following steps:
Shell theories
o The Kirchhoff-Love theory The first-approximation of shells
Assumptions:
(1) The shell thickness is negligibly small in comparison with the
least radius of curvature of the shell middle surface.
(2) Strains and displacements that arise within the shells are
small.
(3) Straight lines that are normal to the middle surface prior to
deformation remain straight and normal to the middle surface
during deformation, and experience no change in length.
1 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 12
Assumptions:
Classification of shells:
o Classified by governing equation of geometry:
Paraboloid of revolution
Hyperboloid of revolution
Circular cylinder
Elliptic paraboloid
Hyperbolic paraboloid
Circular cone
2 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 12
r ( , ) = f1 ( , ) u + f 2 ( , ) v + f3 ( , ) w
where f1 ( , ) , f 2 ( , ) , and f3 ( , ) are continuous, single-valued
functions. The surface is determined by and uniquely. and are
called curvilinear coordinates. u, v, and w
r
r
d +
d
d = A d + B d = ds
d +
where A and B are called Lames parameters or measure numbers.
The formula shown above is the first quadratic form of the theory of
surfaces.
o Principal radii of curvature
o Gaussian curvature
K=
1 1
rx ry
3 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 12
r d
N +
N x
Nx
Qx +
Mx +
Q +
M x
dx
x
x
M x +
M +
M x
N x
M x
x
Mx
Mx
4 / 11
M x
Qx
dx
x
Q
dx
Qx
N x
Nx
Mx +
N x
dx
x
N x +
Nx +
dx
h
dx
Spring 2004
Outline 12
Long shells
L
2.5
r
Short shells
L
< 2.5
r
L
< 0.5
r
The line loads produce internal forces generally in the region near
the longitudinal edge. Greater part of the shell behaves with
membrane values.
o Beam theory for long cylindrical shells
5 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 12
o Membrane theory
For a certain class of shells which the stress couples are an order
of magnitude smaller than the extensional and in-plane shear
stress resultants, the transverse shear stress resultants are
similarly small and may be neglected in the force equilibrium.
The shell may achieve force equilibrium through the action of inplane forces alone. Hence, the state of stress in the shell is
completely determined by equations of equilibrium, i.e., the shell is
statically determinate.
The boundary conditions must provide for those shell edge forces
which are computed from the equations of equilibrium. The
boundary
conditions
must
also
permit
those
shell
edge
Energy method
Rayleigh-Ritz methods
Galerkin method
The
actual
reinforcing
bars
are
represented
by
equivalent
6 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 12
These layers carry uniaxial stress only in the same direction as the
actual bars. Dowel action is neglected.
{ d } = [ D ] { d }
where {d } = increment of total stress vector,
[ D]
{d }
= H / 2
dM
[ M ] h
[ M ] h d 0 dh
[ M ] h 2 dk
7 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 12
Using
[ D] ,
the matrix
[M ]
d i = ( Ri Di ) d i
where Ri =
ti
T
= H / 2
dh
2
dM
Ri Di h Ri Di h dk
to
surface
loads
involves
only
successive
Spring 2004
Outline 12
o Edge beams
Vertical beams
Horizontal beams
o Edge effects
K > 0:
Spring 2004
Outline 12
K < 0:
N x = N x (mid-thickness)
To accommodate diagonal
Tensile stress associated
with N x = N x at 45D .
N x (mid-thickness)
close to the edges.
Design considerations
o Analysis is based on homogeneous isotropic material assumption.
Principal stresses are computed from the values for the in-plane
stress resultants, and stress trajectories are drawn; reinforcement is
placed to carry tensile stresses.
10 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 12
influence design.
o Other Design Issues
Instability Buckling
11 / 11
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline 15
thermography,
radar
imaging
and
acoustic
imaging.
Special
1 /1
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline 15
1 /1
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline 15
1 /2
Spring 2004
Outline 15
2 /2
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline 2
Micro-level: multi-element
Meso-level: multi-phase
Macro-level: homogeneous
f c'
2. Mortar cracks at
0.3
f c'
0.75 0.80
1 / 14
Spring 2004
Outline 2
inclusion
Shear-compression
mortar
tension
o Interface elements are used to study the influence of matrix-inclusion
that is bond effect and particle-interaction phenomena in modeling.
o Precise analysis should account for the influence of nonhomogeneity,
models of interfacial behavior, and include recognition of interface
debonding and resulting progressive fracture.
o Sophisticated analysis shows that bond failure initiates due to
compression-shear and that the failure behavior is controlled by
microcracking due to direct tensile stresses and splitting of concrete.
o Two debonding modes:
1. Compression-shear (including pure shear) failure at interface
2. Tensile-shear (including pure tension) debonding
Compression-shear strength
2 / 14
Spring 2004
Outline 2
Uniaxial compression
o Inelastic volume increase dilatancy
o The behavior is related to microcracking.
Uniaxial tension
o
ft ' 4 f c'
Bending test
o Bending test
Modulus of rupture: f r' 7.5 f c'
3 / 14
Spring 2004
Outline 2
3
2
2 , 3 = 0 unaxial condition,
1 < 0 uniaxial compression,
1 > 0 uniaxial tension.
4 / 14
Spring 2004
Outline 2
Ec = 33wc
1.5
Flexural test
ACI Code suggests, for normal weight concrete,
5 / 14
Spring 2004
Outline 2
Effect of microcracking
Spring 2004
Outline 2
For
compression-tension
region
ductility
3
2
2 = 0 biaxial condition,
1 < 0 and 3 < 0 biaxial compression,
1 > 0 and 3 > 0 biaxial tension,
1 < 0 and 3 > 0 or 1 > 0 and 3 < 0 shear.
7 / 14
Spring 2004
Outline 2
o Constitutive equation
E
2
y 1
E
x = 1 2
xy
0
E
1 2
E
1 2
0
0
y
0 x or = C
G xy
G = shear modulus,
1 0
E
1 0
Cm =
2
1
0 0 0
Note that actually the shear modulus is a non-zero value, G ,
to reflect the effect of shear transfer across cracked surfaces
(aggregate interlock, dowel action etc.) ( <1). See outline on
shear transfer.
(b) In the global coordinate systems:
8 / 14
cos 4 + sin 4
2
2
+2 sin cos
4
4
E ( cos + sin )
Cm =
1 2 +2sin 2 cos 2
sin 2 cos 2
2
Spring 2004
Outline 2
2sin 2 cos 2 (1 )
sym.
cos 4 + sin 4
+2 sin 2 cos 2
1
sin 2 cos 2
2
0 0
0 0
0 0
(1 2 ) sin 2 cos2
sym.
(1 ) cos
( 1) sin cos
2
9 / 14
Spring 2004
Outline 2
o Triaxial loading
3
2
1 , 2 , 3 0 triaxial condition,
1 < 0 and 2 < 0 and 3 < 0 triaxial compression,
1 > 0 and 2 > 0 and 3 > 0 triaxial tension,
{ 1 < 0 and 2 > 0 and 3 > 0} or { 1 > 0 and 2 < 0 and 3 < 0} or
{ 1 > 0 and 2 < 0 and 3 > 0} or { 1 < 0 and 2 > 0 and 3 < 0} or
{ 1 > 0 and 2 > 0 and 3 < 0} or { 1 < 0 and 2 < 0 and 3 > 0}
triaxial shear.
10 / 14
Spring 2004
Outline 2
expression
of
strength
of
concrete
in
this
11 / 14
Concrete
confinement
by
transverse
Spring 2004
Outline 2
and
longitudinal
reinforcement
o Different confinement scenarios that may be used in practice are
illustrated below:
A = bd
A = bd
A = R2
Ac = bd
Ac = bd As
Ac = R 2 As
2R
Plain concrete
Longitudinal +
transverse
reinforcement with
ties (hoop)
Helical
reinforcement
(spiral +
longitudinal)
12 / 14
Spring 2004
Outline 2
P0 = 0.85 f c' Ac + As f y
The factor 0.85 is used for vertically cast members for the effects of:
bleeding in long columns (strength variation along the axis)
eccentricity effects
size effects
f1
f 2 = hydrostatic pressure
f1 = f c' + 4.1 f 2
f1
s =
hAb
4 Ab
volume of spiral
=
=
h 2 s 4 total volume of concrete in s hs
13 / 14
Spring 2004
Outline 2
2 As f s = f 2 hs
f2 =
2 As f s s
=
fs
hs
2
( f s = f y in tension at failure)
fs
s An = 2.05 s f s An
2
Validity of this equation has been verified by the tests where the
coefficient ranged from 1.7 to 2.9.
When P0 is reached, the shell of concrete outside the core will fail
and the load capacity of the column will reduce. But due to
confinement no buckling will occur in the longitudinal steel.
ACI
recommends
that
the
contribution
of
the
transverse
14 / 14
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline 3
Failure of concrete
o Concrete is a brittle material which fails through brittle cleavage
(splitting) at the interfaces and in mortar except for high triaxial
compression where shear slippage occurs resulting in a ductile
behavior. Failure occurs by tensile splitting with the fractured surface
orthogonal to the direction of the maximum tensile stress or strain.
Principal stresses:
3
3
2
2
1
3
1/14
Spring 2004
Outline 3
max = limit = t
2/14
Spring 2004
Outline 3
1 3 + ( 1 + 3 ) = 2 s
where 1 3 = shear stress,
1 3
2
=s
n = normal stress.
o Compression increases S and tension decreases S .
3/14
Spring 2004
Outline 3
S = = f ( )
oct
n = m = oct
o 1 > 2 > 3
o Failure occurs when the octahedral stress exceeds a limiting value.
oct =
1
3
( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 )
2
2
i , i = 1, 2, 3
3
This gives the same ultimate strength for uniaxial tension and
compression. It is not valid for concrete.
Inclusion of oct = m =
1
( 1 + 2 + 3 ) improves the prediction.
3
4/14
= k1 + k2 a' + k3 a'
'
fc
fc
fc
where a =
a = oct =
1
15
Spring 2004
Outline 3
( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 )
2
and
1
( 1 + 2 + 3 )
3
Invariant formulation
o A failure criterion should be based upon an invariant function of the
state of stress, i.e., independent of the choice of the coordinate
systems.
o Stress invariants
I1 = 1 + 2 + 3 , (more suitable for applying to concrete)
I 2 = 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 ,
I 3 = 1 2 3
where 1 , 2 , 3 are principal stresses.
x xy xz
11 12 13
yx y yz or 21 22 23 = ij ,
zx zy z
31 32 33
11 = 1 , 22 = 2 , 33 = 3
o m =
1
1
1
( 11 + 22 + 33 ) = ii = I1
3
3
3
1
o Average normal stress: a = I1
3
1
2 2
I1 3I 2 2
15
5/14
ij = ji i, j = 1, 2, 3
Spring 2004
Outline 3
Deviatoric stress
o
1, i = j
Sij = ij m ij , ij = Kroneckers delta ij =
0, i j
S11 = 11 m
S12 = 12
S 22 = 22 m
S 21 = 21
S13 = 13
S33 = 33 m
,
S 23 = 23
S31 = 31
S32 = 32
1
1
2
2
2
Sij S ji = S11 + S 22 + S33
2
2
1
1
3
3
3
J 3 = Sij S jk S ki = S11 + S 22 + S33
3
3
J2 =
Biaxial loading ( 22 = 0 )
o
S11 =
1
( 2 11 33 )
3
S 22 =
S33 =
33
1
( 2 11 + 33 )
3
11
1
( 2 33 11 )
3
I1 = 11 + 33
J2 =
1 1
2
2
2
( 2 11 33 ) + ( 11 + 33 ) + ( 2 33 11 )
2 9
6/14
Spring 2004
Outline 3
F ( I1 , J 2 ) = 0
o Failure criteria
3 J 2 + 3 I1 +
I1 c
=
5
9
2
and
K2
K2
1
1
2
J2
I1 I1 + Au I1 = u , where Au , u are material constants.
3
36
2
3
F ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) = 0
o Stress invariants based
F ( I1 , J 2 , J 3 ) = 0
o One model considering the effect of all the three stress invariants and
possessing the observed features of the failure surface such as
smoothness, symmetry, convexity, and curved meridians is provided.
f ( m , m , ) =
r ( m , ) f c'
1 = 0
3 2
2
where m2 = oct
= J2 ,
5
5
1
3
m = I1 ,
r ( m , ) =
r ( m , ) =
cos =
1
r ( m , )
5 f c'
2rc ( rc2 rt 2 ) cos + rc ( 2rt rc
4 ( rc2 rt 2
) 4 ( r r ) cos + 5r
) cos + ( r 2r )
2
c
2
2
2
2 ( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 )
7/14
2 1 2 3
rt
= a0 + a1 m' + a2 m' at = 0o
'
fc
5 fc
fc
4rt rc
Spring 2004
Outline 3
m
rc
m
o
=
+
+
b
b
b
' at = 60
0
1
2
'
'
fc
5 fc
fc
2 1 2 2
3c = ft ' 1
1
3 1.5 f '
3 f'
ic = f t ' i = 1, 2, 3
o In the compression-biaxial tension zone, the failure is defined as
1c = f c'
2 1
2c = ft ' 1
= 3c
'
3 fc
Damage model
o Incremental damage
dK =
d 0p
F ( I1 , )
D=
r
R
8/14
Spring 2004
Outline 3
The
nondimensional
secant
bulk
approximated by
oct
KS
= ab c + d
K0
oct
GS
= pq r s oct + t
G0
( ln b ) oct oct c
KT
= a 1
+d
b
K0
c
9/14
and
shear
moduli
are
Spring 2004
Outline 3
( ln q ) oct oct r
GT
= p 1
+t
q
G0
c
D=
sym.
K 2 3G
K + 4 3G
(Youngs modulus: E =
K 2 3G
K 2 3G
K + 4 3G
0
0
0
G
0
0
0
0
G
0
0
0
0
0
3K 2G
9 KG
, Poissons ratio: =
)
2 ( 3K + G )
3K + G
o Orthotropic model
10 / 1 4
Spring 2004
Outline 3
1 2 ) E2
(1 + ) E2 E3
(
(1 2 ) E3
D=
sym.
G12
0
G23
0
G31
= 1 3 2 2 3
G12 , G23 , G31 = incremental shear moduli for planes parallel to
coordinates 1-2, 2-3, and 3-1. G12 = E1 E2 ,
G23 = E2 E3 , G31 = E3 E1 . For uncracked
concrete, =
1
(1 + ) .
2
iu =
i
+k
1 j
i
deformational
behavior
as
inelastic
dilatancy
and
Spring 2004
Outline 3
{d } = {d e } + {d p }
or d ij = d ije + d ijp
e
d kl
where d ij = Cijkl
e
Cijkl
=
1
1
1
ik jl +
d ije =
1 F
1
d kl ij ii (as the incremental form of elastic
3
R kl
strain)
d ijp =
1 F
d kl ij (as the incremental form of plastic strain)
R kl
f = 3 3 J 2 + I1 +
d = H ' d
I1
= , where = equivalent stress.
5
f
f
{d } + d = d
f
3I
{d } + 1 d = d
P
f
3I
{d } = 1 1 H ' d
{d } = d
P
12 / 1 4
Spring 2004
Outline 3
{d } = [ C ] {d e }
{d } = {d e } + {d p } = incremental total strain
therefore,
f
f
[C ] [C ]
{d } = [C ]
{d }
3I1 ' f
f
1
H + [C ]
2
Note that for perfect plasticity, H ' = 0 , this formulation, leading to a
non-singular [C ] , does not cause any numerical difficulty.
13 / 1 4
Spring 2004
Outline 3
such
refined
analytical
solutions
help
in
14 / 1 4
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline 5
Creep of concrete
o Concrete under stress undergoes a gradual increase of strain with
time. The final creep strain may be several times as large as the initial
elastic strain.
o Creep is the property of materials by which they continue deforming
over considerable length of time under sustained stress.
o Relaxation is the loss of stress by time with constant strain.
o In concrete, creep deformations are generally larger than elastic
deformation and thus creep represents an important factor affecting
the deformation behavior.
o Concrete under constant axial compressive stress
loaded constantly
creep
recovery
elastic
deformation = inst
permanent or
residual deformation
Time
1 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 5
Specific creep
o
sp =
c
,
sp ( 106
per psi)
Final strain
( 10
per psi)
3.1
3000
1.0
4000
0.80
2.9
6000
0.55
2.4
8000
0.40
2.0
2 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 5
Creep coefficient
o
Ct =
c
inst
Creep
Water/cement ratio
Creep
Aggregate permeability
Creep
Aggregate creep
Creep
Aggregate stiffness
Creep
Cement
Size
Shape
Cross-section
Stress intensity
Creep
Creep
deformation (strain).
age of loading
= + 0 = ( E + C ) + 0 = ( E + C ) + ( S + T ) = E + "
3 / 11
Creep
Spring 2004
Outline 5
E = reversible strain,
C = creep strain,
0 = stress-independent inelastic strain,
S = shrinkage strain,
{ d } = [ D ] { d }
where {d } = change in stress tensor,
[ D]
{d }
4 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 5
increments.
(t ) = D
1
(t ) + 0 (t )
'
Eeff ( t , t )
characterized,
D=
sym.
0
0
0
1 +
0
0
0
for the case of isotropy,
0
0
1 +
0
0
0
0
1 +
E (t ' )
1
Eeff ( t , t ) =
=
= effective modulus of elasticity,
J (t, t ' ) 1 + (t, t ' )
'
'
5 / 11
C (t, t ) =
'
(t, t ' )
E (t
'
Spring 2004
Outline 5
c 1
sp ).
Incremental strain
The method is applied incrementally from t0 to t if the structural
system is changed after t0 .
( t0 )
1
+ 0 ( t )
( t ) = D
+
,
t
t
(
)
(
)
0
'
E ( t0 )
Eeff ( t , t )
( t ) 0 ( t ) = a + c ( t , t0 )
The stress for t0 > t is
( t ) = ( a c ) R ( t , t0' ) + cE ( t0 )
where a, c = constants.
One can then obtain by algebraic manipulation the basic incremental
stress-strain relation of the age-adjusted effective modulus.
6 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 5
E ( t0 )
1 + ( t , t0 )
( t ) =
1
E ( t , t0 )
( t ) =
D ( t ) + ( t )
( t , t0 )
E ( t , t0 )
D ( t0 ) + 0 ( t )
where ( t ) = ( t ) ( t0 ) .
We assume isotropic material with a constant Poissons ratio, which is
approximately true for concrete.
( t , ) =
E ( )
+ C ( t , )
That is strain per unit stress at time t for the stress applied at age .
o The specific creep function
C ( t , ) = F ( ) f ( t )
o Forms of the aging function F ( ) and f ( t ) :
F ( )
7 / 11
Power law: F ( ) = a + b c
Exponential law: F ( ) = a + be c
Spring 2004
Outline 5
f (t )
Power law: f ( t ) = a ( t )
f c'
< 0.4
( t t 0 ) , t
( t , t0 ) =
( 0)
0.6
10 + ( t t0 )
0.6
Principle of superposition
For analysis and design purposes the time dependent linear
relation between stress and creep strain can be written in the
following way:
8 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 5
cr ( t ) = f 0 sp ( t , ) + F ( i ) sp ( t , i )
i =
9 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 5
Temperature dependence
Shrinkage
Shrinkage deformation
o Shrinkage is basically a volume change of the element which is
considered to occur independently of externally imposed stresses.
This volume change can also be negative and is then called swelling.
Thin sections are particularly susceptible to drying shrinkage and
therefore must contain a certain minimum quantity of steel. In
restrained concrete shrinkage results in cracking, before any loading.
The minimum reinforcement is provided to control this cracking.
o Causes of shrinkage:
sh = sh ,u St S h Sth S s S f S e S c
where sh ,u = ultimate factor of shrinkage,
St = factor of time,
S h = factor of humidity,
Sth = factor of thickness,
S s = factor of slump,
S f = factor of fineness,
11 / 11
Spring 2004
Outline 5
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline 8
( P , e , e ) = f ( c, , )
x
respectively,
Spring 2004
Outline 8
Column configuration
ex
y
Strain distribution
K xb
x
tx
ty
K yh
cu=0.003
s1
s2
tan =
K xb
fs1
s3
K yh
s4
fs2 Cc a = k c
1
fs3
fs4
2/6
N.A.
Pu
ey
Spring 2004
Outline 8
s1 = 0.003 1
s 2 = 0.003 1
t
tx
y
K x b K y h
t
b tx
y
K x b K y h
s3 =
0.003
h (1 K y ) t y cos + t y sin
s4 =
K y h
0.003 K y h
b (1 K x ) t x + h t y cos tan 1
c K xb
K xb
o Equilibrium conditions
Forces in steel bars:
S1 = f s1 As1 = ( s1 Es ) As1
S2 = f s 2 As 2 = ( s 2 Es ) As 2
S3 = f s 3 As 3 = ( s 3 Es ) As 3
S4 = f s 4 As 4 = ( s 4 Es ) As 4
Force equilibrium:
F = 0; C
+ S1 + S2 S3 S4 = 0
M ux = Pu e y = Cc y + ( S1 + S 2 ) t y + ( S3 + S 4 ) t y
2
M uy = Pu ex = Cc x + S1 t x S 2 t x S3 t x + S 4 t x
2
3/6
Spring 2004
Outline 8
( P , e , e ) = f ( c, , )
x
Pu = P and
euy
eux
ey
ex
eux
ex
b/2
h/2
ey
4/6
Spring 2004
Outline 8
euy
eux
ey
ex
(b) Set the neutral axis depth c equal to the neutral axis depth
computed from balanced failure condition for the section.
(c) Compute the value of Pu and update c using a modified secant
numerical method until Pu = P .
(d) Compute eux and euy and compare with ex and ey to decide
whether the section is adequate or not.
o Approximate method for the determination of the neutral axis
inclination
For rectangular column sections shown:
y
Compression region
Pu
x
N.A.
b
Approximately,
= 90 y + c
where y =
c=
z
= inclination of N.A. to y axis
2
c
c2
+
x 2 + cx
2
4
h
127 127b
(if = 1, = )
=
h
b
1 h b
b
5/6
Spring 2004
Outline 8
z
2
x = +c
h
h
z = 13 1 + 39.4 1 + 63.6
b
b
1
1
1
1
=
+
Pu Pux Puy P0
where Pu = ultimate load under biaxial loading,
M ux M uy
= 1
+
M ux 0 M uy 0
m
6/6
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline 10
Torsion
o Stress distribution on a cross section subject to torsion
x
x: narrow side
max
y: wide side
max =
T
x2 y
1/8
Spring 2004
Outline 10
Failure mode
o Torsion failure of plain concrete occurs suddenly with an inclined
tension crack in one of the wider faces, then extending into the
narrow faces. Concrete crushing occurs in the opposite wider face.
Ttw
T is the applied torque and M, Ttw, are the bending and twisting
moments, respectively, on the
M=
(
S=
plane.
T
, b = 2y,
2
2 y x2
6
x2 y
3 2
Tup
3T
M
t =
= 2 2 = 2up ,
S x y
x y
3 2
x2 y
t
3
2/8
Spring 2004
Outline 10
x2 y
6 f c' = 2 x 2 y f c' = Tup
Tcr =
3
x1
y1
y1
y1
x1
s
s = stirrup spacing.
o Torsional moment with respect to axis of the horizontal stirrups
Ts 2 = ( At 2 f s )
x1
y1
s
At f s
x1 y1 (1 + 2 )
s
Ts =
At f s
x1 y1 t
s
3/8
Spring 2004
Outline 10
Design concept
o Total ultimate torsion capacity, Tu
Tu = Tc + Ts
where Tc = torsional capacity contributed by concrete, and
Ts = torsional capacity contributed by reinforcement.
Tc = Tup ( 0.4 )
Thus,
Tc = 0.8 f c' x 2 y
t
Tc
At f s
4/8
x1 y1
s
Spring 2004
Outline 10
o Code suggestion:
t = 0.66 + 0.33
y1
1.50
x1
x1 + y1
s
Pure torsion: Tu = Tc + Ts
Pure shear: Vu = Vc + Vs
Tc
T
T0
Ts
Vc
Vs
5/8
T 2V
+
=1
T0 3 V0
2T V
+ =1
3 T0 V0
V
V0
Spring 2004
Outline 10
ACI Code
o Design for torsion
Same interaction as in members without transverse reinforcement.
o Excess torque
Over and above that resisted by concrete, the same amount of
reinforcement is provided in members subject to torsion plus shear
as would be required for purely torsional members.
This torsional reinforcement is added to that required for carrying
bending moments and flexural shears.
o Tu Tn = (Tc + Ts )
where Tu = factored torque,
o Tc =
T0
2
T V
1+ 0 c
V0 Tc
= 0.4
=
and CT = 2
V0
bd CT
x y
o Assume
Vc Vu
= , such that
Tc Tu
6/8
V0 = 2 f c' bd = pure
Tc =
Ts =
0.8 f c' x 2 y
0.4 Vu
1+
CT Tu
t At f y
s
,
2
x1 y1 ,
Vc =
Vs =
Spring 2004
Outline 10
2 f c' bd
T
1 + 2.5CT u
Vu
Av f y d
s
Tu = (Tc + Ts ) = Tn
Ts =
At =
Tu Tc
(T Tc ) s
sTs
= u
t f y x1 y1 t f y x1 y1
where
(x y )
n
i =1
Hollow sections
7/8
o When h >
o When
x
, consider the cross section as solid.
4
x
x
h , assume it as solid but multiply
10
4
o When h <
Spring 2004
Outline 10
h
( x y ) by 4 x .
2
x
, consider it as a thin-walled section. Check for
10
8/8
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline 11
x
y
Vy dx
Vx dy
Vx
dx dy
Vx +
x
Vy
dy dx
Vy +
y
dy
h
dx
Surface and shear forces
dx
x
myx dx
y
N y dx
y
my dx
mx dy
dy
mxy dy
mx
dx dy
mx +
x
mxy
dx dy
mxy +
x
my
dy dx
my +
y
N yx dx
N xy
dx dy
N xy +
x
N x dy
N yx
dy dx
N yx +
y
m yx
dy dx
m yx +
y
Moments
N x
dx dy
Nx +
x
N xy dy
N y
dy dx
Ny +
y
Membrane forces
1 /9
Spring 2004
Outline 11
Analysis methods:
o Elastic theory
o Elastic-plastic analysis
Finite element analysis (FEA)
o Approximate methods of analysis
o Limit analysis Yield Line Theory
Lower & upper bound analysis
Elastic theory
o Lagranges fourth-order PDE governing equation of isotropic plates
loaded normal to their plane:
4w
4w
4w q
+2 2 2 + 4 =
D
x 4
x y
y
where
h = plate thickness
2 /9
Eh3
12(1 2 )
Spring 2004
Outline 11
= Poissons ratio.
o Naviers solution of Lagranges equation using doubly infinite Fourier
series:
w ( x, y ) = q C Amn sin
m =1 n =1
m x
n y
sin
a
b
where
a, b = lengths of panel sides
m, n = integers
functions
are
chosen.
Exact
Approximate methods
o Direct design method
o Equivalent frame method
o Assignment of moments
Types of slabs
o According to the structural action
3 /9
compatibility
and
Spring 2004
Outline 11
One-way slabs
Two-way slabs
l1
<2
l2
l2
l1
2
l2
l2
l1
l1
Two-way slab
One-way slab
4 /9
Spring 2004
Outline 11
o Moment-curvature relationship
Curvature ductility factor:
u
y
E << Plastic
M u constant at yield lines.
o Determinate structures mechanism
o Indeterminate structures moment redistribution
o Assumptions and guidelines for establishing axes of rotation and yield
lines
o Determination of the ultimate load (or moment):
Equilibrium method
5 /9
Spring 2004
Outline 11
x main reinforcement
mx per unit length
n (normal to the
yield line)
y
secondary reinforcement
my per unit length
mx (AB) = mx L cos
my (BC) = mx L sin
mn (AC) = mn L
mnt (AC) = mnt L
my L sin
mn L = ( mx L cos ) cos +
( my L sin ) sin
mn = mx cos2 + my sin2
mnt L = ( mx L cos ) sin ( my L sin ) cos
mnt = ( mx - my ) L sin cos
mnt L
x
mn L
n
mx L cos
6 /9
Spring 2004
Outline 11
m l
n n
x
Rotations
x0
y
y = n sin
mx
y0
x = n cos
my
C
n
Equilibrium:
n n
L = ( mx n cos y0 + m y n sin x0 ) = ( mx x y0 + m y y x0 )
Virtual Work:
W = m
x x
y0 + my y x0
Select
failure
displacement
(collapse)
boundary
mechanism
conditions
which
everywhere
satisfies
the
(kinematic
7 /9
Spring 2004
Outline 11
Impose the condition that work done by the external loads must
equal the work done by the resisting forces.
L
L
Conservation of energy:
Pu = 4 M u = 4 M u
Pu =
4M u
L
8M u
. For any
L
Spring 2004
Outline 11
9 /9
Spring 2004
Homework
#1
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
1/2
Spring 2004
Homework #1
2. Scrambling to be the first to tap the oil reservoirs in Siberia, Exxon hires 20 M.I.T.
graduate students to design the base of a platform that is to be constructed in a 1700-ft
deep fresh water lake2. The tanks are to have the same dimensions as the Mobil tanks
described above with fc to be 5000 psi. Apply appropriate idealizing assumptions and
use a biaxial state of stress theory to compute how much platform each tank (tube) can
support with a factor of safety (F.S.) of 3. Ignore stability problem (buckling) and
consider only the through-the-wall section under the hydrostatic water pressure and the
weight of tank and water above it.
3. Once the platform is complete and operational, the tanks are used to store crude oil. The
Exxon engineers have told you that the platform weighs 500,000 tons to be supported on
three tanks (tubes). Use a triaxial failure theory to compute the required compressive
strength of the concrete to support the platform, with a factor of safety of 4. Consider
hydrostatic pressure from seawater and the difference in density of fresh water and crude
oil. Use 0.85 as the specific gravity3 for crude oil. Do you think this compressive strength
of concrete is manufacturable in Siberia? Please note the failure criterion you used and
explain the reason why you use it.
This question examines the concrete under triaxial stress. There will be three stresses
acting on the concrete: 1, the pressure in radius direction, 2, the pressure in vertical
direction, and 3, the hoops stress caused by the differences in the density of sea water
and the density of crude oil. Use the following definition of hoop stress for convenience,
pr
h =
t
where h = hoop stress,
p = difference in hydrostatic pressure,
r = radius of cylinder,
t = thickness of cylinder wall.
In solving this problem, use your knowledge of concrete behavior in multiaxial loading.
Make appropriate assumptions with respect to uniaxial, biaxial, and triaxial failure criteria.
Note sources you may have used.
Note:
1
Specific weight for fresh water at 60F is 62.4 lb/ft3 (9.8 kN/ m3), for seawater at 60F is 64
lb/ft3 (10.1 kN/ m3),
2
Fresh water lakes could be as deep as 1932 ft, which is the record in the U.S. (Crater Lake,
Oregon) (Fig. 6).
3
Specific gravity is dimensionless unit defined as the ratio of density of the material to the
density a specific temperature.
2/2
Spring 2004
#2
Massachusetts Institute ofHomework
Technology
Event
Column cast
30
60
120
The column is 30x30 inches and contains #8 bars (As = 6.32 in2), the modulus of elasticity for the
reinforcing steel is Es = 29 X 106 psi, and for the concrete Ec = 2.9 X 106 psi. The attached data
indicates the specific creep function for the concrete used in this question (See Attachment A).
Use the modified supervision method outlined in class to compute the creep strain effect on the
concrete, the reinforcing steel, and the column. The attached summary of a numerical procedure
is given as a concept. You may develop your own procedure and interpretation of the problem.
(See Attachment B).
Questions
1. Consider only elastic and creep effects. Plot the following information at 30-day intervals.
1.1) Column strain (stress-strain curve)
1.2) Stress in the concrete (stress-time curve)
1.3) Stress in the reinforcing steel (stress-time curve)
To provide a basis for comparison, show on these plots the elastic stress-strain () history,
neglecting creep effects. Continue the analysis for the first 180 days. The column is to be
considered concentrically loaded for the purpose of this analysis. Also present your solution
in a tabular format.
1 / 3
Spring 2004
Homework #2
2. The exterior columns of the building are 10x20 inches. Discuss the effect of creep in this
building, and the possible problems that could arise from it. Assume for the purpose of the
discussion that the column will only be subjected to axial forces.
Attachment A
Specific creep, C (t, ) X 10-6 (in/in/psi)
t
(days)
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
135
150
165
180
0.563
0.657
0.712
0.754
0.787
0.813
0.835
0.852
0.867
0.880
0.891
0.364
0.424
0.460
0.487
0.508
0.525
0.539
0.550
0.560
0.568
0.276
0.322
0.349
0.370
0.386
0.399
0.410
0.418
0.426
0.229
0.267
0.289
0.307
0.320
0.331
0.339
0.347
0.200
0.233
0.253
0.268
0.280
0.289
0.297
0.181
0.211
0.229
0.242
0.253
0.261
0.168
0.196
0.212
0.225
0.253
0.159
0.185
0.201
0.213
0.152
0.177
0.192
0.147
0.171
0.143
(days)
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
135
150
165
180
2/3
Spring 2004
Homework #2
Attachment B
Numerical procedures using modified supervision method:
ti = time step (i = time index)
m = modular ratio, Es / Ec
Initial conditions:
column ,1 = 0,
concrete ,1 = 0,
steel ,1 = 0
ncreep
= concrete,i
C ( tn , i ) C ( tn1 , i )
i=0
creep
column , n
ncreep
=
,
1+ m '
creep
concrete , n
ncreep Ec
=
,
1
1+
m '
3/3
creep
steel , n
creep
concrete
,n
'
Spring 2004
Homework
#3
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
#4 Ties
26
12 #11 Bars
equally spaced
2
Figure 1. Configuration of the reinforced concrete column section
Questions
1. (Uniaxial Column Interaction Diagram)
For the cross section shown in Fig. 1, construct the axial load-moment interaction diagram.
As a minimum calculation, establish the points corresponding to
'
(a) pure axial load ( Po ),
(b) balanced loads ( Pb' , M b' ), and
(c) pure moment ( M o' ).
You may assume straight lines between these points. Also, plot the axial load ultimate
curvature diagram.
1 / 2
Spring 2004
Homework #3
The general nondimensional equaiton for the load contour at constant may be expressed in
the form
1
M ny
M nx
= 1
+
M ox
M oy
(1)
where M nx = Pn ey ; M ny = Pn ex ;
M ox = M nx capacity at axial load Pn when M ny = 0 or (ex = 0) ;
M oy = M ny capacity at axial load Pn when M nx = 0 or (e y = 0) .
Bresler (1960) suggests that it is acceptable to take 1 = 2 = ; then
M nx M ny
= 1
+
M ox M oy
(2)
=1
=3
=4
=1.5
=2
2/2
Spring 2004
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
25 kips
25
22
y
10
z
x
z
14
14
Question
Design both transverse and longitudinal steel for the girder.
1/1
Spring 2004
Homework
#5
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
x
y
#4 @15 Bottom
(0 ~ 24) (x-direction) and
(0 ~ 18) (y-direction)
18
#4 @2 Top (0 ~ 24)
(x-direction)
24
Simply supported
Fixed
Free
1 / 2
Spring 2004
Homework #5
Question
Using the yield line theory method, determine the ultimate load wu that can be carried by the slab.
Note:
z
7
6.5
8
6.5
y
Figure 2. Illustration of the effeective depths in x- and y- directions
1. Fig. 2 is the partial illustration of the reinforced concrete slab in 3D, shown in Fig. 1.
Notice that the given effective depths are valid for distances either from the top or the
bottom. You will need these values to calculate positive and negative bending moments
in the slab.
2. In y-direction, notice that the bending moment capacity of the cross section is NOT
constant due to different spacings in two ranges (range 0~2 and range 2~18). You
need to compute both of them for the virtual work, associated with their ranges, done by
the slab (you CANNOT take average of them).
2 / 2
Spring 2004
Project
Massachusetts Institute ofTerm
Technology
Spring 2004
Term Project
Spring 2004
Term Project
Behavior of fiber reinforced mortar and concrete materials: Study the effect of fiber materials (steel,
polypropylene, carbon), fiber content, strain rate, and cyclic loads on the stress-strain response.
Characterization of material behavior under tensile, compressive, or flexural loads. Analysis of
fracture and failure.
Behavior and strength of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures and their components. Case
studies of an actual bridge. Fracture and finite element analysis. Innovative bridge design methods.
Constitutive modeling of concrete for finite element analysis. Critical review and comparison of
existing models. In-depth study of a specific model. New model development. Finite element
implementation.
Development of computer software for the design and analysis of reinforced concrete or prestressed
concrete members and structures. Knowledge based design systems. Expert interactive design
development.
Development of mix design, study of mechanical behavior and application of high strength concrete.
Ceramics and refractories. Behavior of ceramics and refractories, and their uses in structural
applications.
Development and behavior of high performance concrete materials and their use in innovative
structural solutions.
Fracture of cememtitious materials and design based on fracture analysis. Interface fracture concepts.
Size effects. Composite materials and structural systems.
Durability of concrete structures: corrosion and spalling problems. Bridge deck, roadway, and airport
pavement deterioration.
Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods used for condition assessment of concrete structures:
ultrasonic, acoustic emission, microwave, and other methods.
Use of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) in new construction and in strengthening of existing structures.
Structural health monitoring (SHM) and damage detection problem in concrete structures.
Spring 2004
Exam #1
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Time: 2:30pm~4pm
D=24
at failure steel yields and concrete strength reaches the peak value;
the concrete is perfectly bonded to the steel.
(b) Briefly discuss the effect of varying axial load on the confinement.
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Spring 2004
Exam #1
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Spring 2004
Exam #2
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
b
h =6
H=30
L
26
d=27
16.5
bw=20
Fig. 1 Dimensions of the T cross section
Spring 2004
Exam #2
Av ,total
s
The one-way slab shown in Fig. 2 is uniformly reinforced to provide a positive and negative
moment capacity of Mu.
Types of support:
w kips/ft2
Fixed
Free
L
Fig. 2 One-way slab
(a) Sketch the most likely yield line pattern for the slab, and obtain an expression for the
ultimate load capacity, wu, for this slab.
(b) The collapse mechanism shown in Fig. 3 is considered for this slab. Compute the ultimate
load capacity, wu, for this collapse mechanism.
Yield line
L
Fig. 3 The collapse mechanism
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Spring 2004
Exam #2
Compare the values found from (a) and (b). Explain any difference in these values for
varied . Comment on the safety implication of this solution.
Question 3 Thin Shell Structures (20%)
Consider the cylindrical shell under uniformly distributed surface load.
dx
h
L
d
x
Fig. 4 The cylindrical shell
(a) What are the conditions (or parameters) that approximately classify this shell as i) a long
shell; ii) a short shell.
(b) Describe briefly the behavioral difference of the short and long shells and indicate the
significant internal effects associated with each of these shell types.
(c) You are asked to provide an approximate solution of internal effects as a basis for
preliminary design of this shell. Briefly explain your analysis methodology for each of
these shell types.
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